OCA 1Z0 808 SE 8 Programmer I Certification Guide
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Mala Gupta
MANNING
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OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification Guide
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OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I
Certification Guide
MALA GUPTA
MANNING
SHELTER ISLAND
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Cynthia Kane
Francesco Bianchi
Linda Recktenwald
Katie Tennant
Jean-François Morin
Dennis Dalinnik
Marija Tudor
To Dheeraj, my pillar of strength
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brief contents
Introduction 1
1
■
Java basics
22
2
■
Working with Java data types 92
3
■
Methods and encapsulation
4
■
Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
5
■
Flow control
6
■
Working with inheritance 384
7
■
Exception handling 469
8
■
Full mock exam 539
147
322
vii
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contents
preface xvii
acknowledgments xix
about this book xxi
about the author xxix
about the cover illustration
xxx
Introduction 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disclaimer 2
Introduction to OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I
Certification 2
The importance of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I
Certification 2
Comparing OCA Java exam versions 4
Next step: OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II (1Z0-809)
exam 8
Complete exam objectives, mapped to book chapters, and
readiness checklist 8
FAQs 10
FAQs on exam preparation
8
10
■
FAQs on taking the exam
The testing engine used in the exam
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18
CONTENTS
x
1
Java basics 22
1.1
The structures of a Java class and a source code file
Structure of a Java class 24
a Java source code file 32
1.2
■
23
Structure and components of
Executable Java applications
36
Executable Java classes versus non-executable Java classes
The main method 37 Run a Java program from the
command line 39
36
■
1.3
Java packages
41
The need for packages 42 Defining classes in a package using
the package statement 42 Using simple names with import
statements 45 Using packaged classes without using the
import statement 47 Importing a single member versus all
members of a package 48 The import statement doesn’t import
the whole package tree 49 Importing classes from the default
package 50 Static imports 50
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
1.4
Java access modifiers
51
Access modifiers 52 Public access modifier 53 Protected
access modifier 54 Default access (package access) 57
private access modifier 61 Access modifiers and
Java entities 62
■
■
■
■
1.5
Nonaccess modifiers
abstract modifier
1.6
65
64
■
final modifier
Features and components of Java
66
2
Summary 74
Review notes 75
Sample exam questions 79
Answers to sample exam questions
static modifier
Irrelevant features
■
84
Working with Java data types 92
2.1
Primitive variables
93
Category: Boolean 95 Category: signed numeric 96
Category: character (unsigned integer) 102 Confusion with
the names of the primitive data types 104
■
■
2.2
Identifiers
105
Valid and invalid identifiers 105
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67
72
Valid features and components of Java 72
and components of Java 74
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
■
CONTENTS
2.3
xi
Object reference variables
106
What are object reference variables? 107 Differentiating between
object reference variables and primitive variables 109
■
2.4
Operators
111
Assignment operators 112 Arithmetic operators 115
Relational operators 119 Logical operators 121
Operator precedence 123
■
■
2.5
Wrapper classes 125
Class hierarchy of wrapper classes 125 Creating objects of the
wrapper classes 125 Retrieving primitive values from the
wrapper classes 126 Parsing a string value to a
primitive type 127 Difference between using the valueOf
method and constructors of wrapper classes 128 Comparing
objects of wrapper classes 128 Autoboxing and unboxing 130
■
■
■
■
■
■
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
Summary 132
Review notes 132
Sample exam questions 136
Answers to sample exam questions 140
Methods and encapsulation 147
3.1
Scope of variables
149
Local variables 149 Method parameters 151
Instance variables 152 Class variables 153
Overlapping variable scopes 155
■
■
3.2
Object’s life cycle
158
An object is born 159 Object is accessible 160
Object is inaccessible 161 Garbage collection 163
■
■
3.3
Create methods with arguments and return values
Return type of a method
Return statement 172
3.4
■
Accessing object fields
177
■
Access level
177
178
User-defined constructors 178
Overloaded constructors 185
3.6
174
Return type
Constructors of a class
166
Method parameters 169
Create an overloaded method
Argument list 175
3.5
168
■
■
Default constructor 183
188
What is an object field? 188 Read and write object fields
Calling methods on objects 192
■
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CONTENTS
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3.7
Apply encapsulation principles to a class
Need for encapsulation 195
3.8
■
Apply encapsulation 195
Passing objects and primitives to methods
Passing primitives to methods 198
to methods 199
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
4
194
197
Passing object references
■
Summary 202
Review notes 203
Sample exam questions 207
Answers to sample exam questions
212
Selected classes from the Java API and arrays 221
4.1
Welcome to the world of the String class
223
Creating String objects 223 The class String is immutable
Methods of the class String 230 String objects and
operators 235 Determining equality of Strings 236
■
227
■
■
4.2
Mutable strings: StringBuilder
239
The StringBuilder class is mutable 239 Creating StringBuilder
objects 240 Methods of class StringBuilder 241 A quick
note on the class StringBuffer 247
■
■
4.3
Arrays
■
247
What is an array? 248 Array declaration 249
Array allocation 250 Array initialization 252
Combining array declaration, allocation, and initialization 254
Asymmetrical multidimensional arrays 255 Arrays of type
interface, abstract class, and class Object 256 Members of
an array 258
■
■
■
■
4.4
ArrayList
258
Creating an ArrayList 259 Adding elements to an
ArrayList 261 Accessing elements of an ArrayList 263
Modifying the elements of an ArrayList 265 Deleting the
elements of an ArrayList 266 Other methods of ArrayList
■
■
■
■
4.5
Comparing objects for equality
273
The method equals in the class java.lang.Object 273
Comparing objects of a user-defined class 273 Incorrect
method signature of the equals method 275 Contract of the
equals method 276
■
■
4.6
Working with calendar data
278
LocalDate 279 LocalTime 282 LocalDateTime 285
Period 286 DateTimeFormatter 291
■
■
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267
CONTENTS
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
5
Summary 297
Review notes 299
Sample exam questions 309
Answers to sample exam questions
Flow control
5.1
xiii
313
322
The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
324
The if construct and its flavors 324 Missing else blocks 328
Implications of the presence and absence of {} in if-else
constructs 328 Appropriate versus inappropriate expressions
passed as arguments to an if statement 331 Nested if
constructs 332 Ternary construct 334
■
■
■
■
5.2
The switch statement 338
Create and use a switch statement 339 Comparing a switch
statement with multiple if-else constructs 339 Arguments
passed to a switch statement 341 Values passed to the label
case of a switch statement 343 Use of break statements within
a switch statement 345
■
■
■
■
5.3
The for loop
346
Initialization block 348 Termination condition 349
The update clause 349 Optional parts of a for statement
Nested for loop 351
■
■
5.4
The enhanced for loop
350
352
Iteration with enhanced for loop 352 Limitations of the
enhanced for loop 355 Nested enhanced for loop 356
■
■
5.5
The while and do-while loops
358
The while loop 358 The do-while loop 360
while and do-while block, expression, and nesting rules 362
■
5.6
Comparing loop constructs
362
Comparing do-while and while loops 362 Comparing for and
enhanced for loops 363 Comparing for and while loops 364
■
■
5.7
Loop statements: break and continue 364
The break statement 364
Labeled statements 367
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
■
The continue statement 366
Summary 368
Review notes 369
Sample exam questions 372
Answers to sample exam questions
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CONTENTS
xiv
6
Working with inheritance 384
6.1
Inheritance with classes
385
The need to inherit classes 385 Benefits 387 A derived class
contains within it an object of its base class 390 Which base class
members are inherited by a derived class? 391 Which base class
members aren’t inherited by a derived class? 391 Derived classes
can define additional properties and behaviors 391 Abstract base
class versus concrete base class 392
■
■
■
■
■
■
6.2
Use interfaces 394
Need for using interfaces 396 Defining interfaces 398
Types of methods in an interface 401 Implementing a single
interface 405 A class can’t extend multiple classes 407
A class can implement multiple interfaces 408 Extending
interfaces 411 Modifying existing methods of an interface 414
Properties of members of an interface 417
■
■
■
■
■
6.3
Reference variable and object types
418
Using a variable of the derived class to access its own object 418
Using a variable of a superclass to access an object of a derived
class 419 Using a variable of an implemented interface to access
a derived class object 420 The need for accessing an object using
the variables of its base class or implemented interfaces 421
■
■
6.4
Casting
424
How to cast a variable to another type
Need for casting 426
6.5
Use this and super to access objects and constructors
Object reference: this
6.6
424
Polymorphism
427
■
Object reference: super
427
430
434
Polymorphism with classes 434 Binding of variables and
methods at compile time and runtime 439 Polymorphism
with interfaces 441
■
■
6.7
Simple lambda expressions
446
Comparing passing values with passing code to methods 446
Syntax of lambda expressions 449 Interface Predicate 450
■
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
Summary 452
Review notes 453
Sample exam questions 456
Answers to sample exam questions
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CONTENTS
7
xv
Exception handling 469
7.1
Exceptions in Java
470
A taste of exceptions 470 Why handle exceptions
separately? 473 Does exception handling offer any
other benefits? 474
■
■
7.2
Categories of exceptions
475
Identifying exception categories 476 Class hierarchy of
exception classes 476 Checked exceptions 477
Runtime exceptions 478 Errors 478
■
■
■
7.3
Creating a method that throws an exception 479
Create a method that throws a checked exception 480
Handle-or-declare rule 481 Creating a method that throws
runtime exceptions or errors 481 A method can declare to throw
all types of exceptions, even if it doesn’t 482
■
■
7.4
What happens when an exception is thrown?
483
Creating try-catch-finally blocks 485 Using a method that throws
a checked exception 490 Using a method that throws a runtime
exception 491 Using a method that throws an error 493
Will a finally block execute even if the catch block defines a return
statement? 493 What happens if both a catch and a finally block
define return statements? 494 What happens if a finally block
modifies the value returned from a catch block? 495 Can a try
block be followed only by a finally block? 496 Does the order of the
exceptions caught in the catch blocks matter? 497 Can I rethrow
an exception or the error I catch? 499 Can I declare my methods
to throw a checked exception instead of handling it? 500 I can
create nested loops, so can I create nested try-catch blocks too? 500
Should I handle errors? 502
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
7.5
Common exception classes and categories
503
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException and
IndexOutOfBoundsException 504 ClassCastException 505
IllegalArgumentException 507 NullPointerException 508
ArithmeticException 511 NumberFormatException 514
ExceptionInInitializerError 516 StackOverflowError 518
NoClassDefFoundError 519 OutOfMemoryError 519
■
■
■
■
■
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
Summary 520
Review notes 520
Sample exam questions 526
Answers to sample exam questions 530
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CONTENTS
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8
Full mock exam 539
8.1
8.2
Mock exam 539
Answers to mock exam questions 574
appendix
Answers to Twist in the Tale exercises 641
index
659
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preface
Java programmer certifications are designed to tell would-be employers whether you
really know your stuff, and cracking the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer Certification is
not an easy task. Thorough preparation is crucial if you want to pass the exam the first
time with a score that you can be proud of. You need to know Java inside-out, and you
need to understand the certification process so that you’re ready for the challenging
questions you’ll face in the exam.
This book is a comprehensive guide to the 1Z0-808 exam. You’ll explore a wide
range of important Java topics as you systematically learn how to pass the certification
exam. Each chapter starts with a list of the exam objectives covered in that chapter.
Throughout the book you’ll find sample questions and exercises designed to reinforce
key concepts and prepare you for what you’ll see in the real exam, along with numerous
tips, notes, and visual aids.
Unlike many other exam guides, this book provides multiple ways to digest important techniques and concepts, including comic conversations, analogies, pictorial representations, flowcharts, UML diagrams, and, naturally, lots of well-commented code.
The book also gives insight into common mistakes people make when taking the
exam, and guides you in avoiding traps and pitfalls. It provides
■
■
Complete coverage of exam topics, all mapped to chapter and section numbers
Hands-on coding exercises, including particularly challenging ones that throw
in a twist
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PREFACE
xviii
■
■
Instruction on what’s happening behind the scenes using the actual code from
the Java API source
Mastery of both the concepts and the exam
This book is written for developers with a working knowledge of Java. My hope is that
the book will deepen your knowledge and prepare you well for the exam and that you
will pass it with flying colors!
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acknowledgments
First and foremost, I thank Dheeraj—my pillar of strength, my best friend, and my
husband. His constant guidance, encouragement, and love kept me going. He helped
me to get started with this book and got me over the goal line.
My sincere gratitude goes to Marjan Bace, publisher at Manning, for giving me the
opportunity to author this book. The Manning team has been wonderful—Michael
Stephens ensured that it was worth it for Manning to have a book on this subject.
Cynthia Kane, my development editor, is like sunshine. Not only did she help me with
the organization of individual chapters and the overall book, but she pulled me through
whenever the task of writing a book became overwhelming. It’s always a pleasure to
work with her. Copyeditor Linda Recktenwald not only applied her magic to sentence
and language constructions but also supplemented her editing with valuable suggestions on technical content.
Technical development editor Francesco Bianchi suggested multiple additions and
modifications, improving the content of this book. Technical proofreader Jean-François
Morin was outstanding in his review. He not only pointed out existing errors but also
suggested multiple improvements to the organization of the contents. Proofreader
Katie Tennant was extremely capable and talented. She reviewed the final manuscript
with great precision.
The technical reviewers on this book did an awesome job of reviewing the contents and sharing their valuable feedback and comments: Andrea Barisone, Andrea
Consentino, Anutosh Ghosh, David Blau, Marty Henderson, Mirsad Vojnikovic, Nicola
Pedot, Sanjiv Kumar, Simona Russo, Travis Nelson, and Ursin Stauss. I would also like
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xx
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
to thank Nicole Butterfield and Donna Clements, review editors, for managing the
whole review process and meticulously funneling the feedback to make this book better.
Dennis Dalinnik did an outstanding job of converting the black-and-white handdrawn illustrations into glorious images. It was amazing to scrutinize the page proofs.
I also thank Dennis for adjusting the images in the final page proofs, which was a lot
of work. Janet Vail and Mary Piergies were awesome in their expertise at turning all
text, code, and images into publishable form. I am also grateful to Candace Gillhoolley
for her efforts in promoting the book.
I thank the MEAP readers for buying the book while it was being developed and
for their suggestions, corrections, and encouragement.
I would also like to thank my former colleagues Harry Mantheakis, Paul Rosenthal,
and Selvan Rajan, whose names I use in coding examples throughout the book. I have
always looked up to them.
I thank my daughters, Shreya and Pavni, who often advised me on the images that
I created for the book. I thank my family for their unconditional support. The book
would have been not been possible without their love and encouragement.
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about this book
This book is written for developers with a working knowledge of Java who want to earn
the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer Certification. It uses powerful tools and features to
make reaching your goal of certification a quick, smooth, and enjoyable experience.
This section explains the features used in the book and tells you how to use the book
to get the most out of it as you prepare for the certification exam. More information
on the exam and on how the book is organized is available in the Introduction.
Start your preparation with the chapter-based exam
objective map
I strongly recommend a structured approach to preparing for this exam. To help you
with this task, I developed a chapter-based exam objective map, as shown in figure 1.
The full version is in the Introduction (table I.3).
Exam objectives
Covered in chapter/
section
1
Java basics
Chapters 1 and 3
1.1
Define the scope of variables
Section 3.1
1.2
Define the structure of a Java class
Section 1.1
1.3
Create executable Java applications with a main method; run a Java program from
Section 1.2
Figure 1 The Introduction to this book provides a list of all exam objectives and the corresponding
chapter and section numbers where they are covered. See the full table in the Introduction (table I.3).
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
xxii
The map in the Introduction shows the complete exam objective list mapped to the
relevant chapter and section numbers. You can jump to the relevant section number
to work on a particular exam topic.
Chapter-based objectives
Each chapter starts with a list of the exam objectives covered in that chapter, as shown
in figure 2. This list is followed by a quick comparison of the major concepts and topics covered in the chapter with real-world objects and scenarios.
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[1.2] Define the structure of a Java class.
Structure of a Java class, with its components:
package and import statements, class declarations, comments, variables, and methods.
Difference between the components of a Java
class and that of a Java source code file.
[1.3] Create executable Java applications with a
The right method signature for the main method
to create an executable Java application.
The arguments that are passed to the main
method.
main method; run a Java program from the
command line; including console output.
Figure 2
chapter
An example of the list of exam objectives and brief explanations at the beginning of each
Section-based objectives
Each main section in a chapter starts by identifying the exam objective(s) that it covers. Each listed exam topic starts with the exam objective and its subobjective number.
In figure 3, the number “4.4” refers to section 4.4 in chapter 4 (the complete list of
chapters and sections can be found in the table of contents). The number “9.4” preceding the exam objective refers to the objective’s numbering in the list of exam
objectives on Oracle’s website (the complete numbered list of exam objectives is given
in table I.3 in the Introduction).
4.4
ArrayList
[9.4] Declare and use an ArrayList of a given type
In this section, I’ll cover how to use ArrayList, its commonly used methods, and the
advantages it offers over an array.
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam covers only one class from the Java Collection API: ArrayList. The rest of the classes from the Java Collection API are covered
in the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam (exam number 1Z0-809). One of the reasons
Figure 3 An example of the beginning of a section, identifying the exam objective that it covers
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xxiii
Exam tips
Each chapter provides multiple exam tips to reemphasize the points that are the most
confusing, overlooked, or frequently answered incorrectly by candidates and that
therefore require special attention for the exam. Figure 4 shows an example.
An ArrayList preserves the order of insertion of its elements.
Iterator, ListIterator, and the enhanced for loop will return the elements in the order in which they were added to the ArrayList. An iterator
(Iterator or ListIterator) lets you remove elements as you iterate an
ArrayList. It’s not possible to remove elements from an ArrayList while
iterating it using a for loop.
EXAM TIP
Figure 4 Example of an exam tip; they occur multiple times in a chapter
Notes
All chapters also include multiple notes that draw your attention to points that should
be noted while you’re preparing for the exam. Figure 5 shows an example.
NOTE Although the terms method parameters and method arguments are not the
same, you may have noticed that many programmers use them interchangeably. Method parameters are the variables that appear in the definition of a
method. Method arguments are the actual values that are passed to a method
while executing it. In figure 3.15, the variables phNum and msg are method
parameters. If you execute this method as sendMsg("123456", "Hello"),
then the String values "123456" and "Hello" are method arguments. As you
know, you can pass literal values or variables to a method. Thus, method arguments can be literal values or variables.
Figure 5
Example note
Sidebars
Sidebars contain information that may not be directly relevant to the exam but that is
related to it. Figure 6 shows an example.
static classes and interfaces
Certification aspirants frequently ask questions about static classes and interfaces, so I’ll quickly cover these in this section to ward off any confusion related to
them. But note that static classes and interfaces are types of nested classes and
interfaces that aren’t covered by the OCA Java 8 Programmer I exam.
You can’t prefix the definition of a top-level class or an interface with the keyword
static. A top-level class or interface is one that isn’t defined within another class or
interface. The following code will fail to compile:
static class Person {}
Figure 6
Example sidebar
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
xxiv
Images
I use a lot of images in the chapters for an immersive learning experience. I believe
that a simple image can help you understand a concept quickly, and a little humor can
help you to retain information longer.
Simple images are used to draw your attention to a particular line of code (as shown
in figure 7).
public String replace(char oldChar, char newChar) {
if (oldChar != newChar) {
// code to create a new char array and
// replace the desired char with the new char
return new String(0, len, buf);
}
replace creates and
returns a new String
object. It doesn’t modify
the existing array value.
return this;
}
Figure 7 An example image that draws your attention to a particular line of code
I use pictorial representation of data in arrays (figure 8) and other data types to aid
visualization and understanding.
multiStrArr
0
0
1
1
null
2
0
1
2
A
B
Jan
Feb
Mar
Figure 8 An example pictorial representation
of data in an array
To reinforce important points and help you retain them longer, a little humor has been
added using comic strips (as in figure 9).
Figure 9 An example of a little humor to help you remember that the finally block always executes
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xxv
I also use images to group and represent information for quick reference. Figure 10
shows an example of the protected members that can be accessed by derived or unrelated classes in the same or separate packages. I strongly recommend that you try to
create a few of your own figures like these.
Same package
Separate package
Derived classes
Figure 10 An example of grouping and
representing information for quick reference
Unrelated classes
An image can also add more meaning to a sequence of steps explained in the text. For
example, figure 11 seems to bring the Java compiler to life by allowing it to talk with
you and convey what it does when it gets to compile a class that doesn’t define a constructor. Again, try a few of your own! It’ll be fun!
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
}
Poor class
Employee doesn’t
have a constructor.
Let me create
one for it.
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
super();
In
Java
compiler
Out
Default
constructor
}
}
Figure 11 An example pictorial representation of steps executed by the Java
compiler when it compiles a class without a constructor
The exam requires that you know multiple methods from classes such as String,
StringBuilder, ArrayList, and others. The number of these methods can be overwhelming, but grouping these methods according to their functionality can make this
task a lot more manageable. Figure 12 shows an example of an image that groups
methods of the String class according to their functionality.
String methods
Query position of chars
charAt
indexOf
Seem to modify String
substring
trim
replace
Others
length
startsWith
endsWith
Figure 12 An example image used to group methods of the String class according to their functionality
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xxvi
Expressions that involve multiple operands can be hard to comprehend. Figure 13 is
an example of an image that can save you from the mayhem of unary increment and
decrement operators used in prefix and postfix notation.
Value of a increments to 11 due
to postfix ++ used prior to this.
Value of a decrements to 10 due to
postfix -- used prior to this.
a = a++ + a + a-- - a-- + ++a;
Value of a will increment after
this current value is used.
Figure 13
Because this is again a postfix notation,
value 11 is used before the decrement.
The value of a decrements to
9 due to a-- here, but again
increments to 10 due to ++a.
Example of values taken by the operands during execution of an expression
Code snippets that define multiple points and that may result in the nonlinear execution of code can be very difficult to comprehend. These may include selection statements, loops, or exception-handling code. Figure 14 is an example of an image that
clearly outlines the lines of code that will execute.
1>
2>
3>
4>
5>
6>
7>
8>
9>
10>
11>
12>
13>
14>
15>
16>
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
try {
riverRafting.crossRapid(11);
riverRafting.rowRaft("happy");
System.out.println("Enjoy River Rafting");
}
catch (FallingRiverException e1) {
System.out.println("Get back in the raft");
}
catch (DropOarException e2) {
System.out.println("Do not panic");
}
finally {
System.out.println("Pay for the sport");
}
System.out.println("After the try block");
1. Execute code on line 3.
Code on lines 4 and 5 won't
execute if line 3 throws an
exception.
2. Combat exception thrown by
code on line 3. Execute exception
handler for
FallInRiverException.
3. finally block always
executes, whether line 3 throws any
exception or not.
4. Control transfers to the
statement following the
try-catch-finally block.
Figure 14 An example of flow of control in a code snippet that may define multiple points of
nonlinear execution of code
Twist in the Tale exercises
Each chapter includes a few Twist in the Tale exercises. For these exercises, I try to use
modified code from the examples already covered in a chapter, and the “Twist in the
Tale” title refers to modified or tweaked code. These exercises highlight how even
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
xxvii
small code modifications can change the behavior of your code. They should encourage you to carefully examine all the code in the exam.
My main reason for including these exercises is that on the real exam, you may get
to answer more than one question that seems to define exactly the same question and
answer options. But on closer inspection, you’ll realize that these questions differ
slightly and that these differences change the behavior of the code and the correct
answer option.
The answers to all the Twist in the Tale exercises are given in the appendix.
Code indentation
Some of the examples in this book show incorrect indentation of code. This has been
done on purpose because on the real exam you can’t expect to see perfectly indented
code. You should be able to comprehend incorrectly indented code to answer an
exam question correctly.
Review notes
When you’re ready to take your exam, don’t forget to reread the review notes a day
before or on the morning of the exam. These notes contain important points from
each chapter as a quick refresher.
Exam questions
Each chapter concludes with a set of 10 or 11 exam questions. These follow the
same pattern as the real exam questions. Attempt these exam questions after completing a chapter.
Answers to exam questions
The answers to all exam questions provide detailed explanations, including why options
are correct or incorrect. Mark your incorrect answers and identify the sections that
you need to reread. If possible, draw a few diagrams—you’ll be amazed at how much
they can help you retain the concepts. Give it a try—it’ll be fun!
Author Online
The purchase of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification Guide includes free access to a
private forum run by Manning Publications where you can make comments about the
book, ask technical questions, and receive help from the author and other users. You
can access and subscribe to the forum at www.manning.com/books/oca-java-se-8programmer-i-certification-guide. This page provides information on how to get on
the forum once you’re registered, what kind of help is available, and the rules of conduct in the forum.
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
xxviii
Manning’s commitment to our readers is to provide a venue where a meaningful
dialogue among individual readers and between readers and the author can take
place. It’s not a commitment to any specific amount of participation on the part of the
author, whose contribution to the book’s forum remains voluntary (and unpaid). We
suggest you try asking the author some challenging questions, lest her interest stray!
The Author Online forum and the archives of previous discussions will be accessible from the publisher’s website as long as the book is in print.
This book uses code styles that you are likely to see on the exam. It
often includes practices that aren’t recommended on real projects, like
poorly indented code or skipping values for brevity, among others, but this is
not meant to encourage you to use obscure coding practices.
NOTE
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about the author
Mala is passionate about making people employable by bridging the gap between their existing and required skills. In her
quest to fulfill this mission, she is authoring books to help IT
professionals and students succeed on industry-recognized
Oracle Java certifications.
She has master’s degrees in computer applications along
with multiple other certifications from Oracle. With over 15
years of experience in IT as a developer, architect, trainer, and
mentor, she has worked with international training and software services organizations on various Java projects. She is
experienced in mentoring teams on technical and software development processes.
She is the founder and lead mentor of a portal (www.ejavaguru.com) that has
offered Java courses for Oracle certification since 2006.
Mala is a firm believer in creativity as an essential life skill. To popularize the
importance of creativity, innovation, and design in life, she and her daughter started
KaagZevar (www.KaagZevar.com)—a platform for nurturing these values.
xxix
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about the cover illustration
The figure on the cover of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification Guide is captioned
“Morning Habit of a Lady of Quality in Barbary—1700.” The illustration is taken from
Thomas Jefferys’ A Collection of the Dresses of Different Nations, Ancient and Modern (four
volumes), London, published between 1757 and 1772. The title page states that these
are hand-colored copperplate engravings, heightened with gum arabic. Thomas Jefferys
(1719–1771) was called “Geographer to King George III.” He was an English cartographer who was the leading map supplier of his day. He engraved and printed maps for
government and other official bodies and produced a wide range of commercial maps
and atlases, especially of North America. His work as a mapmaker sparked an interest
in local dress customs of the lands he surveyed and mapped, which are brilliantly displayed in this collection.
Fascination with faraway lands and travel for pleasure were relatively new phenomena in the late 18th century, and collections such as this one were popular, introducing
both the tourist as well as the armchair traveler to the inhabitants of other countries.
The diversity of the drawings in Jefferys’ volumes speaks vividly of the uniqueness and
individuality of the world’s nations some 200 years ago. Dress codes have changed since
then and the diversity by region and country, so rich at the time, has faded away. It’s now
hard to tell apart the inhabitants of different continents, let alone different towns or
regions. Perhaps we have traded cultural diversity for a more varied personal life—certainly for a more varied and fast-paced technological life.
At a time when it is hard to tell one computer book from another, Manning celebrates
the inventiveness and initiative of the computer business with book covers based on the
rich diversity of regional life of two centuries ago, brought back to life by Jefferys’ pictures.
xxx
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Introduction
This introduction covers
■
Introduction to the Oracle Certified Associate (OCA) Java SE
8 Programmer I Certification (exam number 1Z0-808)
■
Importance of the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer certification
■
Comparison of the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam to the
OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I exam
■
Comparison of the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam (1Z0808) to the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam (1Z0-809)
■
Detailed exam objectives, mapped to book chapters
■
FAQs on exam preparation and on taking the exam
■
Introduction to the testing engine used for the exam
This book is intended specifically for individuals who wish to earn the OCA Java SE
8 Programmer I Certification (exam number 1Z0-808). It assumes that you are
familiar with Java and have some experience working with it. If you’re completely
new to the Java programming language, I suggest that you start your journey with
an entry-level book and then come back to this one.
1
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2
1
Introduction
Disclaimer
The information in this chapter is sourced from Oracle.com, public websites, and user
forums. Input has been taken from real people who have earned Java certification,
including the author. All efforts have been made to maintain the accuracy of the content, but the details of the exam—including the exam objectives, pricing, exam pass
score, total number of questions, maximum exam duration, and others—are subject
to change per Oracle’s policies. The author and publisher of the book shall not be
held responsible for any loss or damage accrued due to any information contained in
this book or due to any direct or indirect use of this information.
2
Introduction to OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification
The Oracle Certified Associate (OCA) Java SE 8 Programmer I exam (1Z0-808) covers the
fundamentals of Java SE 8 programming, such as the structure of classes and interfaces,
variables of different data types, methods, operators, arrays, decision constructs, and
loops. The exam includes handling exceptions and a few commonly used classes from the
Java API like String, StringBuilder, and ArrayList. This exam doesn’t include a lot of
Java 8–specific language features. It includes an introduction to functional-style programming with lambda expressions. It partially covers the new Date and Time API.
This exam is one of two steps to earning the title of Oracle Certified Professional
(OCP) Java SE 8 Programmer. It certifies that an individual possesses a strong foundation in the Java programming language. Table 1 lists the details of this exam.
Table 1 Details for the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam (1Z0-808)
3
Exam number
1Z0-808
Java version
Based on Java version 8
Number of questions
77
Passing score
65%
Time duration
150 minutes
Pricing
US$300
Type of questions
Multiple choice
The importance of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam (1Z0-808) is an entry-level exam in your Java
certification roadmap, as shown in figure 1.
This exam is one of two steps to earn the title of OCP Java SE 8 Programmer. The
dashed lines and arrows in figure 1 depict the prerequisites for certification. OCP Java
Programmer certification (any Java version) is a prerequisite to earn most of the other
higher-level certifications in Java.
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The importance of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification
Associate
Professional
Java SE 8
Java SE 8
Java SE 7
Java SE 7
Java SE 5/6
Expert
Master
Java SE 6
Developer
Java SE
Java SE 5/6
Java Junior
Associate 8
Java EE 6 Web
Component
Developer
Java EE 6
Enterprise
Architect
Java EE 6
Enterprise
JavaBeans
Developer
Java EE 6 Web
Services
Developer
Java EE
Java EE 6 Java
Persistence API
Developer
Java EE 6
JavaServer
Faces
Developer
Increasing difficulty level
Figure 1 OCA Java SE 8 Programmer certification is an entry-level certification in the Java certification
roadmap.
To earn the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer title, you must pass the following two certifications (in any order):
■
■
OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I (1Z0-808)
OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II (1Z0-809)
At the time of writing, Oracle made this exam a prerequisite for passing the 1Z0-809 exam. Earlier, Oracle allowed passing the 1Z0-808 and 1Z0-809
exams in any order. Even when this exam wasn’t a prerequisite for passing the
NOTE
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4
Introduction
1Z0-809 exam, it was highly recommended to write it first. The 1Z0-808 exam
covers the basics of Java, and 1Z0-809 covers advanced Java concepts.
Java Junior Associate (1Z0-811) is a newer certification, launched by Oracle in 2016.
It’s a novice-level certification for students at secondary schools, two-year colleges, and
four-year colleges and universities. All the other Java certifications are career-level certifications. As shown in figure 1, the Java certification tracks are offered under the categories Associate, Professional, Expert, and Master.
4
Comparing OCA Java exam versions
This section will clear up any confusion surrounding the different versions of the OCA
Java exam. As of now, Oracle offers three versions of the OCA certification in Java:
■
■
■
OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I (exam number: 1Z0-808)
OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I (exam number: 1Z0-803)
OCA Java SE 5/SE 6 (exam number: 1Z0-850)
Table 2 compares these exams on their target audience, Java version, question count,
duration, and passing score.
Table 2 Comparing exams: OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I, OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I, and OCA Java
SE 5/6
OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I (1Z0-803)
OCA Java SE 7
Programmer I (1Z0-803)
OCA Java SE 5/SE 6
(1Z0-850)
Target audience
Java programmers
Java programmers
Java programmers and IT
managers
Java version
8
7
6
Total number of
questions
77
70
51
Exam duration
150 minutes
120 minutes
115 minutes
Passing score
65%
63%
68%
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I Certification adds the following topics to the ones
covered by the OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I Certification:
■
■
■
■
■
■
Features and components of Java
Wrapper classes
Ternary constructs
Some classes from the new Java 8 Date and Time API
Creating and using lambda expressions
Predicate interface
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5
Comparing OCA Java exam versions
Figure 2 shows a detailed comparison of the exam objectives of the OCA Java SE 8 and
OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I exams. Here’s the legend to understand it:
■
■
■
Light gray background—Main exam objective.
Yellow background—Covered only in the OCA Java SE 8 exam.
Green background—Although the text or main exam objective of this subobjective differs, it is covered by the other exam.
OCA Java SE 8
Objectives common to both exams
OCA Java SE 7
Java basics
Run a Java program from the command
line; including console output
Compare and contrast the features and
components of Java, such as platform
independence, object orientation,
encapsulation, and so on
Define the scope of variables
Define the structure of a Java class
Create executable Java applications with
a main method
Import other Java packages to make them
accessible in your code
Develop code that uses wrapper
classes such as Boolean, Double,
and Integer
Declare and initialize variables (including
casting of primitive data types)
Differentiate between object reference
variables and primitive variables
Know how to read or write to object fields
Explain an object’s lifecycle
Working with Java data types
Manipulate data using the
StringBuilder class and
its methods
Creating and manipulating
Strings
Using operators and decision constructs
Use Java operators, including
parentheses to override operator
precedence
Ternary constructs
Test equality between Strings and other
objects using == and equals()
Create if and if/else and ternary
constructs
Use a switch statement
Use Java operators
Use parenthesis to override
operator precedence
Creating and using arrays
Declare, instantiate, initialize and use
a one-dimensional array
Declare, instantiate, initialize and use a
multi-dimensional array
Declare and use an
ArrayList
Using loop constructs
Create and use while loops
Create and use for loops, including
the enhanced for loop
Create and use do/while loops
Compare loop constructs
Use break and continue
Working with methods and encapsulation
Create methods with arguments
and return values; including
overloaded methods
Create and overload constructors;
including impact on default
constructors
Apply the static keyword to
methods and fields
Apply access modifiers
Apply encapsulation principles to a
class
Determine the effect upon object
references and primitive values when
they are passed into methods that
change the values
Create methods with
arguments and return values
Create an overloaded method
Differentiate between default
and user defined constructors
Create and overload
constructors
Figure 2 Comparing exam objectives of the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I and OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I
certifications
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Introduction
Working with Inheritance
Describe inheritance and its benefits
Develop code that demonstrates the use
of polymorphism; including overriding
and object type versus reference type
Determine when casting is necessary
Use super and this to access objects
and constructors
Use abstract classes and interfaces
Describe the advantages of exception
handling
Create and invoke a method that throws
an exception
Recognize common exception classes
(such as NullPointerException,
ArithmeticException,
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException,
ClassCastException)
Differentiate among checked exceptions,
unchecked exceptions, and errors
Create a try-catch block and determine
how exceptions alter normal program flow
Implement inheritance
Develop code that
demonstrates the use of
polymorphism
Differentiate between the type
of a reference and the type of
an object
Handling exceptions
Describe what exceptions are
used for in Java
Invoke a method that throws
an exception
Recognize common exception
classes and categories
Working with selected classes from the Java API
Manipulate data using the
StringBuilder class and its methods
Creating and manipulating Strings
Create and manipulate calendar data
using classes from
java.time.LocalDateTime,
java.time.LocalDate,
java.time.LocalTime,
java.time.format.DateTime
Formatter, java.time.Period
Declare and use an ArrayList of a
given type
Write a simple lambda expression that
consumes a lambda predicate expression
Figure 2 Comparing exam objectives of the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I and OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I
certifications (continued)
Figure 3 shows a detailed comparison of the exam objectives of OCA Java SE 5/6
(1Z0-850) and OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I (1Z0-803). It shows objectives that are
exclusive to each of these exam versions and those that are common to both. The first
column shows the objectives that are included only in OCA Java SE 5/6 (1Z0-850), the
middle column shows common exam objectives, and the right column shows exam
objectives covered only in OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I (1Z0-803).
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7
Comparing OCA Java exam versions
OCA Java SE 5/6
1Z0-850
Algorithm design and
implementation
• Algorithm
• Pseudocode
Common objectives
OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I
1Z0-803
Java basics
• Variable scope
• Structure of Java class
• import and package statements
• main method
Working with Java data types
• Enums
Java development fundamentals
• Use of javac command
• Use of java command
• Purpose and type of classes
in packages
java.awt
javax.swing
java.io
java.net
java.util
Java platforms and
integration technologies
• Compare and contrast
J2SE, J2ME, J2EE
• RMI
• JDBC, SQL, RDMS
• JNDI, messaging, and JMS
Client technologies
• HTML, JavaScript
• J2ME MIDlets
• Applets
• Swing
Server technologies
• EJB, servlets, JSP, JMS, SMTP,
JAX-RBC, WebServices, JavaMail
• Servlet and JSP for HTML
• EJB session, entity, and
message-driven beans
• Web tier, business tier, EIS tier
• Primitives, object references
• Read/write to object fields
• Call methods on objects
• Strings
• StringBuilder
Operators and decision constructs
• Java operators
• if and if-else constructs
• switch statement
• Parentheses to override
operator precedence
• Test equality between String and
other objects using == and equals()
Creating and using arrays
• One-dimensional arrays
• Multidimensional arrays
• ArrayList
Loop constructs
• for and enhanced for loops
• while and do-while loops
• break and continue statements
Methods and encapsulation
• Create methods with arguments
and return types
• Apply access modifiers
• Effect on object references and primitives
when they are passed to methods
• Apply static keyword to methods
and fields
• Overloaded constructors and methods
• Default and user-defined constructors
Inheritance
• Implement inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Differentiate between type of
a reference variable and object
• Use abstract classes and interfaces
• Determine when casting is necessary
• Use super and this to access objects
and constructors
Handling exceptions
OOP concepts
• Exceptions and errors
• try-catch blocks
• Use of exceptions
• Methods that throw exceptions
• Common exception classes and
categories
• UML diagrams
• Association
• Composition
• Association navigation
Figure 3 Comparing objectives of exams OCA Java SE 5/6 and OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I
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8
5
Introduction
Next step: OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II (1Z0-809) exam
After successfully passing the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, the next step is to
take the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam. The OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II certification is designed for individuals who possess advanced skills in the Java programming language. It covers advanced Java features such as threads, concurrency,
collections, the Streams API, Java file I/O, inner classes, localization, and others.
6
Complete exam objectives, mapped to book chapters,
and readiness checklist
Table 3 includes a complete list of exam objectives for the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer
I exam, which was taken from Oracle’s website. All the objectives are mapped to the
book’s chapters and the section numbers that cover them.
Table 3 Exam objectives and subobjectives mapped to chapter and section numbers
Exam objectives
Covered in chapter/
section
1
Java basics
Chapters 1 and 3
1.1
Define the scope of variables
Section 3.1
1.2
Define the structure of a Java class
Section 1.1
1.3
Create executable Java applications with a main method; run a Java program from
the command line, including console output
Section 1.2
1.4
Import other Java packages to make them accessible in your code
Section 1.3
1.5
Compare and contrast the features and components of Java, such as platform independence, object orientation, encapsulation, and so on
Section 1.6
2
Working with Java data types
Chapters 2 and 3
2.1
Declare and initialize variables (including casting of primitive data types)
Sections 2.1 and 2.3
2.2
Differentiate between object reference variables and primitive variables
Sections 2.1 and 2.3
2.3
Know how to read and write to object fields
Section 3.6
2.4
Explain an object's lifecycle (creation, "dereference by reassignment," and garbage
collection)
Section 3.2
2.5
Develop code that uses wrapper classes such as Boolean, Double, and Integer
Section 2.5
3
Using 0perators and decision constructs
Chapters 2, 4, and 5
3.1
Use Java operators, including parentheses to override operator precedence
Section 2.4
3.2
Test equality between Strings and other objects using == and equals()
Sections 4.1 and 4.5
3.3
Create if and if/else and ternary constructs
Section 5.1
3.4
Use a switch statement
Section 5.2
4
Creating and using arrays
Chapter 4
4.1
Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a one-dimensional array
Section 4.3
4.2
Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a multidimensional array
Section 4.3
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Complete exam objectives, mapped to book chapters, and readiness checklist
9
Table 3 Exam objectives and subobjectives mapped to chapter and section numbers
Exam objectives
Covered in chapter/
section
5
Using loop constructs
Chapter 5
5.1
Create and use while loops
Section 5.5
5.2
Create and use for loops, including the enhanced for loop
Sections 5.3 and 5.4
5.3
Create and use do-while loops
Section 5.5
5.4
Compare loop constructs
Section 5.6
5.5
Use break and continue
Section 5.7
6
Working with methods and encapsulation
Chapters 1 and 3
6.1
Create methods with arguments and return values, including overloaded methods
Sections 3.3 and 3.4
6.2
Apply the static keyword to methods and fields
Section 1.5
6.3
Create and overload constructors, including impact on default constructors
Section 3.5
6.4
Apply access modifiers
Section 1.4
6.5
Apply encapsulation principles to a class
Section 3.7
6.6
Determine the effect on object references and primitive values when they are passed
into methods that change the values
Section 3.8
7
Working with inheritance
Chapters 1 and 6
7.1
Describe inheritance and its benefits
Sections 6.1 and 6.2
7.2
Develop code that demonstrates the use of polymorphism, including overriding and
object type versus reference type
Sections 6.3 and 6.6
7.3
Determine when casting is necessary
Section 6.4
7.4
Use super and this to access objects and constructors
Section 6.5
7.5
Use abstract classes and interfaces
Sections 1.5, 6.1, 6.2,
and 6.6
8
Handling exceptions
Chapter 7
8.1
Differentiate among checked exceptions, unchecked exceptions, and errors
Section 7.2
8.2
Create a try-catch block and determine how exceptions alter normal program flow
Section 7.4
8.3
Describe the advantages of exception handling
Section 7.1
8.4
Create and invoke a method that throws an exception
Sections 7.3 and 7.4
8.5
Recognize common exception classes (such as NullPointerException,
ArithmeticException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, ClassCastException)
Section 7.5
9
Working with selected classes from the Java API
Chapters 4 and 6
9.1
Manipulate data using the StringBuilder class and its methods
Section 4.2
9.2
Creating and manipulating Strings
Section 4.1
9.3
Create and manipulate calendar data using classes from java.time.LocalDateTime, java.time.LocalDate, java.time.LocalTime,
java.time.format.DateTimeFormatter, and java.time.Period
Section 4.6
9.4
Declare and use an ArrayList of a given type
Section 4.4
9.5
Write a simple lambda expression that consumes a lambda predicate expression
Section 6.7
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10
7
Introduction
FAQs
You might be anxious when you start your exam preparation or even when you think
about getting certified. This section can help calm your nerves by answering frequently asked questions on exam preparation and taking the exam.
7.1
FAQs on exam preparation
This sections answers frequently asked questions on how to prepare for the exam,
including the best approach, study material, preparation duration, types of questions
in the exam, and more.
WILL THE EXAM DETAILS EVER CHANGE FOR THE OCA JAVA SE 8 PROGRAMMER I EXAM?
Oracle can change the exam details for a certification even after the certification is
made live. The changes can be to the exam objectives, pricing, exam duration, exam
questions, and other parts. In the past, Oracle has made similar changes to certification exams. Such changes may not be major, but it’s always advisable to check Oracle’s
website for the latest exam information when you start your exam preparation.
WHAT IS THE BEST WAY TO PREPARE FOR THIS EXAM?
Generally, candidates use a combination of resources, such as books, online study
materials, articles on the exam, free and paid mock exams, and training to prepare for
the exam. Different combinations work best for different people, and there’s no one
perfect formula for preparation. Depending on whether training or self-study works
best for you, you can select the method that’s most appropriate for you. Combine it
with a lot of code practice and mock exams.
HOW DO I KNOW WHEN I AM READY FOR THE EXAM?
You can be sure about your exam readiness by consistently getting a good score in the
mock exams. Generally, a score of 80% and above in approximately three to five mock
exams (the more the better) attempted consecutively will assure you of a similar score
in the real exam.
HOW MANY MOCK TESTS SHOULD I ATTEMPT BEFORE THE REAL EXAM?
Ideally, you should attempt at least five mock exams before you attempt the real exam.
The more the better!
I HAVE TWO YEARS’ EXPERIENCE WORKING WITH JAVA. DO I STILL NEED TO PREPARE FOR
THIS CERTIFICATION?
It’s important to understand that there’s a difference between the practical knowledge of having worked with Java and the knowledge required to pass this certification
exam. The authors of the Java certification exams employ multiple tricks to test your
knowledge. Hence, you need a structured preparation and approach to succeed in
the certification exam.
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FAQs
11
WHAT IS THE IDEAL TIME REQUIRED TO PREPARE FOR THE EXAM?
The preparation time frame mainly depends on your experience with Java and the
amount of time that you can spend to prepare yourself. On average, you will require
approximately 150 hours of study over two or three months to prepare for this exam.
Again, the number of study hours required depends on individual learning curves
and backgrounds.
It’s important to be consistent with your exam preparation. You can’t study for a
month and then restart after, say, a gap of a month or more.
DOES THIS EXAM INCLUDE ANY UNSCORED QUESTIONS?
A few of the questions that you write in any Oracle exam may be marked unscored.
Oracle’s policy states that while taking an exam, you won’t be informed as to
whether a question will be scored. You may be surprised to learn that as many as 7
questions out of the 77 questions in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam may be
unscored. Even if you answer a few questions incorrectly, you stand a chance of scoring 100%.
Oracle regularly updates its question bank for all its certification exams. These
unscored questions may be used for research and to evaluate new questions that can
be added to an exam.
CAN I START MY EXAM PREPARATION WITH THE MOCK EXAMS?
If you are quite comfortable with the Java language features, then yes, you can start
your exam preparation with the mock exams. This will also help you to understand
the types of questions to expect in the real certification exam. But if you have little
or no experience working with Java, or if you’re not quite comfortable with the language features of Java, I don’t advise you to start with the mock exams. The exam
authors often use a lot of tricks to evaluate a candidate in the real certification
exam. Starting your exam preparation with mock exams will only leave you confused
about the Java concepts.
SHOULD I REALLY BOTHER GETTING CERTIFIED?
Yes, you should, for the simple reason that employers care about the certification of
employees. Organizations prefer a certified Java developer over a noncertified Java
developer with similar IT skills and experience. The certification can also get you a
higher paycheck than uncertified peers with comparable skills.
DO I NEED TO MAKE ANY ASSUMPTIONS?
Yes, Oracle has published the following assumptions for candidates on its website (as
mentioned previously, Oracle might change the exam details or assumptions, without
any prior notice):
■
Missing package and import statements—If sample code doesn’t include package
or import statements, and the question doesn’t explicitly refer to these missing
statements, then assume that all sample code is in the same package, and import
statements exist to support them.
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Introduction
■
■
■
■
No file or directory path names for classes—If a question doesn’t state the filenames
or directory locations of classes, then assume one of the following, whichever
will enable the code to compile and run:
– All classes are in one file.
– Each class is contained in a separate file, and all files are in one directory.
Unintended line breaks—Sample code might have unintended line breaks. If you
see a line of code that looks like it has wrapped, and this creates a situation where
the wrapping is significant (for example, a quoted String literal has wrapped),
assume that the wrapping is an extension of the same line, and the line doesn’t
contain a hard carriage return that would cause a compilation failure.
Code fragments—A code fragment is a small section of source code that’s presented without its context. Assume that all necessary supporting code is present
and that the supporting environment fully supports the correct compilation
and execution of the code shown and its omitted environment.
Descriptive comments—Take descriptive comments, such as “setter and getters go
here,” at face value. Assume that correct code exists, compiles, and runs successfully to create the described effect.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OR FORMATS OF QUESTIONS THAT I CAN EXPECT IN THE EXAM?
The exam uses different formats of multiple choice questions, illustrated in this section by eight example questions with figures.
The examples for all these types of questions show how the following set of topics
might be tested using a different question format:
■
■
■
■
■
Correct declaration of the main method
Passing command-line parameters
Overloaded methods
Significance of method parameter names
Declaration of variables of varargs
Exam question type 1 (figure 4)—Includes simple code, but tricky or confusing answer
options.
Exam
question
type #1
=
Simple
code
+
Tricky or
confusing
answer options
Figure 4
Exam question type 1
The answer options in the following example would confuse a reader on whether the
command-line values would be concatenated or added as integer values:
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FAQs
Given:
class JavaCertQType1 {
public static void main(String... cmd) {
main("private", cmd);
}
private static void main(String type, String[] args) {
System.out.println(args[0] + args[1]);
}
}
What is the output when class JavaCertQType1 is executed using
the following command (choose 1 option):
java JavaCertQType1 1 11 EJava Guru
1
1 11
111
12
1 11 EJava Guru
Compilation error
Runtime exception
In this book, the sample exam questions at the end of each chapter
and full mock exam at the end of the book show answer options as lettered
(for example, a–d) for ease on discussion. In the exam, however, the answer
options aren’t numbered or lettered. They’re preceded with either a radio
button or a check box. Radio buttons are for questions with only one correct
answer, and check boxes are for questions with multiple correct answers.
NOTE
Exam question type 2 (figure 5)—Exam questions without code give you a much
needed break from reading code. But it isn’t always easy to answer them.
Exam
question
type #2
=
No
code
+
Answer options
with only
text
Figure 5
Exam question type 2
An example of exam question, type 2:
Question2) Assuming that the phrase 'the method main' refers to the method
main that starts an application, select the correct statements (choose 2
options).
A class can define multiple methods with the name main, but with
different signatures.
The method main can define its only method parameter of type varargs.
Accessibility of the method main can't be restricted to private.
A class with overloaded main methods won't compile.
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Introduction
Exam question type 3 (figure 6)—Reading though and comprehending lots of code can
be difficult. The key is to eliminate wrong answers to find the correct answers quickly.
Exam
question
type #3
=
Lots of
code
+
Answer options
with probable
code output
Figure 6
Exam question type 3
An example:
Given:
class JavaCertQuesType3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Spring");
}
public static void main(String... args) {
System.out.println("Summer");
}
public static void main(String[] cmd) {
System.out.println("Autumn");
}
public static void main() {
System.out.println("Winter");
}
}
What is the output (choose 1 option)?
Code outputs Spring
Code outputs Summer
Code outputs Autumn
Code outputs Winter
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Exam question type 4 (figure 7)—This type of question is a classic example of “fill in
the blank.”
Exam
question
type #4
=
Code
------//INSERT CODE HERE
-------
+
Answer options:
a) Code 1
b) Code 2
c) Code 3
-------
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Figure 7 Exam question type 4
15
FAQs
An example:
Given:
class JavaCertQType4 {
static int c, a = 10, b = 21/2;
static {
c = a;
}
// INSERT CODE HERE
}
Which options, when inserted individually at //INSERT CODE HERE will
enable class JavaCertQType4 to output value 10 (choose 2)?
public static void main(String... variables) {
System.out.println(b);
}
private static void main(String[] commandArgs) {
System.out.println(b);
}
public static void main(String args) {
System.out.println(b);
}
private static void main() {
System.out.println(b);
}
public static void main(String... method) {
System.out.println(b);
}
Exam question type 5 (figure 8)—This question type will include code, a condition,
or both. The answer options will include changes and their results, when applied to
the code in the question. Unless otherwise stated, changes in the answer options
that you choose are applied individually to the code or the specified situation.
Result of a correct answer option won’t involve changes suggested in other correct
answer options.
Exam
question
type #5
=
Code
+
Answer options
including suggested
changes to code
Figure 8
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Exam question type 5
16
Introduction
An example:
Given:
1. class JavaCertQType5 {
2.
protected static void main() {
3.
System.out.println("EJavaGuru.com");
4.
}
5.
public static void main(String... method) {
6.
main();
7.
System.out.println("MissionOCAJ8");
8.
}
9. }
Select correct option (choose 2):
Code will compile successfully if code on line 6 is commented.
Code will output the same result if access modifier of main() is
changed to private at line 2.
Code won't compile if code on line 6 is placed after code on line 7.
The code compiles successfully, but throws a runtime exception.
Exam question type 6 (figure 9)—Because your mind is programmed to select the correct options, answer this type of question very carefully. My personal tip: cross fingers
in one of your hands to remind you that you need to select the incorrect statements.
Exam
question
type #6
=
Code
+
Select
incorrect
options
Figure 9
Exam question type 6
An example:
Given:
1. class JavaCertQType6 {
2.
public static void main(String... method)
3.
main();
4.
main(method);
5.
}
6.
protected static void main() {
7.
System.out.println("EJavaGuru");
8.
}
9. }
{
Select incorrect options (choose 2):
Code will compile successfully only if code on line 3 is commented.
Code will output the same result if access modifier of main() is
changed to public at line 6.
Code will compile sucessfully and execute without any runtime
exceptions.
If the order of code on lines 3 and 4 is reversed, the code won't
output 'EJavaGuru'.
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FAQs
Exam question type 7 (figure 10)—This question won’t include any code in the text of
the question; it will state a condition that needs to be implemented using code given
in the answer options.
Exam
question
type #7
=
No
code
Answer options
with code
+
Figure 10
Exam question type 7
An example:
Which of the following options can be used to define a main method that
outputs the value of the second and fourth command parameters (choose 2):
public static void main(String... method) {
for (int i = 1; i < method.size && i < 6; i = i + 2)
System.out.println(method[i]);
}
public static void main(String[] main) {
for (int i = 1; i < main.length && i < 6; i = i + 2)
System.out.println(main[i]);
}
public static void main(String... arguments) {
int ctr = 0;
while (ctr < arguments.length) {
if (ctr >= 4) break;
if (ctr %2 != 0)
System.out.println(arguments[ctr]);
++ctr;
}
}
public static void main(String[] arguments) {
int ctr = 1;
while (ctr < arguments.length) {
if (ctr >= 4) break;
if (ctr %2 == 0)
System.out.println(arguments[ctr]);
++ctr;
}
}
Exam question type 8 (figure 11)—This question includes a pictorial representation
of a single or multidimensional array, stating a situation and asking you to select code
as input to get the required array formation.
Exam
question
type #8
=
Diagram
representing
the code
+
Answer options
as code
Figure 11
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Exam question type 8
18
Introduction
An example:
Assuming that the following array and image represents variation of
Connect4 game, where a player wins if she places same number in a row or
column:
char[][] grid = new char[][]{{'7',' ',' ',' '},{'5','7',' ','5'},
{'7','7','5','5'},{'5','7','7','5'}};
7
5
7
5
7
7
5
5
5
7
7
5
Which of the following assignments would enable a player with number 7
to win (choose 2 options)?
grid[0] = new char[]{'7','7',' ',' '};
grid[1] = new char[]{'7','7',' ',' '};
grid[0] = {'7','7',' ',' '};
grid[1] = {'7','7',' ',' '};
grid[0][1] = '7';
grid[1][2] = '7';
grid[0] = new char[4]{'7','7',' ',' '};
grid[1] = new char[4]{'7','7',' ',' '};
7.2
FAQs on taking the exam
This section contains a list of frequently asked questions related to the exam registration, exam coupon, do’s and don’ts while taking the exam, and exam retakes.
WHERE AND HOW DO I TAKE THIS EXAM?
You can take this exam at an Oracle Testing Center or Pearson VUE Authorized Testing Center. To sit for the exam, you must register for the exam and purchase an exam
voucher. The following options are available:
■
■
■
Register for the exam and pay Pearson VUE directly
Purchase an exam voucher from Oracle and register at Pearson VUE to take
the exam
Register at an Oracle Testing Center
Look for the nearest testing centers in your area, register yourself, and schedule an
exam date and time. Most of the popular computer training institutes also have a testing
center on their premises. You can locate a Pearson VUE testing site at www.pearsonvue
.com/oracle/, which contains detailed information on locating testing centers and
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FAQs
19
scheduling or rescheduling an exam. At the time of registration, you’ll need to provide the following details along with your name, address, and contact numbers:
■
■
■
■
Exam title and number (OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I, 1Z0-808)
Any discount code that should be applied during registration
Oracle Testing ID/Candidate ID, if you’ve taken any other Oracle/Sun certification exam
Your OPN Company ID (if your employer is in the Oracle Partner Network, you
can find out the company ID and use any available discounts on the exam fee)
SHOULD I CARRY MY PHOTO ID PROOF OR ANY OTHER PROOF?
The examination center coordinator will ask you for at least two ID proofs, one of
which must include your photograph. If in doubt, please connect with your examination center using email or phone and inquire about the ID requirements.
HOW LONG IS THE EXAM COUPON VALID?
Each exam coupon is printed with an expiry date. Beware of any discounted coupons
that come with an assurance that they can be used past the expiration date.
CAN I REFER TO NOTES OR BOOKS WHILE TAKING THIS EXAM?
You can’t refer to any books or notes while taking this exam. You’re not allowed to
carry any blank paper for rough work or even your mobile phone inside the testing
cubicle.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF MARKING A QUESTION WHILE TAKING THE EXAM?
By marking a question, you can manage your time efficiently. Don’t spend a lot of
time on a single question. You can mark a difficult question to defer answering it while
taking your exam. The exam gives you an option to review answers to the marked
questions at the end of the exam. Also, navigating from one question to another using
the Back and Next buttons is usually time consuming. If you’re unsure of an answer,
mark it and review it at the end.
CAN I WRITE DOWN THE EXAM QUESTIONS AND TAKE THEM WITH ME?
No. The exam centers no longer provide sheets of paper for the rough work that you
may need to do while taking the exam. The testing center will provide you with either
erasable or non-erasable boards. If you’re provided with a non-erasable board, you
may request another one if you need it.
Oracle is quite particular about certification candidates distributing or circulating
the memorized questions in any form. If Oracle finds out that this is happening, it
may cancel a candidate’s certificate, bar that candidate forever from taking any Oracle
certification, inform the employer, or take legal action.
WHAT HAPPENS IF I COMPLETE THE EXAM BEFORE OR AFTER THE TOTAL TIME?
If you complete the exam before the total exam time has elapsed, revise your answers
and click the Submit or Finish button. If you have not clicked the Submit button and
you use up all the exam time, the exam engine will no longer allow you to modify any
of the exam answers and will present the screen with the Submit button.
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Introduction
WILL I RECEIVE MY SCORE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE EXAM?
No, you won’t. When you click the Submit button, the screen will request you to log in
to your Oracle account (CertView) after approximately half an hour to view your
score. It also includes the topics you answered incorrectly. The testing center won’t
give you any hard copies of your certification score. The certificate itself will arrive via
mail within six to eight weeks.
WHAT HAPPENS IF I FAIL? CAN I RETAKE THE EXAM?
It’s not the end of the world. Don’t worry if you fail. You can retake the exam after 14
days (and the world won’t know it’s a retake).
But you can’t retake a passed exam to improve your score. Also, you can’t retake a
beta exam.
8
The testing engine used in the exam
The user interface of the testing engine used for the certification exam is quite simple. (You could even call it primitive, compared to today’s web, desktop, and smartphone applications.)
Before you can start the exam, you will be required to accept the terms and conditions of the Oracle Certification Candidate Agreement. Your computer screen will display all these conditions and give you an option to accept the conditions. You can
proceed with writing the exam only if you accept these conditions.
Here are the features of the testing engine used by Oracle:
■
■
■
■
■
Engine UI is divided into three sections—The UI of the testing engine is divided
into the following three segments:
– Static upper section—Displays question number, time remaining, and a check
box to mark a question for review
– Scrollable middle section—Displays the question text and the answer options
– Static bottom section—Displays buttons to display the previous question, display
the next question, end the exam, and review marked questions
Each question is displayed on a separate screen—The exam engine displays one question on the screen at a time. It doesn’t display multiple questions on a single
screen, like a scrollable web page. All effort is made to display the complete
question and answer options without scrolling, or with little scrolling.
Code Exhibit button—Many questions include code. Such questions, together
with their answers, may require significant scrolling to be viewed. Because this
can be quite inconvenient, such questions include a Code Exhibit button that
displays the code in a separate window.
Mark questions to be reviewed—The question screen displays a check box with the
text “Mark for review” at the top-left corner. A question can be marked using this
option. The marked questions can be quickly reviewed at the end of the exam.
Buttons to display the previous and next questions—The test includes buttons to display
the previous and next questions within the bottom section of the testing engine.
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The testing engine used in the exam
■
■
■
■
21
Buttons to end the exam and review marked questions—The engine displays buttons
to end the exam and to review the marked questions in the bottom section of
the testing engine.
Remaining time—The engine displays the time remaining for the exam at the
top right of the screen.
Question number—Each question displays its serial number.
Correct number of answer options—Each question displays the correct number of
options that should be selected from multiple options.
On behalf of all at Manning Publications, I wish you good luck and hope that you
score very well on your exam.
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Java basics
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[1.2] Define the structure of a Java class.
Structure of a Java class, with its components:
package and import statements, class declarations, comments, variables, and methods.
Difference between the components of a Java
class and that of a Java source code file.
[1.3] Create executable Java applications with a
main method; run a Java program from the
command line; including console output.
The right method signature for the main method
to create an executable Java application.
The arguments that are passed to the main
method.
[1.4] Import other Java packages to make them
accessible in your code.
Understand packages and import statements. Get
the right syntax and semantics to import classes
from packages and interfaces in your own classes.
[6.4] Apply access modifiers.
Application of access modifiers (public,
protected, default, and private) to a class
and its members. Determine the accessibility of
code with these modifiers.
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces.
The implication of defining classes, interfaces,
and methods as abstract entities.
[6.2] Apply the static keyword to methods
and fields.
[1.5] Compare and contrast the features and
components of Java such as: platform independence, object orientation, encapsulation, etc.
The implication of defining fields and methods as
static members.
The features and components that are relevant or
irrelevant to Java.
22
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The structures of a Java class and a source code file
23
Imagine you’re setting up a new IT organization that works with multiple developers.
To ensure smooth and efficient working, you’ll define a structure for your organization and a set of departments with separate responsibilities. These departments will
interact with each other whenever required. Also, depending on confidentiality requirements, your organization’s data will be available to employees on an as-needed basis,
or you may assign special privileges to only some employees of the organization. This
is an example of how organizations might work with a well-defined structure and a set
of rules to deliver the best results.
Similarly, Java has a well-defined structure and hierarchy. The organization’s structure and components can be compared with Java’s class structure and components,
and the organization’s departments can be compared with Java packages. Restricting
access to some data in the organization can be compared to Java’s access modifiers.
An organization’s special privileges can be compared to nonaccess modifiers in Java.
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’ll be asked questions on the structure of a Java class, packages, importing classes, and applying access and nonaccess
modifiers and features and components of Java. Given that information, this chapter
will cover the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
1.1
The structure and components of a Java class
Understanding executable Java applications
Understanding Java packages
Importing Java packages into your code
Applying access and nonaccess modifiers
Features and components of Java
The structures of a Java class and a source code file
[1.2] Define the structure of a Java class
When you see a certification objective callout such as the preceding one,
it means that in this section we’ll cover this objective. The same objective may
be covered in more than one section in this chapter or in other chapters.
NOTE
This section covers the structures and components of both a Java source code file
(.java file) and a Java class (defined using the keyword class). It also covers the differences between a Java source code file and a Java class.
First things first. Start your exam preparation with a clear understanding of what’s
required from you in the certification exam. For example, try to answer the following
query from a certification aspirant: “I come across the term ‘class’ with different
meanings: class Person, the Java source code file (Person.java), and Java bytecode
stored in Person.class. Which of these structures is on the exam?” To answer this question, take a look at figure 1.1, which includes the class Person, the files Person.java
and Person.class, and the relationship between them.
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CHAPTER 1
De
fined as
Re
Java basics
s in
side
Person.java
Person.class
In
class Person {
class Person {
String name;
String getName() {
return name;
}
}
Java
compiler
Out
}
A person
Class Person
Java source code file
Java bytecode
Figure 1.1 Relationship between the class file Person and the files Person.java and Person.class and
how one transforms into another
As you can see in figure 1.1, a person can be defined as a class Person. This class
should reside in a Java source code file (Person.java). Using this Java source code file,
the Java compiler (javac.exe on Windows or javac on Mac OS X/Linux/UNIX) generates bytecode (compiled code for the Java Virtual Machine) and stores it in Person.class.
The scope of this exam objective is limited to Java classes (class Person) and Java source
code files (Person.java).
1.1.1
Structure of a Java class
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam will question you on the structure and components of a Java source file and the classes or interfaces that you can define in it. Figure 1.2 shows the components of a Java class file (interfaces are covered in detail in
chapter 6).
In this section, I’ll discuss all Java class file components. Let’s get started with the
package statement.
Java class components
Package statement
Import statements
Comments
Class declaration {
Variables
Comments
Constructors
Methods
Nested classes
Nested interfaces
Enum
}
1
2
3a
4
5
3b
6
7
Not included in OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I exam
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Figure 1.2 Components
of a Java class
The structures of a Java class and a source code file
25
The code in this book doesn’t include a lot of spaces—it imitates the
kind of code that you’ll see on the exam. But when you work on real projects,
I strongly recommend that you use spaces or comments to make your code
readable.
NOTE
PACKAGE STATEMENT
All Java classes are part of a package. A Java class can be explicitly defined in a named
package; otherwise, it becomes part of a default package, which doesn’t have a name.
A package statement is used to explicitly define which package a class is in. If a class
includes a package statement, it must be the first statement in the class definition:
package certification;
class Course {
The rest of the code
for class Course
}
NOTE
The package statement
should be the first
statement in a class.
Packages are covered in detail in section 1.3 of this chapter.
The package statement can’t appear within a class declaration or after the class declaration. The following code will fail to compile:
class Course {
}
package certification;
The rest of the code for class Course
If you place the package statement after the
class definition, the code won’t compile.
The following code will also fail to compile, because it places the package statement
within the class definition:
class Course {
package com.cert;
}
A package statement can’t be placed within
the curly braces that mark the start and
end of a class definition.
Also, if present, the package statement must appear exactly once in a class. The following code won’t compile:
package com.cert;
package com.exams;
class Course {
}
A class can’t define multiple
package statements.
IMPORT STATEMENT
Classes and interfaces in the same package can use each other without prefixing their
names with the package name. But to use a class or an interface from another package, you must use its fully qualified name, that is, packageName.anySubpackageName
.ClassName. For example, the fully qualified name of class String is java.lang.String.
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CHAPTER 1
Java basics
Because using fully qualified names can be tedious and can make your code difficult
to read, you can use the import statement to use the simple name of a class or interface in your code.
Let’s look at this using an example class, AnnualExam, which is defined in the package university. Class AnnualExam is associated with the class certification.ExamQuestion, as shown using the Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagram in
figure 1.3.
university
AnnualExam
certification
ExamQuestion
Figure 1.3 UML representation of the
relationship between class AnnualExam
and ExamQuestion
A UML class diagram represents the static view of an application. It
shows entities like packages, classes, interfaces, and their attributes (fields and
methods) and also depicts the relationships between them. It shows which
classes and interfaces are defined in a package. It depicts the inheritance relationship between classes and interfaces. It can also depict the associations
between them—when a class or an interface defines an attribute of another
type. All UML representations in this chapter are class diagrams. The exam
doesn’t cover UML diagrams. But using these quick and simple diagrams simplifies the relationship between Java entities—both on the exam and in your
real-world projects.
NOTE
Throughout this book, bold font will be used to indicate specific parts
of code that we’re discussing, or changes or modifications in code.
NOTE
Here’s the code for class AnnualExam:
package university;
import certification.ExamQuestion;
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion eq;
}
Define a variable
of ExamQuestion
Note that the import statement follows the package statement but precedes the class
declaration. What happens if the class AnnualExam isn’t defined in a package? Will
there be any change in the code if the classes AnnualExam and ExamQuestion are
related, as depicted in figure 1.4?
certification
AnnualExam
ExamQuestion
Figure 1.4 Relationship between the packageless class AnnualExam and ExamQuestion
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27
In this case, the class AnnualExam isn’t part of an explicit package, but the class
ExamQuestion is part of the package certification. Here’s the code for the class
AnnualExam:
import certification.ExamQuestion;
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion eq;
}
Define a variable
of ExamQuestion
As you can see in the previous example code, the class AnnualExam doesn’t define the
package statement, but it defines the import statement to import the class certification.ExamQuestion.
If a package statement is present in a class, the import statement must follow
the package statement. It’s important to maintain the order of the occurrence of the
package and import statements. Reversing this order will result in your code failing
to compile:
import certification.ExamQuestion;
package university;
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion eq;
}
The code won’t compile because an
import statement can’t be placed
before a package statement.
We’ll discuss import statements in detail in section 1.3 of this chapter.
COMMENTS
You can also add comments to your Java code. Comments can appear at multiple
places in a class. A comment can appear before and after a package statement, before
and after the class definition, as well as before and within and after a method definition. Comments come in two flavors: multiline comments and end-of-line comments.
Multiline comments span multiple lines of code. They start with /* and end with
*/. Here’s an example:
class MyClass {
/*
comments that span multiple
lines of code
*/
}
Multiline comments start
with /* and end with */.
Multiline comments can contain special characters. Here’s an example:
class MyClass {
/*
Multi-line comments with
special characters &%^*{}|\|:;"'
?/>.<,!@#$%^&*()
*/
}
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In the preceding code, the comments don’t start with an asterisk on every line. But most
of the time when you see a multiline comment in a Java source code file (.java file),
you’ll notice that it uses an asterisk (*) to start the comment in the next line. Please note
that this isn’t required—it’s done more for aesthetic reasons. Here’s an example:
class MyClass {
/*
* comments that span multiple
* lines of code
*/
}
Multiline comments that start with * on a
new line—don’t they look well organized?
The usage of * isn’t mandatory; it’s done
for aesthetic reasons.
End-of-line comments start with // and, as evident by their name, they’re placed at
the end of a line of code or on a blank line. The text between // and the end of the
line is treated as a comment, which you’d normally use to briefly describe the line of
code. Here’s an example:
Brief comment to describe variable fName
class Person {
String fName;
String id;
}
// variable to store Person's first name
// a 6 letter id generated by the database
Brief comment to describe variable id
Though usage of multiline comments in the following code is uncommon, the exam
expects you to know that the code is valid:
String name = /* Harry */ "Paul";
System.out.println(name);
Outputs Paul
Here’s what happens if you include multiline comments within quotes while assigning
a string value:
String name = "/* Harry */ Paul";
System.out.println(name);
Outputs /*
Harry */ Paul
When included within double quotes, multiline comments are treated as regular characters and not as comments. So the following code won’t compile because the value
assigned to variable name is an unclosed string literal value:
String name = "Shre /* ya
*/ Paul";
System.out.println(name);
Won’t
compile
In the earlier section on the package statement, you read that a package statement, if
present, should be the first line of code in a class. The only exception to this rule is
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The structures of a Java class and a source code file
the presence of comments. A comment can precede a package statement. The following code defines a package statement, with multiline and end-of-line comments:
/**
* @author MGupta
// first name initial + last name
End-of-line
* @version 0.1
comment within a
*
multiline comment
* Class to store the details of a monument
*/
package uni;
// package uni
End-of-line comment
class Monument {
int startYear;
String builtBy;
// individual/ architect
End-of-line comment
}
// another comment
b
c
d
e
End-of-line comment at
the beginning of a line
Line B defines an end-of-line code comment within multiline code. This is acceptable. The end-of-line code comment is treated as part of the multiline comment, not
as a separate end-of-line comment. Lines c and d define end-of-line code comments. Line e defines an end-of-line code comment at the start of a line, after the
class definition.
The multiline comment is placed before the package statement, which is acceptable because comments can appear anywhere in your code.
Javadoc comments
Javadoc comments are special comments that start with /** and end with */ in a
Java source file. These comments are processed by Javadoc, a JDK tool, to generate
API documentation for your Java source code files. To see it in action, compare the
API documentation of the class String and its source code file (String.java).
CLASS DECLARATION
The class declaration marks the start of a class. It can be as simple as the keyword
class followed by the name of a class:
class Person {
//..
//..
}
Simplest class declaration: keyword
class followed by the class name
A class can define a lot of things here, but we don’t
need these details to show the class declaration.
The declaration of a class is composed of the following parts:
■
■
■
Access modifiers
Nonaccess modifiers
Class name
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■
■
■
Java basics
Name of the base class, if the class is extending another class
All implemented interfaces, if the class is implementing any interfaces
Class body (class fields, methods, constructors), included within a pair of curly
braces, {}
Don’t worry if you don’t understand this material at this point. We’ll go through these
details as we move through the exam preparation.
Let’s look at the components of a class declaration using an example:
public final class Runner extends Person implements Athlete {}
The components of the preceding class declaration can be illustrated as shown in figure 1.5.
Class declaration components
public
Access
modifier
Optional
final
Nonaccess
modifier
Optional
class
Runner
Keyword
class
Name of
class
Compulsory
Compulsory
extends
Person
implements
Keyword
implements
Keyword
extends
Optional
Base
class
name
Optional
Athlete
{}
Name of
implemented
interface
Curly
braces
Optional
Optional
Compulsory
Figure 1.5 Components of a class declaration
Table 1.1 summarizes the compulsory and optional components.
Table 1.1 Components of a class declaration
Mandatory
Optional
Keyword class
Access modifier, such as public
Name of the class
Nonaccess modifier, such as final
Class body, marked by the opening and closing
curly braces, {}
Keyword extends together with the name of the
base class
Keyword implements together with the names of
the interfaces being implemented
We’ll discuss the access and nonaccess modifiers in detail in sections 1.4 and 1.5 in
this chapter.
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CLASS DEFINITION
A class is a design used to specify the attributes and behavior of an object. The attributes of an object are implemented using variables, and the behavior is implemented
using methods. For example, consider a class as being like the design or specification of
a mobile phone, and a mobile phone as being an object of that design. The same
design can be used to create multiple mobile phones, just as the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM) uses a class to create its objects. You can also consider a class as being like a
mold that you can use to create meaningful and useful objects. A class is a design from
which an object can be created.
Let’s define a simple class to represent a mobile phone:
class Phone {
String model;
String company;
Phone(String model) {
this.model = model;
}
double weight;
void makeCall(String number) {
// code
}
void receiveCall() {
// code
}
}
Points to remember:
■
■
■
■
■
A class name starts with the keyword class. Watch out for the case of the keyword class. Java is cAsE-sEnSiTivE. class (lowercase c) isn’t the same as Class
(uppercase C). You can’t use the word Class (uppercase C) to define a class.
The state of a class is defined using attributes or instance variables.
It isn’t compulsory to define all attributes of a class before defining its methods
(the variable weight is defined after Phone’s constructor). But this is far from
being optimal for readability.
The behavior is defined using methods, which may include method parameters.
A class definition may also include comments and constructors.
NOTE
A class is a design from which an object can be created.
VARIABLES
Revisit the definition of the class Phone in the previous example. Because the variables
model, company, and weight are used to store the state of an object (also called an
instance), they’re called instance variables or instance attributes. Each object has its own
copy of the instance variables. If you change the value of an instance variable for an
object, the value for the same named instance variable won’t change for another object.
The instance variables are defined within a class but outside all methods in a class.
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A single copy of a class variable or static variable is shared by all the objects of a
class. The static variables are covered in section 1.5.3 with a detailed discussion of
the nonaccess modifier static.
METHODS
Again, revisit the previous example. The methods makeCall and receiveCall are
instance methods, which are generally used to manipulate the instance variables.
A class method or static method can be used to manipulate the static variables, as discussed in detail in section 1.5.3.
CONSTRUCTORS
Class Phone in the previous example defines a single constructor. A class constructor is
used to create and initialize the objects of a class. A class can define multiple constructors that accept different sets of method parameters.
1.1.2
Structure and components of a Java source code file
A Java source code file is used to define Java entities such as a class, interface, enum,
and annotation.
Java annotations are not on the exam and so won’t be discussed in
this book.
NOTE
All your Java code should be defined in Java source code files (text files whose names
end with .java). The exam covers the following aspects of the structure of a Java source
code file:
■
■
■
Definition of a class and an interface in a Java source code file
Definition of single or multiple classes and interfaces within the same Java
source code file
Application of import and package statements to all the classes in a Java source
code file
We’ve already covered the detailed structure and definition of classes in section 1.1.1.
Let’s get started with the definition of an interface.
DEFINITION OF AN INTERFACE IN A JAVA SOURCE CODE FILE
An interface specifies a contract for the classes to implement. You can compare implementing an interface to signing a contract. An interface is a grouping of related methods and constants. Prior to Java 8, interface methods were implicitly abstract. But
starting with Java version 8, the methods in an interface can define a default implementation. With Java 8, interfaces can also define static methods.
Here’s a quick example to help you understand the essence of interfaces. No matter which brand of television each of us has, every television provides the common
functionality of changing the channel and adjusting the volume. You can compare the
controls of a television set to an interface and the design of a television set to a class
that implements the interface controls.
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Let’s define this interface:
interface Controls {
void changeChannel(int channelNumber);
void increaseVolume();
void decreaseVolume();
}
The definition of an interface starts with the keyword interface. Remember, Java is
case-sensitive, so you can’t use the word Interface (with a capital I) to define an interface. This section provides a brief overview of interfaces. You’ll work with interfaces in
detail in chapter 6.
DEFINITION OF SINGLE AND MULTIPLE CLASSES IN A SINGLE JAVA SOURCE CODE FILE
You can define either a single class or an interface in a Java source code file or multiple such entities. Let’s start with a simple example: a Java source code file called
SingleClass.java that defines a single class SingleClass:
class SingleClass {
//.. we are not detailing this part
}
Contents of Java source
code file SingleClass.java
Here’s an example of a Java source code file, Multiple1.java, that defines multiple
interfaces:
interface Printable {
//.. we are not detailing this part
}
interface Movable {
//.. we are not detailing this part
}
Contents of Java source
code file Multiple1.java
You can also define a combination of classes and interfaces in the same Java source
code file. Here’s an example:
interface Printable
//.. we are not
}
class MyClass {
//.. we are not
}
interface Movable {
//.. we are not
}
class Car {
//.. we are not
}
{
detailing this part
detailing this part
detailing this part
detailing this part
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No particular order is required to define multiple classes or interfaces in a single Java
source code file.
The classes and interfaces can be defined in any order of occurrence in a Java source code file.
EXAM TIP
When you define a public class or an interface in a Java source file, the names of the
class or interface and Java source file must match. Also, a source code file can’t define
more than one public class or interface. If you try to do so, your code won’t compile,
which leads to a small hands-on exercise for you that I call Twist in the Tale, as mentioned in the preface. The answers to all these exercises are provided in the appendix.
About the Twist in the Tale exercises
For these exercises, I’ve tried to use modified code from the examples already covered in the chapter. The Twist in the Tale title refers to modified or tweaked code.
These exercises will help you understand how even small code modifications can
change the behavior of your code. They should also encourage you to carefully examine all the code in the exam. The reason for these exercises is that in the exam, you
may be asked more than one question that seems to require the same answer. But
on closer inspection, you’ll realize that the questions differ slightly, and this will
change the behavior of the code and the correct answer option!
Twist in the Tale 1.1
Modify the contents of the Java source code file Multiple.java, and define a public
interface in it. Execute the code and see how this modification affects your code.
Question: Examine the following content of Java source code file Multiple.java and
select the correct options:
// Contents of Multiple.java
public interface Printable {
//.. we are not detailing this part
}
interface Movable {
//.. we are not detailing this part
}
Options:
a
b
c
d
A Java source code file can’t define multiple interfaces.
A Java source code file can only define multiple classes.
A Java source code file can define multiple interfaces and classes.
The previous class will fail to compile.
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If you need help getting your system set up to write Java, refer to Oracle’s “Getting
Started” tutorial, http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/getStarted/.
Twist in the Tale 1.2
Question: Examine the content of the following Java source code file, Multiple2.java,
and select the correct option(s):
// contents of Multiple2.java
interface Printable {
//.. we are not detailing
}
class MyClass {
//.. we are not detailing
}
interface Movable {
//.. we are not detailing
}
public class Car {
//.. we are not detailing
}
public interface Multiple2 {}
this part
this part
this part
this part
Options:
a
b
c
d
e
The code fails to compile.
The code compiles successfully.
Removing the definition of class Car will compile the code.
Changing class Car to a nonpublic class will compile the code.
Changing interface Multiple2 to a nonpublic interface will compile the code.
APPLICATION OF PACKAGE AND IMPORT STATEMENTS IN JAVA SOURCE CODE FILES
In the previous section, I mentioned that you can define multiple classes and interfaces in the same Java source code file. When you use a package or import statement
within such Java files, both the package and import statements apply to all the classes
and interfaces defined in that source code file.
For example, if you include a package and an import statement in Java source
code file Multiple.java (as in the following code), Car, Movable, and Printable will be
become part of the same package com.manning.code:
// contents of Multiple.java
package com.manning.code;
import com.manning.*;
interface Printable {}
interface Movable {}
class Car {}
Printable, Movable, and Car are
part of package com.manning.code.
All classes and interfaces defined in
package com.manning are accessible
to Printable, Movable, and Car.
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Classes and interfaces defined in the same Java source code file
can’t be defined in separate packages. Classes and interfaces imported using
the import statement are available to all the classes and interfaces defined in
the same Java source code file.
EXAM TIP
In the next section, you’ll create executable Java applications—classes that are used to
define an entry point of execution for a Java application.
1.2
Executable Java applications
[1.3] Create executable Java applications with a main method; run a Java
program from the command line; including console output.
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam requires that you understand the meaning of
an executable Java application and its requirements, that is, what makes a regular Java
class an executable Java class. You also need to know how to execute a Java program
from the command line.
1.2.1
Executable Java classes versus non-executable Java classes
Doesn’t the Java Virtual Machine execute all the Java classes when they are used? If so,
what is a non-executable Java class?
An executable Java class, when handed over to the JVM, starts its execution at a
particular point in the class—the main method. The JVM starts executing the code
that’s defined in the main method. You can’t hand over a non-executable Java class
(class without a main method) to the JVM and ask it to execute it. In this case, the JVM
won’t know which method to execute because no entry point is marked.
Typically, an application consists of a number of classes and interfaces that are
defined in multiple Java source code files. Of all these files, a programmer designates
one of the classes as an executable class. The programmer can define the steps that
the JVM should execute as soon as it launches the application. For example, a programmer can define an executable Java class that includes code to display the appropriate GUI window to a user and to open a database connection.
In figure 1.6, the classes Window, UserData, ServerConnection, and UserPreferences don’t define a main method. Class LaunchApplication defines a main method
and is an executable class.
A Java application can define more than one executable class. We
choose one (and exactly one) when the time comes to start its execution by
the JVM.
NOTE
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Executable Java applications
The main method
Window
d makes a Java class
ServerConnection
executable.
b
Classes in an
application.
UserData
UserPreferences
public static void main(String args[]){
displayGUI();
openDatabaseConnection();
}
LaunchApplication
c Executable Java class.
Figure 1.6 Class LaunchApplication is an executable Java class, but the rest of the classes—
Window, UserData, ServerConnection, and UserPreferences—aren’t.
1.2.2
The main method
The first requirement in creating an executable Java application is to create a class
with a method whose signature (name and method arguments) matches the main
method, defined as follows:
public class HelloExam {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Hello exam");
}
}
This main method should comply with the following rules:
■
■
■
■
■
The method must be marked as a public method.
The method must be marked as a static method.
The name of the method must be main.
The return type of this method must be void.
The method must accept a method argument of a String array or a variable
argument (varargs) of type String.
Figure 1.7 illustrates the previous code and its related set of rules.
The method should not
return a value; its return
type must be void.
The
access
modifier
must be
public.
The name of the method
must be main.
The method must accept an
array or varargs of type
String. The name of the
public class HelloExam {
method parameter
can be any valid
public static void main(String args[]) {
identifier name.
System.out.println("Hello exam");
}
}
The nonaccess modifier
must be static.
Figure 1.7 Ingredients of a correct main method
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It’s valid to define the method parameter passed to the main method as a variable
argument (varargs) of type String:
It’s valid to define args as
a variable argument.
public static void main(String... args)
To define a variable argument variable, the ellipsis (...) must follow the type of the
variable and not the variable itself (a mistake made by a lot of new programmers):
This won’t compile. Ellipsis must
follow the data type, String.
public static void main(String args...)
As mentioned previously, the name of the String array passed to the main method
need not be args to qualify it as the correct main method. The following examples are
also correct definitions of the main method:
The names of the method
arguments are arguments and
HelloWorld, which is acceptable.
public static void main(String[] arguments)
public static void main(String[] HelloWorld)
To define an array, the square brackets [] can follow either the variable name or its
type. The following is a correct method declaration of the main method:
public static void main(String[] args)
public static void main(String minnieMouse[])
The square brackets [] can follow
either the variable name or its type.
It’s interesting to note that the placement of the keywords public and static can be
interchanged, which means that the following are both correct method declarations
of the main method:
public static void main(String[] args)
static public void main(String[] args)
The placements of the keywords
public and static are interchangeable.
Though both public static and static public are the valid order of
keywords to declare the main method, public static is more common and
thus more readable.
NOTE
On execution, the code shown in figure 1.7 outputs the following:
Hello exam
If a class defines a main method that doesn’t match the signature of the main method,
it’s referred to as an overloaded method (overloaded methods are discussed in detail
in chapter 3). Overloaded methods are methods with the same name but different
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Executable Java applications
signatures. For a quick example, class HelloExam can define multiple methods with
the method name main:
public class HelloExam {
public static void main(String args) {
System.out.println("Hello exam 2");
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Hello exam");
}
public static void main(int number) {
System.out.println("Hello exam 3");
}
}
JVM will
execute this
main method.
On execution, JVM will execute the main method, resulting in the output Hello exam.
1.2.3
Run a Java program from the command line
Almost all Java developers work with an Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
This exam, however, expects you to understand how to execute a Java application, or
an executable Java class, using the command prompt. For this reason, I suggest you
work with a simple text editor and command line (even if this might never be the
approach you use in the real world).
If you need help getting your system set up to compile or execute Java
applications using the command prompt, refer to Oracle’s detailed instructions
at http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/getStarted/cupojava/index.html.
NOTE
Let’s revisit the code shown in figure 1.7:
public class HelloExam {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Hello exam");
}
}
To execute the preceding code using a command prompt, issue the command java
HelloExam, as shown in figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8 Using the command prompt to execute a Java application
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I mentioned that the main method accepts an array of String as the method parameter. But how and where do you pass the array to the main method? Let’s modify the
previous code to access and output values from this array:
public class HelloExamWithParameters {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(args[0]);
System.out.println(args[1]);
}
}
Now let’s execute the preceding code using the command prompt, as shown in figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9 Passing command parameters to a main method
As you can see from the output shown in figure 1.9, the keyword java and the name
of the class aren’t passed as command parameters to the main method. The OCA Java
SE 8 Programmer I exam will test you on your knowledge of whether the keyword
java and the class name are passed on to the main method.
The method parameters that are passed to the main method are
also called command-line parameters or command-line values. As the name
implies, these values are passed to a method from the command line.
EXAM TIP
If you weren’t able to follow the code with respect to the arrays and the class String,
don’t worry; we’ll cover the class String and arrays in detail in chapter 4.
Here’s the next Twist in the Tale exercise for you. In this exercise, and in the rest
of the book, you’ll see the names Shreya, Harry, Paul, and Selvan, who are hypothetical programmers also studying for this certification exam. The answer is provided in
the appendix, as usual.
Twist in the Tale 1.3
One of the programmers, Harry, executed a program that gave the output java one.
Now he’s trying to figure out which of the following classes outputs these results.
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Given that he executed the class using the command java EJava java one one, can
you help him figure out the correct option(s)?
a
class EJava {
public static void main(String sun[]) {
System.out.println(sun[0] + " " + sun[2]);
}
}
b
class EJava {
static public void main(String phone[]) {
System.out.println(phone[0] + " " + phone[1]);
}
}
c
class EJava {
static public void main(String[] arguments[]) {
System.out.println(arguments[0] + " " + arguments[1]);
}
}
d
class EJava {
static void public main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(args[0] + " " + args[1]);
}
}
Confusion with command-line parameters
If you’ve programmed in languages like C, you might get confused by the commandline parameters. Programming languages like C pass the name of a program as a
command-line argument to the main method. But Java doesn’t pass the name of the
class as an argument to the main method.
1.3
Java packages
[1.4] Import other Java packages to make them accessible in your code
This exam covers importing packages into other classes. But with more than a decade
and a half of experience, I’ve learned that before starting to import other packages
into your own code, it’s important to understand what packages are, the difference
between classes that are defined in a package and the classes that aren’t defined in a
package, and why you need to import packages in your code.
In this section, you’ll learn what Java packages are and how to create them. You’ll
use the import statement, which enables you to use simple names for classes and interfaces defined in separate packages.
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1.3.1
CHAPTER 1
Java basics
The need for packages
Why do you think we need packages? First, answer this question: do you remember having known more than one Amit, Paul, Anu, or John in your life? Harry knows more than
one Paul (six, to be precise), whom he categorizes as managers, friends, and cousins.
These are subcategorized by their location and relation, as shown in figure 1.10.
Paul
Paul
Manager,
Germany
Manager,
USA
Paul
Friend,
school
Harry
Paul
Paul
Paul
Cousin,
maternal
Cousin,
paternal
Friend,
college
Figure 1.10 Harry
knows six Pauls!
Similarly, you can use a package to group together a related set of classes and interfaces (I won’t discuss enums here because they aren’t covered on this exam). Packages
also provide access protection and namespace management. You can create separate
packages to define classes for separate projects, such as Android games and online
healthcare systems. Further, you can create subpackages within these packages, such
as separate subpackages for GUIs, database access, networking, and so on.
In real-life projects, you’ll rarely work with a package-less class or interface. Almost all organizations that develop software have strict packagenaming rules, which are often documented.
NOTE
All classes and interfaces are defined in a package. If you don’t include an explicit
package statement in a class or an interface, it’s part of a default package.
1.3.2
Defining classes in a package using the package statement
You can indicate that a class or an interface is defined in a package by using the
package statement as the first statement in code. Here’s an example:
package certification;
class ExamQuestion {
//..code
}
Variables and
methods
The class in the preceding code defines an ExamQuestion class in the certification
package. You can define an interface, MultipleChoice, in a similar manner:
package certification;
interface MultipleChoice {
void choice1();
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Java packages
void choice2();
}
Figure 1.11 shows a UML class diagram depicting the relationship of the package
certification to the class ExamQuestion and the interface MultipleChoice.
certification
ExamQuestion
MultipleChoice
Figure 1.11 A UML class diagram showing the
relationship shared by package certification, class
ExamQuestion, and interface MultipleChoice
The name of the package in the previous examples is certification. You may use
such names for small projects that contain only a few classes and interfaces, but it’s
common for organizations to use subpackages to define all their classes. For example, if the folks at Oracle were to define a class to store exam questions for a Java
Associate exam, they might use the package name com.oracle.javacert.associate.
Figure 1.12 shows its UML representation, together with the corresponding class
definition.
package com.oracle.javacert.associate;
class ExamQuestion {
// variables and methods
}
Figure 1.12
com.oracle.javacert.associate
ExamQuestion
A subpackage and its corresponding class definition
A package is made of multiple sections that go from the more-generic (left) to the
more-specific (right). The package name com.oracle.javacert.associate follows a
package-naming convention recommended by Oracle and shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Package-naming conventions used in the package name com.oracle.javacert.associate
Package or subpackage name
Its meaning
com
Commercial. A couple of the commonly used three-letter package
abbreviations are
■ gov—for government bodies
■ edu—for educational institutions
oracle
Name of the organization
javacert
Further categorization of the project at Oracle
associate
Further subcategorization of Java certification
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RULES TO REMEMBER
Here are a few of important rules about packages:
■
■
■
■
■
■
Per Java naming conventions, package names should all be in lowercase.
The package and subpackage names are separated using a dot (.).
Package names follow the rules defined for valid identifiers in Java.
For classes and interfaces defined in a package, the package statement is the
first statement in a Java source file (a .java file). The exception is that comments
can appear before or after a package statement.
There can be a maximum of one package statement per Java source code file
(.java file).
All the classes and interfaces defined in a Java source code file are defined in
the same package. They can’t be defined in separate packages.
A fully qualified name for a class or interface is formed by prefixing its
package name with its name (separated by a dot). The fully qualified name of
the class ExamQuestion is certification.ExamQuestion in figure 1.11 and
com.oracle.javacert.associate.ExamQuestion in figure 1.12.
NOTE
DIRECTORY STRUCTURE AND PACKAGE HIERARCHY
The hierarchy of classes and interfaces defined in packages must match the hierarchy
of the directories in which these classes and interfaces are defined in the code. For
example, the class ExamQuestion in the certification package should be defined in
a directory with the name “certification.” The name of the directory “certification”
and its location are governed by the rules shown in figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13
Matching directory structure and package hierarchy
For the package example shown in figure 1.13, note that there isn’t any constraint on
the location of the base directory in which the directory structure is defined, as shown
in figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14 There’s no constraint on the location of the base directory to
define directories corresponding to package hierarchy.
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SETTING THE CLASSPATH FOR PACKAGED CLASSES
To enable the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) to find your classes, add the base
directory that contains your packaged Java code to the classpath.
For example, to enable the JRE to locate the certification.ExamQuestion class
from the previous examples, add the directory C:\MyCode to the classpath. To enable
the JRE to locate the class com.oracle.javacert.associate.ExamQuestion, add the
directory C:\ProjectCode to the classpath.
You needn’t bother setting the classpath if you’re working with an
IDE. But I strongly encourage you to learn how to work with a simple text editor and how to set a classpath. This can be helpful with your projects at work.
The exam expects you to spot code with compilation errors, which isn’t easy
to do if you didn’t learn how to do it without an IDE (IDEs usually include
code autocorrection or autocompletion features).
NOTE
1.3.3
Using simple names with import statements
The import statement enables you to use simple names instead of using fully qualified
names for classes and interfaces defined in separate packages.
Let’s work with a real-life example. Imagine your home and your office. LivingRoom and Kitchen within your home can refer to each other without mentioning that
they exist within the same home. Similarly, in an office, a Cubicle and a ConferenceHall can reference each other without explicitly mentioning that they exist within the
same office. But Home and Office can’t access each other’s rooms or cubicles without
stating that they exist in a separate home or office. This situation is represented in figure 1.15.
LivingRoom
and Kitchen
can access
each other
without
specifying that
they are part of
the same Home.
Home
Office
LivingRoom
Cubicle
Kitchen
ConferenceHall
Cubicle and
ConferenceHall
can use each
other without
specifying that
they are part of
the same Office.
To access each other’s
members, Home and Office
should specify that they exist in
a separate Home or Office.
Figure 1.15 To refer to each other’s members, Home and Office should specify that they exist in
separate places.
To refer to the LivingRoom in Cubicle, you must specify its complete location, as
shown in the left part of the figure 1.16. As you can see in this figure, repeated references to the location of LivingRoom make the description of LivingRoom look
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tedious and redundant. To avoid this, you can display a notice in Cubicle that all
occurrences of LivingRoom refer to LivingRoom in Home and thereafter use its simple name. Home and Office are like Java packages, and this notice is the equivalent of
the import statement. Figure 1.16 shows the difference in using fully qualified names
and simple names for LivingRoom in Cubicle.
No import = use fully qualified names
Office
Home
LivingRoom
Import = use simple names
Kitchen
Cubicle
LivingRoom in Home is small
LivingRoom in Home is blue
ConferenceHall
Home
LivingRoom
Office
Kitchen
Import LivingRoom
in Cubicle.
Cubicle
LivingRoom is small
LivingRoom is blue
ConferenceHall
LivingRoom is still in
Home. It is not
embedded in
Cubicle.
Figure 1.16 LivingRoom can be accessed in Cubicle by using its fully qualified name. It can also
be accessed using its simple name if you also use the import statement.
Let’s implement the preceding example in code, where classes LivingRoom and
Kitchen are defined in the package home and classes Cubicle and ConferenceHall
are defined in the package office. Class Cubicle uses (is associated to) class LivingRoom in the package home, as shown in figure 1.17.
home
office
LivingRoom
Cubicle
Kitchen
ConferenceHall
Figure 1.17 A UML representation of
classes LivingRoom and Cubicle, defined
in separate packages, with their associations
Class Cubicle can refer to class LivingRoom without using an import statement:
package office;
class Cubicle {
home.LivingRoom livingRoom;
}
In the absence of an import
statement, use the fully qualified
name to access class LivingRoom.
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Java packages
Class Cubicle can use the simple name for class LivingRoom by using the import
statement:
import
statement
package office;
import home.LivingRoom;
class Cubicle {
LivingRoom livingRoom;
}
No need to use the fully qualified
name of class LivingRoom
NOTE The import statement doesn’t embed the contents of the imported
class in your class, which means that importing more classes doesn’t increase
the size of your own class.
1.3.4
Using packaged classes without using the import statement
It’s possible to use a packaged class or interface without using the import statement,
by using its fully qualified name:
Missing import
statement
class AnnualExam {
certification.ExamQuestion eq;
}
Define a variable of ExamQuestion
by using its fully qualified name.
But using a fully qualified class name can clutter your code if you create multiple variables of interfaces and classes defined in other packages. Don’t use this approach in
real projects.
You don’t need an explicit import statement to use members from
the java.lang package. Classes and interfaces in this package are automatically imported in all other Java classes, interfaces, or enums.
EXAM TIP
For the exam, it’s important to note that you can’t use the import statement to access
multiple classes or interfaces with the same names from different packages. For example, the Java API defines class Date in two commonly used packages: java.util and
java.sql. To define variables of these classes in a class, use their fully qualified names
with the variable declaration:
import statement
not required
class AnnualExam {
java.util.Date date1;
java.sql.Date date2;
}
Variable of type java.util.Date
Variable of type
java.sql.Date
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An attempt to use an import statement to import both these classes in the same class
will not compile:
import java.util.Date;
import java.sql.Date;
class AnnualExam { }
Code to import classes with the same name
from different packages won’t compile.
An alternate approach (which works well in real projects) is to use the import definition with the class or interface that you use more often and fully reference the one
that you use just from time to time:
import java.util.Date;
class AnnualExam {
Date date1;
java.sql.Date date2;
}
1.3.5
import class you
use often
Use simple class name for java.util.Date
Use fully qualified
name for java.sql.Date
Importing a single member versus all members of a package
You can import either a single member or all members (classes and interfaces) of a package using the import statement. First, revisit the UML notation of the certification
package, as shown in figure 1.18.
certification
ExamQuestion
MultipleChoice
Figure 1.18 A UML representation of
the certification package
Examine the following code for the class AnnualExam:
import certification.ExamQuestion;
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion eq;
MultipleChoice mc;
}
Imports only the
class ExamQuestion
Compiles OK
Will not compile
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Java packages
By using the wildcard character, an asterisk (*), you can import all the public members, classes, and interfaces of a package. Compare the previous class definition with
the following definition of the class AnnualExam:
Imports all classes and
interfaces from certification
import certification.*;
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion eq;
MultipleChoice mc;
}
Compiles OK
Also compiles OK
When overused, using an asterisk to import all members of a package
has a drawback. It may be harder to figure out which imported class or interface comes from which package.
NOTE
When you work with an IDE, it may automatically add import statements for classes
and interfaces that you reference in your code.
1.3.6
The import statement doesn’t import the whole package tree
You can’t import classes from a subpackage by using an asterisk in the import statement. For example, the UML notation in figure 1.19 depicts the package com.oracle
.javacert with the class Schedule and two subpackages, associate and webdeveloper.
Package associate contains class ExamQuestion, and package webdeveloper contains
class MarkSheet.
com.oracle.javacert
Schedule
associate
ExamQuestion
webdeveloper
MarkSheet
Figure 1.19 A UML representation of
package com.oracle.javacert and
its subpackages
The following import statement will import only the class Schedule. It won’t import
the classes ExamQuestion and MarkSheet:
import com.oracle.javacert.*;
Imports the class
Schedule only
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Similarly, the following import statement will import all the classes from the packages
associate and webdeveloper:
Imports class
ExamQuestion only
import com.oracle.javacert.associate.*;
import com.oracle.javacert.webdeveloper.*;
1.3.7
Imports class
MarkSheet only
Importing classes from the default package
What happens if you don’t include a package statement in your classes or interfaces?
In that case, they become part of a default, no-name package. This default package is
automatically imported in the Java classes and interfaces defined within the same
directory on your system.
For example, the classes Person and Office, which aren’t defined in an explicit
package, can use each other if they’re defined in the same directory:
class Person {
// code
}
class Office {
Person p;
}
Not defined in an
explicit package
Class Person accessible
in class Office
A class from a default package can’t be used in any named packaged class, regardless
of whether they’re defined within the same directory or not.
Members of a named package can’t access classes and interfaces
defined in the default package.
EXAM TIP
1.3.8
Static imports
You can import an individual static member of a class or all its static members by
using the import static statement. Although accessible using an instance, the static
members are better accessed by prefixing their name with the class or interface
names. By using static import, you can drop the prefix and just use the name of the
static variable or method. In the following code, class ExamQuestion defines a public static variable marks and a public static method print:
package certification;
public class ExamQuestion {
static public int marks;
public static void print() {
System.out.println(100);
}
}
public static
variable marks
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Java access modifiers
The marks variable can be accessed in the class AnnualExam using the import static
statement. The order of the keywords import and static can’t be reversed:
package university;
import static certification.ExamQuestion.marks;
class AnnualExam {
AnnualExam() {
marks = 20;
Access variable marks
}
without prefixing it
}
with its class name
EXAM TIP
Correct statement
is import static, not
static import
This feature is called static imports, but the syntax is import static.
To access all public and static members of class ExamQuestion in class AnnualExam
without importing each of them individually, you can use an asterisk with the import
static statement:
package university;
Imports all static
import static certification.ExamQuestion.*;
members of class
class AnnualExam {
ExamQuestion
AnnualExam() {
marks = 20;
Accesses variable marks and method print
print();
without prefixing them with their class names
}
}
Because the variable marks and method print are defined as public members,
they’re accessible to the class AnnualExam. By using the import static statement, you
don’t have to prefix them with their class name.
On real projects, avoid overusing static imports; otherwise, the code
might become a bit confusing about which imported component comes from
which class.
NOTE
The accessibility of a class, an interface, and their methods and variables is determined by their access modifiers, which are covered in the next section.
1.4
Java access modifiers
[6.4] Apply access modifiers
In this section, we’ll cover all the access modifiers—public, protected, and private—
as well as default access, which is the result when you don’t use an access modifier. We’ll
also look at how you can use access modifiers to restrict the accessibility of a class and
its members in the same and separate packages.
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1.4.1
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Access modifiers
Let’s start with an example. Examine the definitions of the classes House and Book in
the following code and the UML representation shown in figure 1.20.
building
Access not
allowed
library
House
Book
Figure 1.20 The nonpublic class
Book can’t be accessed outside the
package library.
package building;
class House {}
package library;
class Book {}
With the current class definitions, the class House can’t access the class Book. Can you
make the necessary changes (in terms of the access modifiers) to make the class Book
accessible to the class House?
This one shouldn’t be difficult. From the discussion of class declarations in section 1.1, you know that a top-level class can be defined only by using the public or
default access modifiers. If you declare the class Book using the access modifier public,
it’ll be accessible outside the package in which it is defined.
A top-level class is a class that isn’t defined within any other class. A
class that is defined within another class is called a nested or inner class. Nested
and inner classes aren’t on the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam.
NOTE
WHAT DO THEY CONTROL?
Access modifiers control the accessibility of a class or an interface, including its members (methods and variables), by other classes and interfaces within the same or separate packages. By using the appropriate access modifiers, you can limit access to your
class or interface and their members.
CAN ACCESS MODIFIERS BE APPLIED TO ALL TYPES OF JAVA ENTITIES?
Access modifiers can be applied to classes, interfaces, and their members (instance and
class variables and methods). Local variables and method parameters can’t be defined
using access modifiers. An attempt to do so will prevent the code from compiling.
HOW MANY ACCESS MODIFIERS ARE THERE: THREE OR FOUR?
Programmers are frequently confused about the number of access modifiers in Java
because the default access isn’t defined using an explicit keyword. If a Java class, interface, method, or variable isn’t defined using an explicit access modifier, it is said to be
defined using the default access, also called package access.
Java has four access levels:
■
■
public (least restrictive)
protected
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Java access modifiers
■
default
■
private (most restrictive)
53
To understand all of these access levels, we’ll use the same set of classes: Book, CourseBook,
Librarian, StoryBook, and House. Figure 1.21 depicts these classes using UML notation.
library
building
«extends»
Book
Librarian
StoryBook
House
«extends»
CourseBook
Figure 1.21 A set of classes and their relationships to help you
understand access modifiers
Classes Book, CourseBook, and Librarian are defined in the package library. The
classes StoryBook and House are defined in the package building. Further, classes
StoryBook and CourseBook (defined in separate packages) extend class Book. Using
these classes, I’ll show how the accessibility of a class and its members varies with different access modifiers, from unrelated to derived classes, across packages.
As I cover each of the access modifiers, I’ll add a set of instance variables and a
method to the class Book with the relevant access modifier. I’ll then define code in
other classes to access class Book and its members.
1.4.2
Public access modifier
This is the least restrictive access modifier. Classes and interfaces defined using the public access modifier are accessible across all packages, from derived to unrelated classes.
To understand the public access modifier, let’s define the class Book as a public
class and add a public instance variable (isbn) and a public method (printBook) to
it. Figure 1.22 shows the UML notation.
library
building
Book
+isbn:String
+printBook()
«extends»
StoryBook
House
Librarian
«extends»
CourseBook
Figure 1.22
Understanding the public access modifier
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Definition of class Book:
package library;
public class Book {
public String isbn;
public void printBook() {}
}
public class
Book
public variable isbn
public method
printBook
The public access modifier is said to be the least restrictive, so let’s try to access the
public class Book and its public members from class House. We’ll use class House
because House and Book are defined in separate packages and they’re unrelated.
NOTE The term unrelated classes in this chapter refers to classes that don’t
share inheritance relation. For instance, classes House and Book are unrelated, if neither House derives from Book nor Book derives from House.
Class House doesn’t enjoy any advantages by being defined in the same package or
being a derived class.
Here’s the code for class House:
package building;
import library.Book;
public class House {
House() {
Book book = new Book();
String value = book.isbn;
book.printBook();
}
}
Class Book is accessible
to class House.
Variable isbn is
accessible in House.
Method printBook is
accessible in House.
In the preceding example, class Book and its public members—instance variable isbn
and method printBook—are accessible to class House. They are also accessible to
the other classes: StoryBook, Librarian, House, and CourseBook. Figure 1.23 shows
the classes that can access a public class and its members.
Same package
Separate package
Derived classes
Unrelated classes
1.4.3
Figure 1.23 Classes that can access
a public class and its members
Protected access modifier
The members of a class defined using the protected access modifier are accessible to
■
■
Classes and interfaces defined in the same package
All derived classes, even if they’re defined in separate packages
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Let’s add a protected instance variable author and a method modifyTemplate to the
class Book. Figure 1.24 shows the class representation.
library
building
Book
#author:String
#modifyTemplate()
«extends»
Librarian
StoryBook
House
«extends»
CourseBook
Figure 1.24
Understanding the protected access modifier
Here’s the code for the class Book (I’ve deliberately left out its public members because
they aren’t required in this section):
package library;
public class Book {
protected String author;
protected void modifyTemplate() {}
}
Protected
variable author
Protected method
modifyTemplate
Figure 1.25 illustrates how classes from the same and separate packages, derived classes,
and unrelated classes access the class Book and its protected members.
Class House fails compilation for trying to access the method modifyTemplate and
the variable author. Following is the compilation error message:
House.java:8: modifyTemplate() has protected access in library.Book
book.modifyTemplate();
^
Java code fails compilation because of syntax errors. In such a case, the
Java compiler notifies the offending code with its line number and a short
description of the error. The preceding code is output from the compilation
process. This book uses the command prompt to compile all Java code.
NOTE
A derived class inherits the protected members of its base class, irrespective of the
packages in which they’re defined.
Notice that the derived classes CourseBook and StoryBook inherit class Book’s protected member variable author and method modifyTemplate(). If class StoryBook
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library
building
package library;
public class Book {
protected string author;
Can access
extends
protected void modifyTemplate(){}
Can access
}
extends
package library;
package building;
public class CourseBook extends Book {
import library.Book;
public class StoryBook extends Book{
public CourseBook(){
Cannot access
author="ABC";
modifyTemplate();
}
public StoryBook(){
author="ABC";
modifyTemplate();
}
}
}
package library;
package building;
public class Librarian {
import library.Book;
public Librarian(){
public class House{
Book book = new Book();
book.author = "ABC";
public House(){
Can access
Book book=new Book();
book.modifyTemplate();
book.author="ABC";
}
book.modifyTemplate();
}
}
}
Figure 1.25 Access of protected members of the class Book in unrelated and derived classes,
from the same and separate packages
tries to instantiate Book using a reference variable and then tries to access its protected variable author and method modifyTemplate(), it won’t compile:
package building;
import library.Book;
class StoryBook extends Book {
StoryBook() {
Book book = new Book();
String v = book.author;
book.modifyTemplate();
}
}
Classes Book and StoryBook
defined in separate packages
Protected members of class Book are not
accessible in derived class StoryBook, if
accessed using a new object of class Book.
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A concise but not too simple way of stating the previous rule is this:
A derived class can inherit and access protected members of its base class,
regardless of the package in which it’s defined. A derived class in a separate
package can’t access protected members of its base class using reference
variables.
EXAM TIP
Figure 1.26 shows the classes that can access protected members of a class or interface.
Same package
Separate package
Using
inheritance
Derived classes
Using
reference
variable
Figure 1.26 Classes that can
access protected members
Unrelated classes
1.4.4
Default access (package access)
The members of a class defined without using any explicit access modifier are defined
with package accessibility (also called default accessibility). The members with package
access are only accessible to classes and interfaces defined in the same package. The
default access is also referred to as package-private. Think of a package as your home,
classes as rooms, and things in rooms as variables with default access. These things
aren’t limited to one room—they can be accessed across all the rooms in your home.
But they’re still private to your home—you wouldn’t want them to be accessed outside
your home. Similarly, when you define a package, you might want to make members
of classes accessible to all the other classes across the same package.
Although the package-private access is as valid as the other access levels, in real projects it often appears as the result of inexperienced developers
forgetting to specify the access mode of Java components.
NOTE
Let’s define an instance variable issueCount and a method issueHistory with default
access in class Book. Figure 1.27 shows the class representation with these new members.
library
building
Book
~issueCount:int
~issueHistory()
«extends»
Librarian
StoryBook
House
«extends»
CourseBook
Figure 1.27
Understanding class representation for default access
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Here’s the code for the class Book (I’ve deliberately left out its public and protected
members because they aren’t required in this section):
package library;
public class Book {
int issueCount;
void issueHistory() {}
}
Public class Book
Variable issueCount
with default access
Method issueHistory
with default access
You can see how classes from the same package and separate packages, derived classes,
and unrelated classes access the class Book and its members (the variable issueCount
and the method issueHistory) in figure 1.28.
library
building
package library;
public class Book {
Can access
int issueCount;
Cannot access
extends
void issueHistory(){}
Can access
}
extends
package building;
package library;
import library.Book;
public class CourseBook extends Book {
public class StoryBook extends Book{
Cannot access
public CourseBook(){
int c = issueCount;
issueHistory();
}
}
public StoryBook(){
int c = issueCount;
issueHistory();
}
}
package library;
package building;
public class Librarian {
import library.Book;
public Librarian(){
public class House{
Book b = new Book();
public House(){
int c = b.issueCount;
Book b = new Book();
b.issueHistory();
int c = b.issueCount;
}
b.issueHistory();
}
}
}
Figure 1.28 Access of members with default access to the class Book in unrelated and derived
classes from the same and separate packages
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Because the classes CourseBook and Librarian are defined in the same package as
the class Book, they can access the variables issueCount and issueHistory. Because the
classes House and StoryBook don’t reside in the same package as the class Book, they
can’t access the variables issueCount and issueHistory. The class StoryBook throws
the following compilation error message:
StoryBook.java:6: issueHistory() is not public in library.Book; cannot be
accessed from outside package
book.issueHistory();
^
Class House is unaware of the existence of issueHistory()—it fails compilation with
the following error message:
House.java:9: cannot find symbol
symbol : method issueHistory()
location: class building.House
issueHistory();
DEFINING A CLASS BOOK WITH DEFAULT ACCESS
What happens if we define a class with default access? What will happen to the accessibility of its members if the class itself has default (package) accessibility?
Consider this situation: Assume that Superfast Burgers opens a new outlet on a
beautiful island and offers free meals to people from all over the world, which obviously includes inhabitants of the island. But the island is inaccessible by all means (air
and water). Would awareness of the existence of this particular Superfast Burgers outlet make any sense to people who don’t inhabit the island? An illustration of this
example is shown in figure 1.29.
Can be accessed only
by the inhabitants
of the island
Faraway island
inaccessible
by air/water
Figure 1.29 This Superfast Burgers can’t be accessed from outside the
island because the island is inaccessible by air and water.
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The island is like a package in Java, and Superfast Burgers is like a class defined with
default access. In the same way that Superfast Burgers can’t be accessed from outside
the island in which it exists, a class defined with default (package) access is visible and
accessible only from within the package in which it’s defined. It can’t be accessed from
outside the package in which it resides.
Let’s redefine the class Book with default (package) access, as follows:
package library;
class Book {
//.. class members
}
Class Book now
has default access.
The behavior of class Book remains the same for the classes CourseBook and Librarian,
which are defined in the same package. But class Book can’t be accessed by classes
House and StoryBook, which reside in a separate package.
Let’s start with the class House. Examine the following code:
package building;
import library.Book;
public class House {}
Class Book isn’t accessible
in class House.
Class House generates the following compilation error message:
House.java:2: library.Book is not public in library; cannot be accessed from
outside package
import library.Book;
Here’s the code of class StoryBook:
package building;
import library.Book;
class StoryBook extends Book {}
Book isn’t accessible
in StoryBook.
StoryBook can’t
extend Book.
Figure 1.30 shows which classes can access members of a class or interface with default
(package) access.
Same package
Separate package
Derived classes
Unrelated classes
Figure 1.30 The classes that
can access members with default
(package) access
Because a lot of programmers are confused about which members are made accessible by using the protected and default access modifiers, the exam tip offers a simple
and interesting rule to help you remember their differences.
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Java access modifiers
EXAM TIP Default access can be compared to package-private (accessible
only within a package), and protected access can be compared to packageprivate + kids (“kids” refer to derived classes). Kids can access protected
methods only by inheritance and not by reference (accessing members by
using the dot operator on an object).
1.4.5
private access modifier
The private access modifier is the most restrictive access modifier. The members of a
class defined using the private access modifier are accessible only to themselves. It
doesn’t matter whether the class or interface in question is from another package or
has extended the class—private members are not accessible outside the class in which
they’re defined. private members are accessible only to the classes and interfaces in
which they’re defined.
Let’s see this in action by adding a private method countPages to the class Book.
Figure 1.31 depicts the class representation using UML.
library
building
Book
~countPages()
#modifyTemplate()
«extends»
StoryBook
House
Librarian
«extends»
CourseBook
Figure 1.31
Understanding the private access modifier
Examine the following definition of the class Book:
package library;
class Book {
private void countPages() {}
protected void modifyTemplate() {
countPages();
}
}
private
method
Only Book can access its own
private method countPages.
None of the classes defined in any of the packages (whether derived or not) can
access the private method countPages. But let’s try to access it from the class
CourseBook. I chose CourseBook because both of these classes are defined in the same
package, and CourseBook extends the class Book. Here’s the code of CourseBook:
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package library;
class CourseBook extends Book {
CourseBook() {
countPages();
}
}
Java basics
CourseBook
extends Book.
CourseBook can’t access
private method countPages.
Because the class CourseBook tries to access private members of the class Book, it won’t
compile. Similarly, if any of the other classes (StoryBook, Librarian, House, or CourseBook) tries to access the private method countPages() of class Book, it won’t compile.
Here’s an interesting situation: do you think a Book instance can access its private
members using a reference variable? The following code won’t compile—even though
variable b1 is of type Book, it’s trying to access its private method countPages outside
Book:
class TestBook {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Book b1 = new Book();
b1.countPages();
Won’t compile
}
}
Figure 1.32 shows the classes that can access the private members of a class.
Same package
Separate package
Derived classes
Figure 1.32 No classes can access
private members of another class
Unrelated classes
For your real projects, it is possible to access private members of a class
outside them, using Java reflection. But Java reflection isn’t on the exam. So don’t
consider it when answering questions on the accessibility of private members.
NOTE
1.4.6
Access modifiers and Java entities
Can every access modifier be applied to all the Java entities? The simple answer is no.
Table 1.3 lists the Java entities and the access modifiers that can be used with them.
Table 1.3 Java entities and the access modifiers that can be applied to them
Entity name
public
protected
private
Top-level class, interface, enum
✓
✗
✗
Class variables and methods
✓
✓
✓
Instance variables and methods
✓
✓
✓
Method parameter and local variables
✗
✗
✗
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What happens if you try to code the combinations for an X in table 1.3? None of these
combinations will compile. Here’s the code:
protected class MyTopLevelClass {}
private class MyTopLevelClass {}
protected interface TopLevelInterface {}
Won’t compile—top-level class and
interfaces can’t be defined with
protected and private access.
void myMethod(private int param) {}
void myMethod(int param) {
public int localVariable = 10;
}
Won’t compile—method parameters
and local variables can’t be defined
using any explicit access modifiers.
Watch out for these combinations on the exam. It’s simple to insert these small and
invalid combinations in any code snippet and still make you believe that you’re being
tested on a rather complex topic like threads or concurrency.
EXAM TIP Watch out for invalid combinations of a Java entity and an access
modifier. Such code won’t compile.
Twist in the Tale 1.4
The following task was assigned to a group of programmers: “How can you declare a class
Curtain in a package building so that it isn’t visible outside the package building?”
These are the answers submitted by Paul, Shreya, Harry, and Selvan. Which of
these do you think is correct and why? (You can check your Twist in the Tale answers
in the appendix.)
Programmer name
Submitted code
Paul
package building;
public class Curtain {}
Shreya
package building;
protected class Curtain {}
Harry
package building;
class Curtain {}
Selvan
package building;
private class Curtain {}
Your job title may assign special privileges or responsibilities to you. For example, if
you work as a Java developer, you may be responsible for updating your programming
skills or earning professional certifications in Java. Similarly, you can assign special
privileges, responsibilities, and behaviors to your Java entities by using nonaccess modifiers, which are covered in the next section.
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1.5
CHAPTER 1
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Nonaccess modifiers
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces
[6.2] Apply the static keyword to methods and fields
This section discusses the nonaccess modifiers abstract, final, and static. Access
modifiers control the accessibility of your class and its members outside the class
and the package. Nonaccess modifiers change the default behavior of a Java class and
its members.
For example, if you add the keyword abstract to the definition of a class, it can’t
be instantiated. Such is the magic of the nonaccess modifiers.
You can characterize your classes, interfaces, methods, and variables with the following nonaccess modifiers (though not all are applicable to each Java entity):
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
abstract
static
final
synchronized
native
strictfp
transient
volatile
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam covers only three of these nonaccess modifiers: abstract, final, and static, which I’ll cover in detail. To ward off any confusion
about the rest of the modifiers, I’ll describe them briefly here:
■
synchronized—A synchronized method can’t be accessed by multiple threads
■
native—A native method calls and makes use of libraries and methods imple-
concurrently. You can’t mark classes, interfaces, or variables with this modifier.
■
■
■
mented in other programming languages such as C or C++. You can’t mark
classes, interfaces, or variables with this modifier.
transient—A transient variable isn’t serialized when the corresponding object
is serialized. The transient modifier can’t be applied to classes, interfaces, or
methods.
volatile—A volatile variable’s value can be safely modified by different
threads. Classes, interfaces, and methods can’t use this modifier.
strictfp—Classes, interfaces, and methods defined using this keyword ensure
that calculations using floating-point numbers are identical on all platforms.
This modifier can’t be used with variables.
Now let’s look at the three nonaccess modifiers that are on the exam.
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1.5.1
65
abstract modifier
When added to the definition of a class, interface, or method, the abstract modifier
changes its default behavior. Because it is a nonaccess modifier, abstract doesn’t
change the accessibility of a class, interface, or method.
Let’s examine the behavior of each of these with the abstract modifier.
ABSTRACT CLASS
When the abstract keyword is prefixed to the definition of a concrete class, it
changes it to an abstract class, even if the class doesn’t define any abstract methods. The following code is a valid example of an abstract class:
abstract class Person {
private String name;
public void displayName() { }
}
An abstract class can’t be instantiated, which means that the following code will fail
to compile:
This line of code
won’t compile.
class University {
Person p = new Person();
}
Here’s the compilation error thrown by the previous class:
University.java:4: Person is abstract; cannot be instantiated
Person p = new Person();
^
1 error
EXAM TIP An abstract class may or may not define an abstract method.
But a concrete class can’t define an abstract method.
ABSTRACT INTERFACE
An interface is an abstract entity by default. The Java compiler automatically adds the
keyword abstract to the definition of an interface. Thus, adding the keyword abstract
to the definition of an interface is redundant. The following definitions of interfaces
are the same:
Interface defined without the
explicit use of keyword abstract
interface Movable {}
abstract interface Movable {}
Interface defined with the
explicit use of keyword abstract
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ABSTRACT METHOD
An abstract method doesn’t have a body. Usually, an abstract method is implemented by a derived class. Here’s an example:
abstract class Person {
private String name;
public void displayName() { }
public abstract void perform();
}
EXAM TIP
This isn’t an abstract method.
It has an empty body: {}.
This is an abstract method.
It isn’t followed by {}.
A method with an empty body isn’t an abstract method.
ABSTRACT VARIABLES
None of the different types of variables (instance, static, local, and method parameters) can be defined as abstract.
EXAM TIP
Don’t be tricked by code that tries to apply the nonaccess modifier
abstract to a variable. Such code won’t compile.
1.5.2
final modifier
The keyword final can be used with the declaration of a class, variable, or method. It
can’t be used with the declaration of an interface.
FINAL CLASS
A class that’s marked final can’t be extended by another class. The class Professor
won’t compile if the class Person is marked as final, as follows:
final class Person {}
class Professor extends Person {}
Won’t compile
FINAL INTERFACE
An interface can’t be marked as final. An interface is abstract by default and marking it with final will prevent your interface from compiling:
final interface MyInterface{}
Won’t compile
FINAL VARIABLE
A final variable can’t be reassigned a value. It can be assigned a value only once. See
the following code:
class Person {
final long MAX_AGE;
Person() {
MAX_AGE = 99;
}
}
Compiles successfully: value
assigned once to final variable
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Nonaccess modifiers
Compare the previous example with the following code, which tries to reassign a value
to a final variable:
class Person {
final long MAX_AGE = 90;
Person() {
MAX_AGE = 99;
}
}
Won’t compile;
reassignment not allowed
It’s easy to confuse reassigning a value to a final variable with calling a method on a
final variable, which might change the state of the object that it refers to. If a reference variable is defined as a final variable, you can’t reassign another object to it, but
you can call methods on this variable (that modify its state):
class Person {
Can call methods on
final StringBuilder name = new StringBuilder("Sh");
a final variable that
Person() {
change its state
name.append("reya");
name = new StringBuilder();
Won’t compile. You can’t reassign
}
another object to a final variable.
}
FINAL METHOD
A final method defined in a base class can’t be overridden by a derived class. Examine the following code:
class Person {
final void sing() {
System.out.println("la..la..la..");
}
}
class Professor extends Person {
void sing() {
System.out.println("Alpha.. beta.. gamma");
}
}
Won’t compile
If a method in a derived class has the same method signature as its base class’s
method, it’s referred to as an overridden method. Overridden methods are discussed
along with polymorphism in chapter 6.
1.5.3
static modifier
The nonaccess modifier static can be applied to the declarations of variables, methods, classes, and interfaces. We’ll examine each of them in following sections.
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STATIC VARIABLES
static variables belong to a class. They’re common to all instances of a class and
aren’t unique to any instance of a class. static attributes exist independently of any
instances of a class and may be accessed even when no instances of the class have been
created. You can compare a static variable with a shared variable. A static variable
is shared by all the objects of a class.
A class and an interface can declare static variables. This section covers declaration and usage of static variables that are defined in a class.
Chapter 6 covers interfaces and their static variables in detail.
NOTE
Think of a static variable as being like a common bank vault that’s shared by the
employees of an organization. Each of the employees accesses the same bank vault, so
any change made by one employee is visible to all the other employees, as illustrated
in figure 1.33.
All employess
share the same
bank vault.
Shreya
Harry
Paul
Bank vault
Figure 1.33
Comparing a shared bank vault with a static variable
Figure 1.34 defines a class Emp that defines a non-static variable name and a static
variable bankVault.
class Emp {
String name;
static int bankVault;
}
We want this value to be
shared by all the objects of
class Emp.
Figure 1.34 Definition of the class Emp with a static variable
bankVault and non-static variable name
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Nonaccess modifiers
It’s time to test what we’ve been discussing up to this point. The following TestEmp
class creates two objects of the class Emp (from figure 1.34) and modifies the value of
the variable bankVault using these separate objects:
Variable
bankVault
of variable
emp1 is
assigned a
value of 10.
class TestEmp {
Reference variables emp1 and emp2
public static void main(String[] args) {
refer to separate objects of class Emp.
Emp emp1 = new Emp();
Emp emp2 = new Emp();
Variable bankVault of variable
emp1.bankVault = 10;
emp2 is assigned a value of 20.
emp2.bankVault = 20;
System.out.println(emp1.bankVault);
System.out.println(emp2.bankVault);
This will print 20.
System.out.println(Emp.bankVault);
}
This will also print 20.
This will print 20 as well.
}
In the preceding code example, emp1.bankVault, emp2.bankVault, and Emp.bankVault all refer to the same static attribute: bankVault.
EXAM TIP
Even though you can use an object reference variable to access
static members, it’s not advisable to do so. Because static members belong
to a class and not to individual objects, using object reference variables to
access static members may make them appear to belong to an object. The
preferred way to access them is by using the class name. The static and
final nonaccess modifiers can be used together to define constants (variables
whose value can’t change).
In the following code, the class Emp defines the constants MIN_AGE and MAX_AGE:
Constant
MIN_AGE
class Emp {
public static final int MIN_AGE = 20;
static final int MAX_AGE = 70;
}
Constant MAX_AGE
Although you can define a constant as a non-static member, it’s common practice
to define constants as static members, because doing so allows the constant values to
be used across objects and classes.
STATIC METHODS
static methods aren’t associated with objects and can’t use any of the instance variables
of a class. You can define static methods to access or manipulate static variables:
class Emp {
String name;
static int bankVault;
static int getBankVaultValue() {
return bankVault;
}
}
static method getBankVaultValue
returns the value of static
variable bankVault.
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It’s a common practice to use static methods to define utility methods, which are
methods that usually manipulate the method parameters to compute and return an
appropriate value:
static double interest(double num1, double num2, double num3) {
return(num1+num2+num3)/3;
}
The following utility (static) method doesn’t define input parameters. The method
averageOfFirst100Integers computes and returns the average of numbers 1 to 100:
static double averageOfFirst100Integers() {
int sum = 0;
for (int i=1; i <= 100; ++i) {
sum += i;
}
return (sum)/100;
}
Method averageOfFirst100Integers
doesn’t define method parameters.
The nonprivate static variables and methods are inherited by derived classes. The
static members aren’t involved in runtime polymorphism. You can’t override the
static members in a derived class, but you can redefine them.
Any discussion of static methods and their behavior can be quite confusing if you
aren’t aware of inheritance and derived classes. But don’t worry if you don’t understand all of it. I’ll cover derived classes and inheritance in chapter 6. For now, note
that a static method can be accessed using the name of the object reference variables and the class in a manner similar to static variables.
WHAT CAN A STATIC METHOD ACCESS?
Neither static methods nor static variables can access the non-static variables and
methods of a class. But the reverse is true: non-static variables and methods can access
static variables and methods because the static members of a class exist even if no
instances of the class exist. static members are forbidden from accessing instance
methods and variables, which can exist only if an instance of the class is created.
Examine the following code:
class MyClass {
static int x = count();
int count() { return 10; }
}
Compilation
error
This is the compilation error thrown by the previous class:
MyClass.java:3: nonstatic method count() cannot be referenced from a static
context
static int x = count();
^
1 error
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Nonaccess modifiers
The following code is valid:
class MyClass {
static int x = result();
static int result() { return 20; }
int nonStaticResult() { return result(); }
}
EXAM TIP
static variable referencing
a static method
Non-static method
using static method
static methods and variables can’t access the instance members
of a class.
Table 1.4 summarizes the access capabilities of static and non-static members.
Table 1.4 Access capabilities of static and non-static members
Member type
Can access static attribute
or method?
Can access non-static attribute
or method?
static
Yes
No
Non-static
Yes
Yes
ACCESSING STATIC MEMBERS FROM A NULL REFERENCE
Because static variables and methods belong to a class and not to an instance, you
can access them using variables, which are initialized to null. Watch out for such
questions in the exam. Such code won’t throw a runtime exception (NullPointerException to be precise). In the following example, the reference variable emp is initialized to null:
class Emp {
String name;
static int bankVault;
static int getBankVaultValue() {
return bankVault;
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Emp emp = null;
System.out.println(emp.bankVault);
System.out.println(emp.getBankVaultValue());
}
}
Outputs 0
EXAM TIP You can access static variables and methods using a null reference.
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static classes and interfaces
Certification aspirants frequently ask questions about static classes and interfaces, so I’ll quickly cover these in this section to ward off any confusion related to
them. But note that static classes and interfaces are types of nested classes and
interfaces that aren’t covered by the OCA Java 8 Programmer I exam.
You can’t prefix the definition of a top-level class or an interface with the keyword
static. A top-level class or interface is one that isn’t defined within another class or
interface. The following code will fail to compile:
static class Person {}
static interface MyInterface {}
But you can define a class and an interface as a static member of another class.
The following code is valid:
class Person {
static class Address {}
static interface MyInterface {}
}
Also known as a
static nested class
The next section covers features of Java that led to its popularity two decades ago, and
which still hold strong.
1.6
Features and components of Java
[1.5] Compare and contrast the features and components of Java such as:
platform independence, object orientation, encapsulation, etc.
The Java programming language was released in 1995. It was developed mainly to
work with consumer appliances. But it soon became very popular with web browsers,
to deliver dynamic content (using applets), which didn’t require it to be recompiled
for separate platforms. Let’s get started with the distinctive features and components
of Java, which still make it a popular programming language.
The exam will question you on the features and components of Java
that are relevant or irrelevant to it.
NOTE
1.6.1
Valid features and components of Java
Java offers multiple advantages over other languages and platforms.
PLATFORM INDEPENDENCE
This feature is one of main reasons of Java’s phenomenal rise since its release. It’s also
referred to as “write once, run anywhere” (WORA)—a slogan created by Sun MicrosystemsTM to highlight Java’s platform independence.
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Java code can be executed on multiple systems without recompilation. Java code is
compiled into bytecode, to be executed by a virtual machine—the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM). A JVM is installed on platforms with different OSs like Windows, Mac, or
Linux. A JVM interprets bytecodes to machine-specific instructions for execution. The
implementation details of a JVM are machine-dependent and might differ across platforms, but all of them interpret the same bytecode in a similar manner. Bytecode generated by a Java compiler is supported by all platforms with a JVM.
Other popular programming languages like C and C++ compile their code to a
host system. So the code must be recompiled for separate platforms.
OBJECT ORIENTATION
Java emulates real-life object definition and behavior. In real life, state and behavior
are tied to an object. Similarly, all Java code is defined within classes, interfaces, or
enums. You need to create their objects to use them.
ABSTRACTION
Java lets you abstract objects and include only the required properties and behavior in
your code. For example, if you’re developing an application that tracks the population of a country, you’ll record a person’s name, address, and contact details. But for a
health-tracking system, you might want to include health-related details and behavior
as well.
ENCAPSULATION
With Java classes, you can encapsulate the state and behavior of an object. The state or
the fields of a class are protected from unwanted access and manipulation. You can
control the level of access and modifications to your objects.
INHERITANCE
Java enables its classes to inherit other classes and implement interfaces. The interfaces can inherit other interfaces. This saves you from redefining common code.
POLYMORPHISM
The literal meaning of polymorphism is “many forms.” Java enables instances of its
classes to exhibit multiple behaviors for the same method calls. You’ll learn about this
in detail in chapter 6.
TYPE SAFETY
In Java, you must declare a variable with its data type before you can use it. This means
that you have compile-time checks that ensure you never assign to a variable a value of
the wrong type.
AUTOMATIC MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Unlike other programming languages like C or C++, Java uses garbage collectors for
automatic memory management. They reclaim memory from objects that are no longer in use. This frees developers from explicitly managing the memory themselves. It
also prevents memory leaks.
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MULTITHREADING AND CONCURRENCY
Java has supported multithreading and concurrency since it was first released—supported by classes and interfaces defined in its core API.
SECURITY
Java includes multiple built-in security features (though not all are covered in this
exam) to control access to your resources and execution of your programs.
Java is type safe and includes garbage collection. It provides secure class loading,
and verification ensures execution of legitimate Java code.
The Java platform defines multiple APIs, including cryptography and public key
infrastructure. Java applications that execute under a security manager control access to
your resources, like reading or writing to file. Access to a resource can be controlled
using a policy file. Java enables you to define digital signatures, certificates, and keystores to secure code and file exchanges. Signed code is distributed for execution.
With features like encapsulation and data hiding, Java secures the state of its objects.
Java applets execute in browsers and don’t allow code to be downloaded to a system,
thus enabling security for browsers and the systems that run them.
1.6.2
Irrelevant features and components of Java
The exam might also include some terms that are irrelevant.
SINGLE-THREADED
Java supports multithreading programming with inbuilt classes and interfaces. You
can create and use single threads, but the Java language isn’t single-threaded. Even
when you create single threads of execution, Java executes its own processes like garbage collection in separate threads. Java isn’t a single-threaded language.
RELATED TO JAVASCRIPT
Java isn’t related to JavaScript (except for the similarity in their name). JavaScript is a
programming language used in web pages to make them interactive.
1.7
Summary
This chapter started with a look at the structure of a Java class. Although you should
know how to work with Java classes, Java source code files (.java files), and Java bytecode files (.class files), the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam will question you only
on the structure and components of the first two—classes and source code—not on
Java bytecode.
We discussed the components of a Java class and of Java source code files. A class
can define multiple components, namely, import and package statements, variables,
constructors, methods, comments, nested classes, nested interfaces, annotations, and
enums. A Java source code file (.java) can define multiple classes and interfaces.
We then covered the differences and similarities between executable and nonexecutable Java classes. An executable Java class defines the entry point (main method)
for the JVM to start its execution. The main method should be defined with the
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required method signature; otherwise, the class will fail to be categorized as an executable Java class.
Packages are used to group together related classes and interfaces. They also provide access protection and namespace management. The import statement is used to
import classes and interfaces from other packages. In the absence of an import statement, classes and interfaces should be referred to by their fully qualified names (complete package name plus class or interface name).
Access modifiers control the access of classes and their members within a package
and across packages. Java defines four access modifiers: public, protected, default,
and private. When default access is assigned to a class or its member, no access modifier is prefixed to it. The absence of an access modifier is equal to assigning the class
or its members with default access. The least restrictive access modifier is public, and
private is the most restrictive. protected access sits between public and default
access, allowing access to derived classes outside a package.
We covered the abstract and static nonaccess modifiers. A class or a method
can be defined as an abstract member. abstract classes can’t be instantiated. Methods and variables can be defined as static members. All the objects of a class share
the same copy of static variables, which are also known as class-level variables.
Finally, we covered the features and components of Java that make it a popular
choice.
1.8
Review notes
This section lists the main points covered in this chapter.
The structure of a Java class and source code file:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam covers the structure and components
of a Java class and Java source code file (.java file). It doesn’t cover the structure
and components of Java bytecode files (.class files).
A class can define multiple components. All the Java components you’ve heard
of can be defined within a Java class: import and package statements, variables,
constructors, methods, comments, nested classes, nested interfaces, annotations,
and enums.
This exam doesn’t cover the definitions of nested classes, nested interfaces,
annotations, and enums.
If a class defines a package statement, it should be the first statement in the
class definition.
The package statement can’t appear within a class declaration or after the class
declaration.
If present, the package statement should appear exactly once in a class.
The import statement allows usage of simple names, nonqualified names of
classes, and interfaces.
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■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Java basics
The import statement can’t be used to import multiple classes or interfaces
with the same name.
A class can include multiple import statements.
If a class includes a package statement, all the import statements should follow
the package statement.
If present, an import statement must be placed before any class or interface
definition.
Comments are another component of a class. Comments are used to annotate
Java code and can appear at multiple places within a class.
A comment can appear before or after a package statement, before or after the
class definition, and before, within, or after a method definition.
Comments come in two flavors: multiline and end-of-line comments.
Comments can contain any special characters (including characters from the
Unicode charset).
Multiline comments span multiple lines of code. They start with /* and end
with */.
End-of-line comments start with // and, as the name suggests, are placed at the
end of a line of code or a blank line. The text between // and the end of the
line is treated as a comment.
Class declarations and class definitions are components of a Java class.
A Java class may define zero or more instance variables, methods, and constructors.
The order of the definition of instance variables, constructors, and methods
doesn’t matter in a class.
A class may define an instance variable before or after the definition of a
method and still use it.
A Java source code file (.java file) can define multiple classes and interfaces.
A public class can be defined only in a source code file with the same name.
package and import statements apply to all the classes and interfaces defined in
the same source code file (.java file).
Executable Java applications:
■
■
■
An executable Java class is a class that, when handed over to the Java Virtual
Machine (JVM), starts its execution at a particular point in the class. This point
of execution is the main method.
For a class to be executable, the class should define a main method with the
signature public static void main(String args[]) or public static void
main(String... args). The positions of static and public can be interchanged, and the method parameter can use any valid name.
A class can define multiple methods with the name main, provided that the signature of these methods doesn’t match the signature of the main method
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77
defined in the previous point. These overloaded versions aren’t considered the
main method.
The main method accepts an array of type String containing the method
parameters passed to it by the JVM.
The keyword java and the name of the class aren’t passed on as command
parameters to the main method.
Java packages:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
You can use packages to group together a related set of classes and interfaces.
By default, all classes and interfaces in separate packages and subpackages
aren’t visible to each other.
The package and subpackage names are separated using a dot.
All classes and interfaces in the same package are visible to each other.
An import statement allows the use of simple names for packaged classes and
interfaces defined in other packages.
You can’t use the import statement to access multiple classes or interfaces with
the same names from different packages.
You can import either a single member or all members (classes and interfaces)
of a package using the import statement.
You can’t import classes from a subpackage by using the wildcard character, an
asterisk (*), in the import statement.
A class from a default package can’t be used in any named packaged class,
regardless of whether it’s defined within the same directory or not.
You can import an individual static member of a class or all its static members by using a static import statement.
An import statement can’t be placed before a package statement in a class. Any
attempt to do so will cause the compilation of the class to fail.
The members of default packages are accessible only to classes or interfaces
defined in the same directory on your system.
Java access modifiers:
■
■
■
■
■
■
The access modifiers control the accessibility of your class and its members outside the class and package.
Java defines four access levels: public, protected, default, and private.
Java defines three access modifiers: public, protected, and private.
The public access modifier is the least restrictive access modifier.
Classes and interfaces defined using the public access modifier are accessible
to related and unrelated classes outside the package in which they’re defined.
The members of a class defined using the protected access modifier are accessible to classes and interfaces defined in the same package and to all derived
classes, even if they’re defined in separate packages.
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■
■
■
■
Java basics
The members of a class defined without using an explicit access modifier are
defined with package accessibility (also called default accessibility).
The members with package access are accessible only to classes and interfaces
defined in the same package.
A class defined using default access can’t be accessed outside its package.
The members of a class defined using a private access modifier are accessible
only to the class in which they’re defined. It doesn’t matter whether the class or
interface in question is from another package or has extended the class. Private
members are not accessible outside the class in which they’re defined.
The private access modifier is the most restrictive access modifier.
Nonaccess modifiers:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The nonaccess modifiers change the default properties of a Java class and its
members.
The nonaccess modifiers covered by this exam are abstract, final, and static.
The abstract keyword, when prefixed to the definition of a concrete class, can
change it to an abstract class, even if it doesn’t define any abstract methods.
An abstract class can’t be instantiated.
An interface is implicitly abstract. The Java compiler automatically adds the
keyword abstract to the definition of an interface (which means that adding
the keyword abstract to the definition of an interface is redundant).
An abstract method doesn’t have a body. When a non-abstract class extends a
class with an abstract method, it must implement the method.
A variable can’t be defined as an abstract variable.
The static modifier can be applied to inner classes, inner interfaces, variables,
and methods. Inner classes and interfaces aren’t covered in this exam.
A method can’t be defined as both abstract and static.
static attributes (fields and methods) are common to all instances of a class
and aren’t unique to any instance of a class.
static attributes exist independently of any instances of a class and may be
accessed even when no instances of the class have been created.
static attributes are also known as class fields or class methods because they’re
said to belong to their class, not to any instance of that class.
A static variable or method can be accessed using the name of a reference
object variable or the name of a class.
A static method or variable can’t access non-static variables or methods of a
class. But the reverse is true: non-static variables and methods can access
static variables and methods.
static classes and interfaces are a type of nested classes and interfaces, but
they aren’t covered in this exam.
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79
You can’t prefix the definition of a top-level class or an interface with the keyword static. A top-level class or interface is one that isn’t defined within another
class or interface.
Features and components of Java:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
1.9
Object orientation—Java emulates real-life object definition and behavior. It uses
classes, interfaces, or enums to define all its code.
Abstraction—Java lets you abstract objects and include only the required properties and behavior in your code.
Encapsulation—The state or the fields of a class are protected from unwanted
access and manipulation.
Inheritance—Java enables its classes to inherit other classes and implement interfaces. The interfaces can inherit other interfaces.
Polymorphism—Java enables instances of its classes to exhibit multiple behaviors
for the same method calls.
Type safety—In Java, you must declare a variable with its data type before you can
use it.
Automatic memory management—Java uses garbage collectors for automatic memory management. They reclaim memory from objects that are no longer in use.
Multithreading and concurrency—Java defines classes and interfaces to enable
developers to develop multithreaded code.
Java isn’t a single-threaded language.
Sample exam questions
Q1-1. Given:
class EJava {
//..code
}
Which of the following options will compile?
a
package java.oca.associate;
class Guru {
EJava eJava = new EJava();
}
b
package java.oca;
import EJava;
class Guru {
EJava eJava;
}
c
package java.oca.*;
import java.default.*;
class Guru {
EJava eJava;
}
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CHAPTER 1
d
package java.oca.associate;
import default.*;
class Guru {
default.EJava eJava;
}
e
None of the above
Java basics
Q1-2. The following numbered list of Java class components is not in any particular
order. Select the acceptable order of their occurrence in any Java class (choose all
that apply):
1
2
3
4
5
6
comments
import statement
package statement
methods
class declaration
variables
a
b
c
d
1, 3, 2, 5, 6, 4
3, 1, 2, 5, 4, 6
3, 2, 1, 4, 5, 6
3, 2, 1, 5, 6, 4
Q1-3. Which of the following examples defines a correct Java class structure?
a
#connect java compiler;
#connect java virtual machine;
class EJavaGuru {}
b
package java compiler;
import java virtual machine;
class EJavaGuru {}
c
import javavirtualmachine.*;
package javacompiler;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
d
package javacompiler;
import javavirtualmachine.*;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
e
#package javacompiler;
$import javavirtualmachine;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
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Sample exam questions
f
81
package javacompiler;
import javavirtualmachine;
Class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
Q1-4. Given the following contents of the Java source code file MyClass.java, select the
correct options:
// contents of MyClass.java
package com.ejavaguru;
import java.util.Date;
class Student {}
class Course {}
a
b
c
d
The imported class, java.util.Date, can be accessed only in the class Student.
The imported class, java.util.Date, can be accessed by both the Student and
Course classes.
Both of the classes Student and Course are defined in the package com
.ejavaguru.
Only the class Student is defined in the package com.ejavaguru. The class
Course is defined in the default Java package.
Q1-5. Given the following definition of the class EJavaGuru,
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(args[1]+":"+ args[2]+":"+ args[3]);
}
}
what is the output of EJavaGuru, if it is executed using the following command?
java EJavaGuru one two three four
a
b
c
d
one:two:three
EJavaGuru:one:two
java:EJavaGuru:one
two:three:four
Q1-6. Which of the following options, when inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE, will print
out EJavaGuru?
public class EJavaGuru {
// INSERT CODE HERE
{
System.out.println("EJavaGuru");
}
}
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a
b
c
d
e
public
public
static
public
static
Java basics
void main (String[] args)
void main(String
args[])
public void main
(String[] array)
static void main (String args)
public main (String args[])
Q1-7. What is the meaning of “write once, run anywhere”? Select the correct options:
a
b
c
d
Java code can be written by one team member and executed by other team
members.
It is for marketing purposes only.
It enables Java programs to be compiled once and can be executed by any JVM
without recompilation.
Old Java code doesn’t need recompilation when newer versions of JVMs are
released.
Q1-8. A class Course is defined in a package com.ejavaguru. Given that the physical
location of the corresponding class file is /mycode/com/ejavaguru/Course.class and
execution takes place within the mycode directory, which of the following lines of
code, when inserted at // INSERT CODE HERE, will import the Course class into the
class MyCourse?
// INSERT CODE HERE
class MyCourse {
Course c;
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
import
import
import
import
import
import
mycode.com.ejavaguru.Course;
com.ejavaguru.Course;
mycode.com.ejavaguru;
com.ejavaguru;
mycode.com.ejavaguru*;
com.ejavaguru*;
Q1-9. Examine the following code:
class Course {
String courseName;
}
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
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Sample exam questions
83
Which of the following statements will be true if the variable courseName is defined as
a private variable?
a
b
c
d
The class EJavaGuru will print Java.
The class EJavaGuru will print null.
The class EJavaGuru won’t compile.
The class EJavaGuru will throw an exception at runtime.
Q1-10. Given the following definition of the class Course,
package com.ejavaguru.courses;
class Course {
public String courseName;
}
what’s the output of the following code?
package com.ejavaguru;
import com.ejavaguru.courses.Course;
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class EJavaGuru will print Java.
The class EJavaGuru will print null.
The class EJavaGuru won’t compile.
The class EJavaGuru will throw an exception at runtime.
Q1-11. Given the following code, select the correct options:
package com.ejavaguru.courses;
class Course {
public String courseName;
public void setCourseName(private String name) {
courseName = name;
}
}
a
b
c
d
You can’t define a method argument as a private variable.
A method argument should be defined with either public or default accessibility.
For overridden methods, method arguments should be defined with protected
accessibility.
None of the above.
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1.10 Answers to sample exam questions
Q1-1. Given:
class EJava {
//..code
}
Which of the following options will compile?
a
package java.oca.associate;
class Guru {
EJava eJava = new EJava();
}
b
package java.oca;
import EJava;
class Guru {
EJava eJava;
}
c
package java.oca.*;
import java.default.*;
class Guru {
EJava eJava;
}
d
package java.oca.associate;
import default.*;
class Guru {
default.EJava eJava;
}
e
None of the above
Answer: e
Explanation: A class that isn’t defined in a package gets implicitly defined in Java’s
default package. But such classes can’t be accessed by classes or interfaces, which are
explicitly defined in a package.
Option a is incorrect. The EJava class isn’t defined in a package, so it can’t be
accessed by the Guru class, which is defined in the java.oca.associate package.
Options b, c, and d won’t compile. Option b uses invalid syntax in the import statement. Options c and d try to import classes from nonexistent packages—java.default
and default.
Q1-2. The following numbered list of Java class components is not in any particular
order. Select the correct order of their occurrence in a Java class (choose all that apply):
1
2
comments
import statement
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Answers to sample exam questions
3
package statement
4
methods
class declaration
variables
5
6
a
b
c
d
85
1, 3, 2, 5, 6, 4
3, 1, 2, 5, 4, 6
3, 2, 1, 4, 5, 6
3, 2, 1, 5, 6, 4
Answer: a, b, d
Explanation: The comments can appear anywhere in a class. They can appear before
and after package and import statements. They can appear before or after a class,
method, or variable declaration.
The first statement (if present) in a class should be a package statement. It can’t be
placed after an import statement or a declaration of a class.
The import statement should follow a package statement and be followed by a
class declaration.
The class declaration follows the import statements, if present. It’s followed by the
declaration of the methods and variables.
Answer c is incorrect. None of the variables or methods can be defined before the
definition of a class or interface.
Q1-3. Which of the following examples defines a correct Java class structure?
a
#connect java compiler;
#connect java virtual machine;
class EJavaGuru {}
b
package java compiler;
import java virtual machine;
class EJavaGuru {}
c
import javavirtualmachine.*;
package javacompiler;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
d
package javacompiler;
import javavirtualmachine.*;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
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e
#package javacompiler;
$import javavirtualmachine;
class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
f
package javacompiler;
import javavirtualmachine;
Class EJavaGuru {
void method1() {}
int count;
}
Java basics
Answer: d
Explanation: Option a is incorrect because #connect isn’t a statement in Java. # is
used to add comments in UNIX.
Option b is incorrect because a package name (Java compiler) can’t contain
spaces. Also, java virtual machine isn’t a valid package name to be imported in a
class. The package name to be imported can’t contain spaces.
Option c is incorrect because a package statement (if present) must be placed
before an import statement.
Option e is incorrect. #package and $import aren’t valid statements or directives
in Java.
Option f is incorrect. Java is case-sensitive, so the word class is not the same as the
word Class. The correct keyword to define a class is class.
Q1-4. Given the following contents of the Java source code file MyClass.java, select the
correct options:
// contents of MyClass.java
package com.ejavaguru;
import java.util.Date;
class Student {}
class Course {}
a
b
c
d
The imported class, java.util.Date, can be accessed only in the class Student.
The imported class, java.util.Date, can be accessed by both the Student and
Course classes.
Both of the classes Student and Course are defined in the package com.ejavaguru.
Only the class Student is defined in the package com.ejavaguru. The class
Course is defined in the default Java package.
Answer: b, c
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87
Explanation: You can define multiple classes, interfaces, and enums in a Java source
code file.
Option a is incorrect. The import statement applies to all the classes, interfaces,
and enums defined within the same Java source code file.
Option d is incorrect. If a package statement is defined in the source code file, all
the classes, interfaces, and enums defined within it will exist in the same Java package.
Q1-5. Given the following definition of the class EJavaGuru,
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(args[1]+":"+ args[2]+":"+ args[3]);
}
}
what is the output of the previous class, if it is executed using the following command?
java EJavaGuru one two three four
a
b
c
d
one:two:three
EJavaGuru:one:two
java:EJavaGuru:one
two:three:four
Answer: d
Explanation: The command-line arguments passed to the main method of a class do
not contain the word Java and the name of the class.
Because the position of an array is zero-based, the method argument is assigned
the following values:
args[0] -> one
args[1] -> two
args[2] -> three
args[3] -> four
The class prints two:three:four.
Q1-6. Which of the following options, when inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE, will print
out EJavaGuru?
public class EJavaGuru {
// INSERT CODE HERE
{
System.out.println("EJavaGuru");
}
}
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a
b
c
d
e
public
public
static
public
static
Java basics
void main (String[] args)
void main(String
args[])
public void main
(String[] array)
static void main (String args)
public main (String args[])
Answer: c
Explanation: Option a is incorrect. This option defines a valid method but not a valid
main method. The main method should be defined as a static method, which is missing from the method declaration in option a.
Option b is incorrect. This option is similar to the method defined in option a,
with one difference. In this option, the square brackets are placed after the name of
the method argument. The main method accepts an array as a method argument, and
to define an array, the square brackets can be placed after either the data type or the
method argument name.
Option c is correct. Extra spaces in a class are ignored by the Java compiler.
Option d is incorrect. The main method accepts an array of String as a method
argument. The method in this option accepts a single String object.
Option e is incorrect. It isn’t a valid method definition and doesn’t specify the
return type of the method. This line of code will not compile.
Q1-7. What is the meaning of “write once, run anywhere”? Select the correct options:
a
b
c
d
Java code can be written by one team member and executed by other team
members.
It is for marketing purposes only.
It enables Java programs to be compiled once and can be executed by any JVM
without recompilation.
Old Java code doesn’t need recompilation when newer versions of JVMs are
released.
Answer: c
Explanation: Platform independence, or “write once, run anywhere,” enables Java
code to be compiled once and run on any system with a JVM. It isn’t for marketing
purposes only.
Q1-8. A class Course is defined in a package com.ejavaguru. Given that the physical
location of the corresponding class file is /mycode/com/ejavaguru/Course.class
and execution takes place within the mycode directory, which of the following lines
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Answers to sample exam questions
89
of code, when inserted at // INSERT CODE HERE, will import the Course class into the
class MyCourse?
// INSERT CODE HERE
class MyCourse {
Course c;
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
import
import
import
import
import
import
mycode.com.ejavaguru.Course;
com.ejavaguru.Course;
mycode.com.ejavaguru;
com.ejavaguru;
mycode.com.ejavaguru*;
com.ejavaguru*;
Answer: b
Explanation: Option a is incorrect. The base directory, mycode, in which package
com.ejavaguru is defined, must not be included in the import statement.
Options c and e are incorrect. The class’s physical location isn’t specified in the
import statement.
Options d and f are incorrect. ejavaguru is a package. To import a package and its
members, the package name should be followed by .*, as follows:
import com.ejavaguru.*;
Q1-9. Examine the following code:
class Course {
String courseName;
}
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
Which of the following statements will be true if the variable courseName is defined as
a private variable?
a
b
c
d
The class EJavaGuru will print Java.
The class EJavaGuru will print null.
The class EJavaGuru won’t compile.
The class EJavaGuru will throw an exception at runtime.
Answer: c
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Explanation: If the variable courseName is defined as a private member, it won’t be
accessible from the class EJavaGuru. An attempt to do so will cause it to fail at compile
time. Because the code won’t compile, it can’t execute.
Q1-10. Given the following definition of the class Course,
package com.ejavaguru.courses;
class Course {
public String courseName;
}
what’s the output of the following code?
package com.ejavaguru;
import com.ejavaguru.courses.Course;
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class EJavaGuru will print Java.
The class EJavaGuru will print null.
The class EJavaGuru will not compile.
The class EJavaGuru will throw an exception at runtime.
Answer: c
Explanation: The class will fail to compile because a nonpublic class can’t be accessed
outside a package in which it’s defined. The class Course therefore can’t be accessed
from within the class EJavaGuru, even if it’s explicitly imported into it. If the class itself
isn’t accessible, there’s no point in accessing a public member of a class.
Q1-11. Given the following code, select the correct options:
package com.ejavaguru.courses;
class Course {
public String courseName;
public void setCourseName(private String name) {
courseName = name;
}
}
a
b
You can’t define a method argument as a private variable.
A method argument should be defined with either public or default accessibility.
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c
d
91
For overridden methods, method arguments should be defined with protected
accessibility.
None of the above.
Answer: a
Explanation: You can’t add an explicit accessibility keyword to the method parameters. If you do, the code won’t compile.
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Working with
Java data types
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[2.2] Differentiate between object reference
variables and primitive variables.
The primitive data types in Java, including scenarios when a particular primitive data type should or
can’t be used. Similarities and differences between
the primitive data types.
Similarities and differences between primitive and
object reference variables.
[2.1] Declare and initialize variables (including
casting of primitive data types).
Declaration and initialization of primitives and
object reference variables.
Literal values for primitive and object reference
variables.
[2.5] Develop code that uses wrapper classes
such as Boolean, Double, and Integer.
How and when values are boxed and unboxed when
used with wrapper classes.
[3.1] Use Java operators; including parentheses to override operator precedence.
Use of assignment, arithmetic, relational, and logical operators with primitives and object reference
variables.
Valid operands for an operator. Output of an arithmetic expression.
Determine the equality of two primitives.
How to override the default operator precedence by
using parentheses.
Imagine that you’ve just purchased a new home. You’ll likely need to buy differentsized containers to store different types of food items, because one size can’t fit all.
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Primitive variables
93
Also, you might move around food items in your home—perhaps because of a change
in the requirements over time (you wish to eat it or you wish to store it).
Your new kitchen is an analogy for how Java stores its data using different data
types, and manipulates the data using operators. The food items are like data types in
Java, and the containers used to store the food are like variables in Java. The change
in the requirements that triggers a change in the state of food items can be compared
to the processing logic. The agents of change (fire, heat, or cooling) that change the
state of the food items can be compared to Java operators. You need these agents of
change so that you can process the raw food items to create delicacies.
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’ll be asked questions on the various
data types in Java, such as how to create and initialize them and what their similarities
and differences are. The exam will also question you on using the Java operators. This
chapter covers the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
2.1
Primitive data types in Java
Literal values of primitive Java data types
Object reference variables in Java
Valid and invalid identifiers
Usage of Java operators
Modification of default operator precedence via parentheses
Primitive variables
[2.1] Declare and initialize variables (including casting of primitive data types)
[2.2] Differentiate between object reference variables and primitive variables
In this section, you’ll learn all the primitive data types in Java, their literal values, and
the process of creating and initializing primitive variables. A variable defined as one of
the primitive data types is a primitive variable.
Primitive data types, as the name suggests, are the simplest data types in a programming language. In the Java language, they’re predefined. The names of the primitive
types are quite descriptive of the values that they can store. Java defines the following
eight primitive data types:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
char
byte
short
int
long
float
double
boolean
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
7.3
100
4573
a
True
Actual
values
? ? ? ? ?
Character
Integer
Decimal
Boolean
Types of
values
Figure 2.1 Matching a value
with its corresponding type
Examine figure 2.1 and try to match the given value with the corresponding type.
This should be a simple exercise. Table 2.1 provides the answers.
Table 2.1 Matching a value with its corresponding data type
Character values
a
Integer values
100
Decimal values
7.3
Boolean
true
4573
In the preceding exercise, I categorized the data that you need to store as follows:
character, integer, decimal, and Boolean values. This categorization will make your
life simpler when confronted with selecting the most appropriate primitive data type
to store a value. For example, to store an integer value, you need a primitive data
type that’s capable of storing integer values; to store decimal numbers, you need a
primitive data type that can store decimal numbers. Simple, isn’t it?
Let’s map the types of data that the primitive data types can store, because it’s
always easy to group and remember information.
The category Boolean is not the same as the primitive data type boolean
or wrapper class Boolean. Java primitive data types and class names are displayed using code font.
NOTE
The primitive data types can be categorized as follows: Boolean, character, and numeric
(further categorized as integral and floating-point) types. Take a look at this categorization in figure 2.2.
As shown in figure 2.2, the char primitive data type is an unsigned numeric data
type. It can only store positive integers. The rest of the numeric data types (byte,
short, int, long, float, and double) are signed numeric data types (they can store
both negative and positive values). The categorization in figure 2.2 will help you further associate each data type with the value that it can store. Let’s start with the Boolean category.
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Primitive variables
Primitive data types
Numeric
Signed
Unsigned
Integers
byte
short
int
Floating-point
long
Boolean
float
double
Character
char
boolean
Figure 2.2 Categorization of primitive data types
2.1.1
Category: Boolean
The Boolean category has only one data type: boolean. A boolean variable can store
one of two values: true or false. It’s used in scenarios where only two states can exist.
See table 2.2 for a list of questions and their probable answers.
Table 2.2 Suitable data that can be stored using a boolean data type
Question
Probable answers
Did you purchase the exam voucher?
Yes/No
Did you log in to your email account?
Yes/No
Did you tweet about your passion today?
Yes/No
Tax collected in financial year 2001–2002
Good question! But it can’t be answered as yes/no.
In this exam, the questions test your ability to select the best suitable data type for a condition that can only have two states: yes/no or true/
false. The correct answer here is the boolean type.
EXAM TIP
Here’s some code that defines boolean primitive variables:
boolean voucherPurchased = true;
boolean examPrepStarted = false;
In some languages, such as JavaScript, you don’t need to define the type of a variable
before you use it. In JavaScript, the compiler defines the type of the variable according
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
to the value that you assign to it. Java, in contrast, is a strongly typed language. You
must declare a variable and define its type before you can assign a value to it. Figure 2.3
illustrates defining a boolean variable and assigning a value to it.
Variable name
boolean result = false;
Type of variable
boolean literal
Figure 2.3 Defining and
assigning a primitive variable
Another point to note here is the value that’s assigned to a boolean variable. I used
the literals true and false to initialize the boolean variables. A literal is a fixed value
that doesn’t need further calculations in order for it to be assigned to any variable.
true and false are the only two boolean literals.
NOTE
2.1.2
There are only two boolean literal values: true and false.
Category: signed numeric
The numeric category defines two subcategories: integers and floating point (also
called decimals). Let’s start with the integers.
INTEGERS: BYTE, INT, SHORT, LONG
When you can count a value in whole numbers, the result is an integer. It includes
both negative and positive numbers. Table 2.3 lists probable scenarios in which the
data can be stored as integers.
Table 2.3 Data that can be categorized as numeric (nondecimal numbers) data type
Situation
Can be stored as integers?
Number of friends on Facebook
Yes
Number of tweets posted today
Yes
Number of photographs uploaded for printing
Yes
Your body temperature
Not always
You can use the byte, short, int, and long data types to store integer values. Wait a
minute: why do you need so many types to store integers?
Each one of these can store a different range of values. The benefits of the smaller
ones are obvious: they need less space in memory and are faster to work with. Table 2.4
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lists all these data types, along with their sizes and the ranges of the values that they
can store.
Table 2.4 Ranges of values stored by the signed numeric Java primitive data types
Data type
Size
Range of values
byte
8 bits
–128 to 127, inclusive
short
16 bits
–32,768 to 32,767, inclusive
int
32 bits
–2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647, inclusive
long
64 bits
–9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807, inclusive
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam may ask you questions about the range of
integers that can be assigned to a byte data type, but it won’t include questions on the
ranges of integer values that can be stored by short, int, or long data types. Don’t
worry—you don’t have to memorize the ranges for all these data types!
Here’s some code that assigns literal values to primitive numeric variables within
their acceptable ranges:
byte num = 100;
short sum = 1240;
int total = 48764;
long population = 214748368;
The default type of a nondecimal number is int. To designate an integer literal value
as a long value, add the suffix L or l (L in lowercase), as follows:
long fishInSea = 764398609800L;
Integer literal values come in four flavors: binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal:
■
■
■
■
Binary number system—A base-2 system, which uses only 2 digits, 0 and 1.
Octal number system—A base-8 system, which uses digits 0 through 7 (a total of 8
digits). Here the decimal number 8 is represented as octal 10, decimal 9 as 11,
and so on.
Decimal number system—The base-10 number system that you use every day. It’s
based on 10 digits, from 0 through 9 (a total of 10 digits).
Hexadecimal number system—A base-16 system, which uses digits 0 through 9 and
the letters A through F (a total of 16 digits and letters). Here the number 10 is
represented as A or a, 11 as B or b, 12 as C or c, 13 as D or d, 14 as E or e, and 15
as F or f.
Let’s take quick look at how you can convert integers in the decimal number system to
the other number systems. Figures 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6 show how to convert the decimal
number 267 to the octal, hexadecimal, and binary number systems.
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
8 267 33
-264
¯¯¯
3
16 267 16
-256
¯¯¯
11
8 33 4 8 4
-32
-0
¯¯¯
¯¯¯
4
1
16 16 1
-16
¯¯¯
0
2 267
2
2
2
2
2
16
1
-0
¯¯¯
1
0
Ans = 4 1 3
Figure 2.4 Converting an
integer from decimal to octal
0
Ans = 1 0 B (11 is B in hex)
Figure 2.5 Converting an integer
from decimal to hexadecimal
Ans = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
133-1
66-1
33-0
16-1
8-0
2 4-0
2 2-0
2 1-0
0-1
Figure 2.6 Converting an
integer from decimal to binary
In the exam, you won’t be asked to convert a number from the
decimal number system to the octal and hexadecimal number systems and
vice versa. But you can expect questions that ask you to select valid literals for
integers. The figures 2.4–2.6 will help you understand these number systems
better and retain this information longer, which will in turn enable you to
answer questions correctly during the exam.
EXAM TIP
You can assign integer literals in base decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal. For
octal literals, use the prefix 0; for binary, use the prefix 0B or 0b; and for hexadecimal,
use the prefix 0X or 0x. Here’s an example of each of these:
267 in
decimal
number
system
int
int
int
int
baseDecimal = 267;
octVal = 0413;
hexVal = 0x10B;
binVal = 0b100001011;
267 in decimal number system is
equal to 413 in octal number system
267 in decimal number system
is equal to 100001011 in
binary number system
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267 in decimal number
system is equal to 10B
in hexadecimal
number system
99
Primitive variables
Java 7 introduced the use of underscores as part of the literal values. Grouping individual digits or letters of literal values makes them more readable. The underscores
have no effect on the values. The following is valid code:
long
long
long
long
baseDecimal = 100_267_760;
octVal = 04_13;
hexVal = 0x10_BA_75;
binVal = 0b1_0000_10_11;
More-readable literal values in binary,
decimal, octal, and hexadecimal that use
underscores to group digits and letters
RULES TO REMEMBER
Here’s a quick list of rules for usage of underscores in the numeric literal values:
■
■
■
■
■
You can place an underscore right after the prefix 0, which is used to define an
octal literal value.
You can’t start or end a literal value with an underscore.
You can’t place an underscore right after the prefixes 0b, 0B, 0x, and 0X, which
are used to define binary and hexadecimal literal values.
You can’t place an underscore prior to an L suffix (the L suffix is used to mark a
literal value as long).
You can’t use an underscore in positions where a string of digits is expected
(see the following example).
Because you’re likely to be questioned on valid and invalid uses of underscores in literal values on the exam, let’s look at some invalid examples:
Can’t start or end a literal
value with an underscore
int intLiteral = _100;
int intLiteral2 = 100_999_;
long longLiteral = 100_L;
Can’t place an underscore
prior to suffix L
The following line of code will compile successfully but will fail at runtime:
int i = Integer.parseInt("45_98");
Invalid use of underscore where
a string of digits is expected
Because a String value can accept underscores, the compiler will compile the previous code. But the runtime will throw an exception stating that an invalid format of
value was passed to the method parseInt.
Here’s the first Twist in the Tale exercise of this chapter for you to attempt. It uses
multiple combinations of underscores in numeric literal values. See if you can get all
of them right (answers in the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 2.1
Let’s use the primitive variables baseDecimal, octVal, hexVal, and binVal defined
earlier in this section and introduce additional code for printing the values of all these
variables. Determine the output of the following code:
class TwistInTaleNumberSystems {
public static void main (String args[]) {
int baseDecimal = 267;
int octVal = 0413;
int hexVal = 0x10B;
int binVal = 0b100001011;
System.out.println (baseDecimal + octVal);
System.out.println (hexVal + binVal);
}
}
Here’s another quick exercise—let’s define and initialize some long primitive variables that use underscores in the literal values assigned to them. Determine which of
these does this job correctly:
long
long
long
long
long
long
long
var1
var2
var3
var4
var5
var6
var7
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0_100_267_760;
0_x_4_13;
0b_x10_BA_75;
0b_10000_10_11;
0xa10_AG_75;
0x1_0000_10;
100__12_12;
FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS: FLOAT AND DOUBLE
You need floating-point numbers where you expect decimal numbers. For example,
can you define the probability of an event occurring as an integer? Table 2.5 lists probable scenarios in which the corresponding data is stored as a floating-point number.
Table 2.5 Data that’s stored as floating-point numbers
Situation
Is the answer a floating-point number?
Orbital mechanics of a spacecraft
Yes (very precise values are required)
Probability of your friend request being accepted
Yes; probability is between 0.0 (none) and 1.0 (sure)
Speed of Earth revolving around the sun
Yes
Magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale
Yes
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Primitive variables
In Java, you can use the float and double primitive data types to store decimal numbers. float requires less space than double, but it can store a smaller range of values
than double. float is less precise than double. float can’t represent accurately some
numbers even if they’re in range. The same limitation applies to double—even if it’s a
data type that offer more precision. Table 2.6 lists the sizes and ranges of values for
float and double.
Table 2.6 Range of values for decimal numbers
Data type
Size
Range of values
float
32 bits
+/–1.4E–45 to +/–3.4028235E+38, +/–infinity, +/–0, NaN
double
64 bits
+/–4.9E–324 to +/–1.7976931348623157E+308, +/–infinity, +/–0, NaN
Here’s some code in action:
float average = 20.129F;
float orbit = 1765.65f;
double inclination = 120.1762;
Did you notice the use of the suffixes F and f while initializing the variables average
and orbit in the preceding code? The default type of a decimal literal is double, but
by suffixing a decimal literal value with F or f, you tell the compiler that the literal
value should be treated like a float and not a double.
You can also assign a literal decimal value in scientific notation as follows:
120.1762 is same as 1.201762e2 (the
latter is expressed in scientific notation)
double inclination2 = 1.201762e2;
You can also add the suffix D or d to a decimal number value to specify that it’s a
double value. Because the default type of a decimal number is double, the use of the
suffix D or d is redundant. Examine the following line of code:
120.1762D is same as 120.1762
double inclination = 120.1762D;
Starting with Java version 7, you can also use underscores with the floating-point literal
values. The rules are generally the same as previously mentioned for numeric literal values; the following rules are specific to floating-point literals:
■
■
You can’t place an underscore prior to a D, d, F, or f suffix (these suffixes are
used to mark a floating-point literal as double or float).
You can’t place an underscore adjacent to a decimal point.
Let’s look at some examples that demonstrate the invalid use of underscores in floatingpoint literal values:
float floatLiteral = 100._48F;
double doubleLiteral = 100_.87;
Can’t use underscore
adjacent to a decimal point
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
float floatLiteral2 = 100.48_F;
double doubleLiteral2 = 100.87_d;
2.1.3
Can’t use underscore
prior to suffix F, f, D, or d
Category: character (unsigned integer)
The character category defines only one data type: char. A char is an unsigned integer. It can store a single 16-bit Unicode character; that is, it can store characters from
virtually all the existing scripts and languages, including Japanese, Korean, Chinese,
Devanagari, French, German, and Spanish. Because your keyboard may not have keys
to represent all these characters, you can use a value from \u0000 (or 0) to a maximum value of \uffff (or 65,535) inclusive. The following code shows the assignment
of a value to a char variable:
char c1 = 'D';
Use single quotes to assign
a char, not double quotes.
A very common mistake is using double quotes to assign a value to a char. The correct
option is single quotes. Figure 2.7 shows a conversation between two (hypothetical)
programmers, Paul and Harry.
Figure 2.7 Never use double quotes to assign a letter as a char value.
What happens if you try to assign a char using double quotes? The code will fail to
compile, with this message:
Type mismatch: cannot convert from String to char
EXAM TIP Never use double quotes to assign a letter to a char variable. Double quotes are used to assign a value to a variable of type String.
Internally, Java stores char data as an unsigned integer value (positive integer). It’s
therefore acceptable to assign a positive integer value to a char, as follows:
char c1 = 122;
Assign z to c1
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The exam will test you on multiple (obscure) techniques like assigning
an unsigned integer value to a char data type. But I don’t recommend using
these on real projects. Please write code that’s readable and easy to maintain.
NOTE
The integer value 122 is equivalent to the letter z, but the integer value 122 is not
equal to the Unicode value \u0122. The former is a number in base 10 (uses digits 0–9)
and the latter is a number in base 16 (uses digits 0–9 and letters a–f—lower- or uppercase). \u is used to mark the value as a Unicode value. You must use quotes to assign
Unicode values to char variables. Here’s an example:
char c2 = '\u0122';
System.out.println("c1 = " + c1);
System.out.println("c2 = " + c2);
Figure 2.8 shows the output of the preceding code on a system that supports Unicode
characters.
c1 = z
c2 = Ģ
Figure 2.8 The output of assigning a character using the
integer value 122 versus the Unicode value \u0122
As mentioned earlier, char values are unsigned integer values, so if you try to assign a
negative number to one, the code won’t compile. Here’s an example:
char c3 = -122;
Fails to compile
But you can forcefully assign a negative number to a char type by casting it to char,
as follows:
char c3 = (char)-122;
System.out.println("c3 = " + c3);
Compiles successfully
In the previous code, note how the literal value –122 is prefixed by (char). This practice
is called casting. Casting is the forceful conversion of one data type to another data type.
You can cast only compatible data types. For example, you can cast a char to an int
and vice versa. But you can’t cast an int to a boolean value or vice versa. When you
cast a bigger value to a data type that has a smaller range, you tell the compiler that
you know what you’re doing, so the compiler proceeds by chopping off any extra bits
that may not fit into the smaller variable. Use casting with caution—it may not always
give you the correct converted values.
Figure 2.9 shows the output of the preceding code that cast a value to c3 (the value
looks weird!).
c3 =
Figure 2.9 The output of assigning a negative
value to a character variable
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The char data type in Java doesn’t allocate space to store the sign of an integer. If you
try to forcefully assign a negative integer to char, the sign bit is stored as the part of
the integer value, which results in the storage of unexpected values.
The exam will test your understanding of the possible values that
can be assigned to a variable of type char, including whether an assignment
will result in a compilation error. Don’t worry—it won’t test you on the value
that’s actually displayed after assigning arbitrary integer values to a char!
EXAM TIP
2.1.4
Confusion with the names of the primitive data types
If you’ve previously worked in another programming language, there’s a good chance
that you might get confused with the names of the primitive data types in Java and other
languages. For example, C defines a primitive short int data type. But short and int
are two separate primitive data types in Java. The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam
will test you on your ability to recognize the names of the primitive data types, and the
answers to these questions may not be immediately obvious. An example follows:
Question: What is the output of the following code?
public class MyChar {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int myInt = 7;
bool result = true;
if (result == true)
do
System.out.println(myInt);
while (myInt > 10);
}
}
a
b
c
d
It prints 7 once.
It prints nothing.
Compilation error.
Runtime error.
The correct answer is (c). This question tries to trick you with complex code that
doesn’t use any if constructs or do-while loops! As you can see, it uses an incorrect
data type name, bool, to declare and initialize the variable result. Therefore, the
code will fail to compile.
Watch out for questions that use incorrect names for the primitive
data types. For example, there isn’t any bool primitive data type in Java. The
correct data type is boolean. If you’ve worked with other programming languages, you might get confused trying to remember the exact names of all the
primitive data types used in Java. Remember that just two of the primitive data
types—int and char—are shortened; the rest of the primitive data types
(byte, short, long, float, and double) are not.
EXAM TIP
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Identifiers
2.2
Identifiers
Identifiers are names of packages, classes, interfaces, methods, and variables. Though
identifying a valid identifier is not explicitly included in the exam objectives, there’s a
good chance that you’ll encounter a question similar to the following that will require
you to identify valid and invalid identifiers:
Question: Which of the following lines of code will compile successfully?
a
b
byte exam_total = 7;
int exam-Total = 1090;
The correct answer is (a). Option (b) is incorrect because hyphens aren’t allowed in
the name of a Java identifier. Underscores are allowed.
2.2.1
Valid and invalid identifiers
Table 2.7 contains a list of rules that will enable you to correctly define valid (and
invalid) identifiers, along with some examples.
Table 2.7 Ingredients of valid and invalid identifiers
Properties of valid identifiers
Properties of invalid identifiers
Unlimited length
Same spelling as a Java reserved word or keyword
(see table 2.8)
Starts with a letter ( a–z, upper- or lowercase), a
currency sign, or an underscore
Uses special characters: !, @, #, %, ^, &, *, (, ),
', :, ;, [, /, \, }
Can use a digit (not at the starting position)
Starts with a Java digit (0–9)
Can use an underscore (at any position)
Can use a currency sign (at any position): ¤, $, £,
¢, ¥, and others
Examples of valid identifiers
Examples of invalid identifiers
customerValueObject
7world (identifier can’t start with a digit)
$rate, £Value, _sine
%value (identifier can’t use special char %)
happy2Help, nullValue
Digital!, books@manning (identifier can’t
use special char ! or @)
Constant
null, true, false, goto (identifier can’t have
the same name as a Java keyword or reserved
word)
You can’t define a variable with the same name as Java keywords or reserved words. As
these names suggest, they’re reserved for specific purposes. Table 2.8 lists Java keywords, reserved words, and literals that you can’t use as identifier names.
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Table 2.8 Java keywords and reserved words that can’t be used as names for Java variables
abstract
default
goto
package
this
assert
do
if
private
throw
boolean
double
implements
protected
throws
break
else
import
public
transient
byte
enum
instanceof
return
true
case
extends
int
short
try
catch
false
interface
static
void
char
final
long
strictfp
volatile
class
finally
native
super
while
const
float
new
switch
continue
for
null
synchronized
Let’s combat some of the common mistakes when determining correct and incorrect
variables using the following variable declarations:
Valid: underscore
is allowed
int
int
int
int
int
int
int
Valid: combination of
two or more keywords
falsetrue;
javaseminar, javaSeminar;
DATA-COUNT;
DATA_COUNT;
car.count;
%ctr;
¥to£And$¢;
Valid (though
strange)
Valid (but using both of these
together can be very confusing)
Invalid: hyphen
isn’t allowed
Invalid: % sign
isn’t allowed
Invalid: a dot in
a variable name
is not allowed
Next, let’s look at the object reference variables and how they differ from the primitive variables.
2.3
Object reference variables
[2.1] Declare and initialize variables (including casting of primitive data types)
[2.2] Differentiate between object reference variables and primitive variables
The variables in Java can be categorized into two types: primitive variables and reference
variables. In this section, along with a quick introduction to reference variables, we’ll
cover the basic differences between reference variables and primitive variables.
Reference variables are also known as object reference variables or object references. I use
these terms interchangeably in this text.
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Object reference variables
2.3.1
What are object reference variables?
Objects are instances of classes, including both predefined and user-defined classes. For
a reference type in Java, the variable name evaluates to the address of the location in
memory where the object referenced by the variable is stored. An object reference is, in
fact, a memory address that points to a memory area where an object’s data is located.
Let’s quickly define a barebones class, Person, as follows:
class Person {}
When an object is instantiated with the new operator, a memory address value to that
object is returned. That address is usually assigned to the reference variable. Figure 2.10
shows a line of code that creates a reference variable person of type Person and assigns
an object to it.
Operator used to
create a new object
Person person = new Person();
Type of object
reference variable
Name of object
reference variable
Object referred to by
variable person
Figure 2.10 The creation
and assignment of a
reference variable
When the statement shown in figure 2.10 executes, three things happen:
■
■
■
A new Person object is created.
A variable named person is created in the stack with an empty (null) value.
The variable person is assigned the memory address value where the object
is located.
Figure 2.11 contains an illustration of a reference variable and the object it refers to
in memory.
Person person = new Person();
Object reference,
variable person
B1050
Person object
located at
address B1050
Heap
memory
Stack
memory
Figure 2.11
An object reference variable and the referenced object in memory
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You can think of an object reference variable as a handle to an object that allows you
access to that object’s attributes. The following analogy will help you understand
object reference variables, the objects that they refer to, and their relationship. Think
of objects as analogous to dogs, and think of object references as analogous to leashes.
Although this analogy won’t bear too much analysis, the following comparisons are valid:
■
■
■
■
A leash not attached to a dog is a reference object variable with a null value.
A dog without a leash is a Java object that’s not referred to by any object reference variable.
Just as an unleashed dog might be picked up by animal control, an object that
isn’t referred to by a reference variable is liable to be garbage collected (removed
from memory by the JVM).
Several leashes may be tethered to a single dog. Similarly, a Java object may be
referenced by multiple object reference variables.
Figure 2.12 illustrates this analogy.
A leash without a dog.
A dog without a leash.
Several leashes may be tethered to one dog.
Figure 2.12
Dog leash analogy for understanding objects
The default value of all types of object reference variables is null. You can also assign
a null value to a reference variable explicitly. Here’s an example:
Person person = null;
In this case, the reference variable person can be compared to a leash without a dog.
NOTE
The literal value for all types of object reference variables is null.
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Object reference variables
2.3.2
Differentiating between object reference variables and
primitive variables
Just as men and women are fundamentally different (according to John Gray, author
of Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus), primitive variables and object reference
variables differ from each other in multiple ways. The basic difference is that primitive
variables store the actual values, whereas reference variables store the addresses of the
objects they refer to.
Let’s assume that a class Person is already defined. If you create an int variable a
and an object reference variable person, they will store their values in memory, as
shown in figure 2.13.
int a = 77;
Person person = new Person();
Primitive
int variable a
77
Object stored at
address B10
Heap
memory
Object reference
variable person
B10
Stack
memory
Figure 2.13 Primitive variables store the actual values, whereas object reference
variables store the addresses of the objects they refer to.
Other important differences between primitive variables and object reference variables are shown in figure 2.14 as a conversation between a girl and a boy. The girl represents an object reference variable and the boy represents a primitive variable.
(Don’t worry if you don’t understand all of these analogies. They’ll make much more
sense after you read related topics in later chapters.)
In the next section, you’ll start manipulating these variables using operators.
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Figure 2.14
Differences between object reference variables and primitive variables
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Figure 2.14
2.4
111
Differences between object reference variables and primitive variables (continued)
Operators
[3.1] Use Java operators; including parentheses to override operator
precedence
In this section, you’ll use different types of operators—assignment, arithmetic, relational, and logical—to manipulate the values of variables. You’ll write code to determine the equality of two primitive data types. You’ll also learn how to modify the
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default precedence of an operator by using parentheses. For the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you should be able to work with the operators listed in table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Operator types and the relevant operators
Operator type
Operators
Purpose
Assignment
=, +=, -=, *=, /=
Assign value to a variable
Arithmetic
+, -, *, /, %, ++, --
Add, subtract, multiply, divide, and modulus primitives
Relational
<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=
Compare primitives
Logical
!, &&, ||
Apply NOT, AND, and OR logic to primitives
Not all operators can be used with all types of operands. For example,
you can determine whether a number is greater than another number, but
you can’t determine whether true is greater than false or a number is
greater than true. Take note of this as you learn the usage of all the operators
on this exam.
NOTE
2.4.1
Assignment operators
The assignment operators that you need to know for the exam are =, +=, -=, *=,
and /=.
The simple assignment operator, =, is the most frequently used operator. It’s used
to initialize variables with values and to reassign new values to them.
The +=, -=, *=, and /= operators are short forms of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with assignment. The += operator can be read as “first add and
then assign,” and -= can be read as “first subtract and then assign.” Similarly, *= can be
read as “first multiply and then assign,” /= can be read as “first divide and then
assign,” and %= can be read as “first modulus and then assign.” If you apply these operators to two operands, a and b, they can be represented as follows:
a
a
a
a
a
-=
+=
*=
/=
%=
b
b
b
b
b
is
is
is
is
is
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
to
to
to
to
to
a
a
a
a
a
=
=
=
=
=
a
a
a
a
a
–
+
*
/
%
b
b
b
b
b
Let’s have a look at some valid lines of code:
OK to assign literal 10.2
to variable of type double
OK to
assign
variables
of same
type
double myDouble2 = 10.2;
int a = 10;
int b = a;
float float1 = 10.2F;
float float2 = float1;
OK to assign literal 10 to
variable of type int
OK to assign variables
of same type
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OK to assign literal
10.2F to variable of
type float
113
Operators
Reassign
a value of
10 to both
variables
a and b.
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
+= a;
= b = 10;
-= a;
= b = 10;
*= a;
= b = 10;
/= a;
OK; b is assigned a value
of 20. b = 10 + 10.
OK; b is assigned a value
of 0. b = 10 – 10.
b is assigned a value of
100. b = 10 * 10.
b is assigned a value of
1. b = 10 / 10.
Next let’s look at some invalid lines of code:
Ouch! boolean can’t
be assigned to double.
double myDouble2 = true;
boolean b = 'c';
boolean b1 = 0;
boolean b2 -= b1;
Ouch! You can’t add or
subtract boolean values.
Ouch! char can’t
be assigned to
boolean.
Ouch! boolean can’t be
assigned a literal value
other than true or false.
Now let’s try to squeeze the variables that can store a larger range of values into variables with a shorter range. Try the following assignments:
long num = 100976543356L;
int val = num;
Compiler won’t
allow this
It’s similar to what’s shown in figure 2.15, where someone is forcefully trying to squeeze
a bigger value (long) into a smaller container (int).
Ouch!
That hurts!
long
Small container (int)
Figure 2.15 Assigning a bigger value
(long) to a variable (int) that’s only
capable of storing a smaller value range
You can still assign a bigger value to a variable that can only store smaller ranges by
explicitly casting the bigger value to a smaller value. By doing so, you tell the compiler
that you know what you’re doing. In that case, the compiler proceeds by chopping off
any extra bits that may not fit into the smaller variable. Beware! Though chopping off
extra bits will make a bigger value fit in a smaller data type, the remaining bits won’t
represent the original value and can produce unexpected results.
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Compare the previous assignment example (assigning a long to an int) with the
following example that assigns a smaller value (int) to a variable (long) that’s capable
of storing bigger value ranges:
int intVal = 1009;
long longVal = intVal;
Allowed
An int can easily fit into a long because there’s enough room for it (as shown in figure 2.16).
I can
easily fit
here!
Big container (long)
int
Figure 2.16 Assigning a smaller value (int) to
a variable (long) that’s capable of storing a
larger value range
EXAM TIP You can’t use the assignment operators to assign a boolean value
to variables of type char, byte, int, short, long, float, or double, or vice versa.
You can also assign multiple values on the same line using the assignment operator.
Examine the following lines of code:
Define and
initialize
variables
on the
same line
b
int a = 7, b = 10, c = 8;
a = b = c;
System.out.println(a);
Assignment starts from right; the
value of c is assigned to b and
the value of b is assigned to a
Prints 8
On the line tagged B, the assignment starts from right to left. The value of variable c
is assigned to the variable b, and the value of variable b (which is already equal to c) is
assigned to the variable a. This is proved by the fact that line 3 prints 8, and not 7!
The next Twist in the Tale throws in a few twists with variable assignment and initialization. Let’s see if you can identify the incorrect ones (answers in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 2.2
Let’s modify the assignment and initialization of the boolean variables used in previous
sections. Examine the following code initializations and select the incorrect answers:
public class Foo {
public static void main (String args[]) {
boolean b1, b2, b3, b4, b5, b6;
// line 1
b1 = b2 = b3 = true;
// line 2
b4 = 0;
// line 3
b5 = 'false';
// line 4
b6 = yes;
// line 5
}
}
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a
b
c
d
e
2.4.2
The code on line 1 will fail to compile.
Can’t initialize multiple variables like the code on line 2.
The code on line 3 is correct.
Can’t assign 'false' to a boolean variable.
The code on line 5 is correct.
Arithmetic operators
Let’s take a quick look at each of these operators, together with a simple example, in
table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Use of arithmetic operators with examples
Operator
Purpose
Usage
Answer
+
Addition
12 + 10
22
-
Subtraction
19 – 29
-10
*
Multiplication
101 * 45
4545
/
Division (quotient)
10 / 6
10.0 / 6.0
1
1.6666666666666667
%
Modulus (remainder in division)
10 % 6
10.0 % 6.0
4
4.0
++
Unary increment operator; increments value by 1
++var or var++
11 (assuming value of
var is 10)
--
Unary decrement operator; decrements value by 1
--var or var--
9 (assuming value of var
is 10)
You can use unary increment and decrement operators with variables but not with literal values. If you do, the code won’t compile.
EXAM TIP
When you apply the addition operator to char values, their corresponding ASCII values are added and subtracted. Here’s a quick example (the ASCII value of character
a is 97):
char char1 = 'a';
System.out.println(char1);
System.out.print(char1 + char1);
Outputs a
Outputs 194
And the following code outputs 0:
char char1 = 'a';
System.out.print(char1 - char1);
Outputs 0
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EXAM TIP You can use all arithmetic operators with the char primitive data
type, including unary increment and decrement operators.
IMPLICIT WIDENING OF DATA TYPES IN AN ARITHMETIC OPERATION
All byte, short, and char values are automatically widened to int when used as operands for arithmetic operations. If a long value is involved somewhere, then everything, including int values, is widened to long. This explains why you can’t assign the
sum of two byte values to a short type:
byte age1 = 10;
byte age2 = 20;
short sum = age1 + age2;
Fails to
compile
The preceding code fails with the following error message:
incompatible types: possible lossy conversion from int to short
short sum = age1 + age2;
^
1 error
For arithmetic operations with data types char, byte, short, or
int, all operand values are widened to int. If an arithmetic operation
includes the data type long, all operand values are widened to long. If an
arithmetic operation includes a data type of float or double, all operand values are widened to double.
EXAM TIP
But if you modify the preceding example and define variables age1 and age2 as final
variables, then the compiler is assured that their sum, value 30, can be assigned to a
variable of type short, without any loss of precision. In this case, the compiler is good
to assign the sum of age1 and age2 to sum. Here’s the modified code:
final byte age1 = 10;
final byte age2 = 20;
short sum = age1 + age2;
Compiles
successfully
++ AND -- (UNARY INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS)
The operators ++ and -- are unary operators; they work with a single operand. They’re
used to increment or decrement the value of a variable by 1.
Unary operators can also be used in prefix and postfix notation. In prefix notation,
the operator appears before its operand:
int a = 10;
++a;
Operator ++ in
prefix notation
In postfix notation, the operator appears after its operand:
int a = 10;
a++;
Operator ++ in
postfix notation
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Operators
When these operators aren’t part of an expression, the postfix and prefix notations
behave in exactly the same manner:
int a = 20;
Assign 20 to a
int b = 10;
Assign 10 to b
++a;
b++;
Prints 21
System.out.println(a);
System.out.println(b);
Prints 11
When a unary operator is used in an expression, its placement with respect to its operand decides whether its value will increment or decrement before the evaluation of
the expression or after the evaluation of the expression. See the following code,
where the operator ++ is used in prefix notation:
Assign 20 to a
int a = 20;
int b = 10;
Assign 10 to b
int c = a - ++b;
System.out.println(c);
Prints 9
System.out.println(b);
Assign 20 – (++10), that
is, 20–11, or 9, to c
Prints 11
In the preceding example, the expression a - ++b uses the increment operator (++) in
prefix notation. Therefore, the value of variable b increments to 11 before it’s subtracted from 20, assigning the result 9 to the variable c.
When ++ is used in postfix notation with an operand, its value increments after it’s
been used in the expression:
Assign 50 to a
int a = 50;
int b = 10;
Assign 10 to b
int c = a - b++;
System.out.println(c);
Prints 40
System.out.println(b);
Assign 50 – (10++), that
is, 50–10, or 40, to c
Prints 11
The interesting part here is that the value of b is printed as 11 in both cases because
the value of the variable increments (or decrements) as soon as the expression in
which it’s used is evaluated.
The same logic applies to the unary operator, --. Here’s an example:
Assign 20.0 to d
double d = 20.0;
Assign 20.0 * (--10.0), that
double e = 10.0;
Assign 10.0 to e
is, 20.0 * 9.0, or 180.0, to f
double f = d * --e;
System.out.println(f);
Prints 180.0
System.out.println(e);
Prints 9.0
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Let’s use the unary decrement operator (--) in postfix notation and see what happens:
Assign 20.0 to d
double d = 20.0;
Assign 20.0 * (10.0--), that is,
double e = 10.0;
Assign 10.0 to e
20.0 * 10.0, or 200.0, to f
double f = d * e--;
System.out.println(f);
Prints 200.0
System.out.println(e);
Prints 9.0
Let’s check out some example code that uses unary increment and decrement operators in both prefix and postfix notation in the same line of code. What do you think
the output of the following code will be?
int a = 10;
a = a++ + a + a-- - a-- + ++a;
System.out.println(a);
The output of this code is 32. The expression on the right-hand side evaluates from
left to right, with the following values, which evaluate to 32:
a = 10 + 11 + 11 - 10 + 10;
The evaluation of an expression starts from left to right. For a prefix unary operator,
the value of its operand increments or decrements just before its value is used in an
expression. For a postfix unary operator, the value of its operand increments or decrements just after its value is used in an expression. Figure 2.17 illustrates what’s happening in the preceding expression.
Value of a increments to 11 due
to postfix ++ used prior to this.
Value of a decrements to 10 due to
postfix -- used prior to this.
a = a++ + a + a-- - a-- + ++a;
Value of a will increment after
this current value is used.
Because this is again a postfix notation,
value 11 is used before the decrement.
The value of a decrements to
9 due to a-- here, but again
increments to 10 due to ++a.
Figure 2.17 Evaluation of an expression that has multiple occurrences of unary operators in postfix
and prefix notation
For the exam, it’s important for you to have a good understanding of, and practice in,
using postfix and prefix operators. In addition to the expressions shown in the previous
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Operators
examples, you can also find them in use as conditions in if statements, for loops, and
do-while and while loops.
The next Twist in the Tale exercise will give you practice with unary operators used
in prefix and postfix notation (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 2.3
Let’s modify the expression used in figure 2.17 by replacing all occurrences of unary
operators in prefix notation with postfix notations and vice versa. So ++a changes to
a++, and vice versa. Similarly, --a changes to a--, and vice versa. Your task is to evaluate the modified expression and determine the output of the following code:
int a = 10;
a = ++a + a + --a - --a + a++;
System.out.println (a);
Try to form the expression by replacing the values of variable a in the expression and
explain each of them, the way it was done for you in figure 2.17.
2.4.3
Relational operators
Relational operators are used to check one condition. You can use these operators to
determine whether a primitive value is equal to another value or whether it is less than
or greater than the other value.
These relational operators can be divided into two categories:
■
■
Comparing greater (>, >=) and lesser values (<, <=)
Comparing values for equality (==) and inequality (!=)
The operators <, <=, >, and >= work with all types of numbers, both integers (including char) and floating point, that can be added and subtracted. Examine the following code:
int i1 = 10;
int i2 = 20;
System.out.println(i1 >= i2);
long long1 = 10;
long long2 = 20;
System.out.println(long1 <= long2);
Prints false
Prints true
The second category of operators is covered in the following section.
EXAM TIP You can’t compare incomparable values. For example, you can’t
compare a boolean with an int, a char, or a floating-point number. If you try
to do so, your code will not compile.
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COMPARING PRIMITIVES FOR EQUALITY (USING == AND !=)
The operators == (equal to) and != (not equal to) can be used to compare all types of
primitives: char, byte, short, int, long, float, double, and boolean. The operator
== returns the boolean value true if the primitive values that you’re comparing are
equal, and false otherwise. The operator != returns true if the primitive values that
you’re comparing are not equal, and false otherwise. For the same set of values, if ==
returns true, != will return false. Sounds interesting!
Examine the following code:
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
System.out.println(a == b);
System.out.println(a != b);
boolean b1 = false;
System.out.println(b1 == true);
System.out.println(b1 != true);
System.out.println(b1 == false);
System.out.println(b1 != false);
Prints false
Prints true
Prints false
Prints true
Prints true
Prints false
Remember that you can’t apply these operators to incomparable types. In the following code snippet, the code that compares an int variable to a boolean variable will fail
to compile:
int a = 10;
boolean b1 = false;
System.out.println(a == b1);
Causes
compilation error
Here’s the compilation error:
incomparable types: int and boolean
System.out.println(a == b1);
^
EXAM TIP The result of the relational operation is always a boolean value.
You can’t assign the result of a relational operation to a variable of type char,
int, byte, short, long, float, or double.
COMPARING PRIMITIVES USING THE ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR (=)
It’s a very common mistake to use the assignment operator, =, in place of the equality
operator, ==, to compare primitive values. Before reading any further, check out the
following code:
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
System.out.println(a = b);
boolean b1 = false;
System.out.println(b1 = true);
System.out.println(b1 = false);
b
Prints 20 (this is not
a boolean value!)
c
Prints false
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Prints true
121
Operators
In the previous example, B isn’t comparing the variables a and b. It’s assigning the
value of the variable b to a and then printing out the value of the variable a, which is
20. Similarly, c isn’t comparing the variable b1 with the boolean literal true. It’s
assigning the boolean literal true to variable b1 and printing out the value of the variable b1.
NOTE
You can’t compare primitive values by using the assignment opera-
tor, =.
2.4.4
Logical operators
Logical operators are used to evaluate one or more expressions. These expressions
should return a boolean value. You can use the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT to
check multiple conditions and proceed accordingly. Here are a few real-life examples:
■
■
■
Case 1 (for managers)—Request promotion if customer is extremely happy with
the delivered project AND you think you deserve to be in your boss’s seat!
Case 2 (for students)—Accept job proposal if handsome pay and perks OR awesome work profile.
Case 3 (for entry-level Java programmers)—If NOT happy with current job, change it.
In each of these example cases, you’re making a decision (request promotion, accept
job proposal, or change job) only if a set of conditions is satisfied. In case 1, a manager
may request a promotion only if both the specified conditions are met. In case 2, a student may accept a new job if either of the conditions is true. In case 3, an entry-level
Java programmer may change their current job if not happy with the current job, that
is, if the specified condition (being happy with the current job) is false.
As illustrated in these examples, if you wish to proceed with a task when both the
conditions are true, use the logical AND operator, &&. If you wish to proceed with a task
when either of the conditions is true, use the logical OR operator, ||. If you wish to
reverse the outcome of a boolean value, use the negation operator, !.
Time to look at some code in action:
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
System.out.println(a
System.out.println(a
System.out.println(!
System.out.println(!
b
> 20
> 20
(b >
(a >
Prints false
c
&& b > 10);
|| b > 10);
10));
20));
Prints true
d
e
Prints false
Prints true
B prints false because both of the conditions, a > 20 and b > 10, are not true. The
first one (a > 20) is false. c prints true because one of these conditions (b > 10) is
true. d prints false because the specified condition, b > 10, is true. e prints true
because the specified condition, a > 20, is false.
Table 2.11 will help you understand the result of using these logical operators.
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Table 2.11 Outcome of using boolean literal values with the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT
Operators && (AND)
Operator || (OR)
true && true true
true && false false
false && true false
false && false false
true && true && false
false
true
true
false
false
false
true
||
||
||
||
||
true
false
true
false
false ||
Operator ! (NOT)
true
!true false
true
!false true
true
false
true
Here’s a summary of this table:
■
■
■
Logical AND (&&)—Evaluates to true if all operands are true; false otherwise.
Logical OR (||)—Evaluates to true if any or all the operands are true.
Logical negation (!)—Negates the boolean value. Evaluates to true for false
and vice versa.
The operators | and & can also be used to manipulate individual bits of a number
value, but I won’t cover this usage here, because it’s not on this exam.
&& AND || ARE SHORT-CIRCUIT OPERATORS
Another interesting point to note with respect to the logical operators && and || is
that they’re also called short-circuit operators because of the way they evaluate their
operands to determine the result. Let’s start with the operator &&.
The && operator returns true only if both the operands are true. If the first operand to this operator evaluates to false, the result can never be true. Therefore, &&
does not evaluate the second operand. Similarly, the || operator does not evaluate the
second operator if the first operand evaluates to true.
int marks = 8;
int total = 10;
System.out.println(total < marks && ++marks > 5);
System.out.println(marks);
System.out.println(total == 10 || ++marks > 10);
System.out.println(marks);
b
Prints false
c
Prints 8
d
e
Prints true
Prints 8
In the first print statement B, because the first condition, total < marks, evaluates to
false, the next condition, ++marks > 5, isn’t even evaluated. As you can see c, the
output value of marks is still 8 (the value to which it was initialized on line 1)! Similarly, in the next comparison d, because total == 10 evaluates to true, the second
condition, ++marks > 10, isn’t evaluated. Again, this can be verified when the value of
marks is printed again e, and the output is 8.
All the relational and logical operators return a boolean value, which
can be assigned to a primitive boolean variable.
NOTE
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The purpose of the next Twist in the Tale is to encourage you to play with code that
uses short-circuit operators. To determine whether a boolean expression passed as an
operand to the short-circuit operators evaluates, you can apply a unary increment
operator (in postfix notation) to the variable used in the expression. Compare the
new variable value with the old value to verify whether the expression was evaluated
(answers in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 2.4
As you know, the short-circuit operators && and || may not evaluate both their operands if they can determine the result of the expression by evaluating just the first
operand. Examine the following code and circle the expressions that you think will
evaluate. Draw a square around the expressions that you think may not execute. (For
example, on line 1, both a++ > 10 and ++b < 30 will evaluate.)
class TwistInTaleLLogicalOperators {
public static void main (String args[]) {
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = 40;
System.out.println(a++ > 10 || ++b < 30);
// line1
System.out.println(a > 90 && ++b < 30);
System.out.println(!(c>20) && a==10 );
System.out.println(a >= 99 || a <= 33 && b == 10);
System.out.println(a >= 99 && a <= 33 || b == 10);
}
}
Example use of the short-circuit operator && in real projects
The logical operator && is often used in code to check whether an object reference
variable has been assigned a value before invoking a method on it:
String name = "hello";
if (name != null && name.length() > 0)
System.out.println(name.toUpperCase());
2.4.5
Operator precedence
What happens if you use multiple operators within a single line of code with multiple operands? Which one should be treated like the king and given preference over
the others?
Don’t worry. Java already has a rule in place for just such a situation. Table 2.12 lists
the precedence of operators: the operator on top has the highest precedence, and
operators within the same group have the same precedence and are evaluated from
left to right.
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Table 2.12 Precedence of operators
Operator
Precedence
Postfix
Expression++, expression--
Unary
++expression, --expression, +expression, -expression, !
Multiplication
* (multiply), / (divide), % (remainder)
Addition
+ (add), - (subtract)
Relational
<, >, <=, >=
Equality
==, !=
Logical AND
&&
Logical OR
||
Assignment
=, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
Table 2.12 is limited to the operators that are part of the OCA exam.
You can access the complete list at https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/
java/nutsandbolts/operators.html.
NOTE
Let’s execute an expression that uses multiple operators (with different precedence)
in an expression:
int int1 = 10, int2 = 20, int3 = 30;
System.out.println(int1 % int2 * int3 + int1 / int2);
Because this expression
evaluated as follows:
b
Prints 300
B defines multiple operators with different precedence, it’s
(((int1 % int2) * int3)) + (int1 / int2)
(((10 % 20) * 30)) + (10 / 20)
( (10
* 30)) + (0)
( 300 )
What if you don’t want to evaluate the expression in this way? The remedy is simple:
use parentheses to override the default operator precedence. Here’s an example that
adds int3 and int1 before multiplying by int2:
int int1 = 10, int2 = 20, int3 = 30;
System.out.println(int1 % int2 * (int3 + int1) / int2);
Prints 20!
You can use parentheses to override the default operator precedence.
If your expression defines multiple operators and you’re unsure how your
expression will be evaluated, use parentheses to evaluate in your preferred
order. The inner parentheses are evaluated prior to the outer ones, following
the same rules of classic algebra.
NOTE
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Wrapper classes
2.5
Wrapper classes
[2.5] Develop code that uses wrapper classes such as Boolean, Double,
and Integer.
Java defines a wrapper class for each of its primitive data types. The wrapper classes
are used to wrap primitives in an object, so they can be added to a collection object.
They enable all types to be treated like object instances. Wrapper classes help you
write cleaner code, which is easy to read. For this exam, you should be able to write
code that uses these wrapper classes.
2.5.1
Class hierarchy of wrapper classes
All the wrapper classes are immutable—classes that don’t allow changes to the state of
their instances after initialization. They share multiple usage details and methods. Figure 2.18 shows their hierarchy.
Object
Boolean
Serializable
Character
Byte
Figure 2.18
Comparable
Number
Short
Integer
Long
Float
Double
Hierarchy of wrapper classes
All the numeric wrapper classes extend the class java.lang.Number. Classes Boolean
and Character directly extend the class Object. All the wrapper classes implement
the interfaces java.io.Serializable and java.lang.Comparable. All these classes
can be serialized to a stream, and their objects define a natural sort order.
2.5.2
Creating objects of the wrapper classes
You can create objects of all the wrapper classes in multiple ways:
■
■
■
Assignment—By assigning a primitive to a wrapper class variable (autoboxing)
Constructor—By using wrapper class constructors
Static methods—By calling static method of wrapper classes, like, valueOf()
For example:
Boolean bool1 = true;
Character char1 = 'a';
Byte byte1 = 10;
Double double1 = 10.98;
Autoboxing
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Boolean bool2 = new Boolean(true);
Character char2 = new Character('a');
Byte byte2 = new Byte((byte)10);
Double double2 = new Double(10.98);
//Character char3 = new Character("a");
Boolean bool3 = new Boolean("true");
Byte byte3 = new Byte("10");
Double double3 = new Double("10.98");
Boolean bool4 = Boolean.valueOf(true);
Boolean bool5 = Boolean.valueOf(true);
Boolean bool6 = Boolean.valueOf("TrUE");
Double double4 = Double.valueOf(10);
Constructors that
accept primitive value
Won’t compile
(if uncommented)
Constructor that
accepts String
Using static
method valueOf()
You can create objects of the rest of the wrapper classes (Short, Integer, Long, and
Float) in a similar manner. All the wrapper classes define constructors to create an
object using a corresponding primitive value or as a String.
Another interesting point to note is that neither of these classes defines a default
no-argument constructor. The wrapper classes are immutable. So it doesn’t make
sense to initialize the wrapper objects with the default primitive values if they can’t be
modified later.
EXAM TIP All wrapper classes (except Character) define a constructor that
accepts a String argument representing the primitive value that needs to be
wrapped. Watch out for exam questions that include a call to a no-argument
constructor of a wrapper class. None of these classes define a no-argument
constructor.
You can assign a primitive value directly to a reference variable of its wrapper class
type—thanks to autoboxing. The reverse is unboxing, when an object of a primitive
wrapper class is converted to its corresponding primitive value. I’ll discuss autoboxing
and auto-unboxing, in detail, in the next section.
2.5.3
Retrieving primitive values from the wrapper classes
All wrapper classes define methods of the format primitiveValue(), where the term
primitive refers to the exact primitive data type name. Table 2.13 shows a list of the
classes and their methods to retrieve corresponding primitive values.
Table 2.13 Methods to retrieve primitive values from wrapper classes
Boolean
Character
Byte, Short, Integer, Long, Float, Double
booleanValue()
charValue()
byteValue(), shortValue(), intValue(),
longValue(), floatValue(), doubleValue()
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Wrapper classes
It’s interesting to note that all numeric wrapper classes define methods to retrieve the
value of the primitive value they store, as a byte, short, int, long, float, or double.
EXAM TIP All six numeric wrapper classes inherit all six *** Value() methods
from their common superclass, Number.
2.5.4
Parsing a string value to a primitive type
To get a primitive data type value corresponding to a string value, you can use the
static utility method parseDataType, where DataType refers to the type of the return
value. Each wrapper class (except Character) defines a method to parse a String to
the corresponding primitive value, as listed in table 2.14.
Table 2.14 List of parseDataType methods in wrapper classes
Class name
Method
Boolean
public static boolean parseBoolean(String s)
Character
no corresponding parsing method
Byte
public static byte parseByte(String s)
Short
public static short parseShort (String s)
Integer
public static int parseInt(String s)
Long
public static long parseLong(String s)
Float
public static float parseFloat(String s)
Double
public static double parseDouble(String s)
All these parsing methods throw NumberFormatExceptions for invalid values. Here are
some examples:
Long.parseLong("12.34");
Throws NumberFormatException:
12.34 isn’t a valid long
Throws NumberFormatException:
1234 is out of range for byte
Byte.parseByte("1234");
Boolean.parseBoolean("true");
Returns boolean true
Boolean.parseBoolean("TrUe");
No exceptions; the String
argument isn’t case-sensitive
EXAM TIP All parse methods (listed in table 2.14) throw NumberFormatException except Boolean.parseBoolean(). This method returns false when-
ever the string it parses is not equal to “true” (case-insensitive comparison).
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
Difference between using the valueOf method and constructors
of wrapper classes
The valueOf() method returns an object of the corresponding wrapper class when
it’s passed an argument of a primitive type or String. So what is the difference
between the valueOf() method and constructors of these classes, which also accept
method arguments of a primitive type and String?
Wrapper classes Byte, Short, Integer, and Long cache objects with values in the
range of -128 to 127. The Character class caches objects with values 0 to 127. These
classes define inner static classes that store objects for the primitive values -128 to 127
or 0 to 127 in an array. If you request an object of any of these classes, from this range,
the valueOf() method returns a reference to a predefined object; otherwise, it creates a new object and returns its reference:
Long var1 = Long.valueOf(123);
Long var2 = Long.valueOf("123");
System.out.println(var1 == var2);
Prints true; var1 and var2 refer
to the same cached object.
Long var3 = Long.valueOf(223);
Long var4 = Long.valueOf(223);
System.out.println(var3 == var4);
Prints false; var3 and var4
refer to different objects.
Wrapper classes Float and Double don’t cache objects for any
range of values.
EXAM TIP
In the case of the Boolean class, the cached instances are accessible directly because
only two exist: static constants Boolean.TRUE and Boolean.FALSE.
2.5.6
Comparing objects of wrapper classes
You can compare objects of wrapper classes for equality by using the method equals
or the comparison operator, that is, ==. Method equals() always compares the primitive value stored by a wrapper instance, and == compares object references. The operator == returns true if the variables being compared to refer to the same instance.
Refer to the preceding section on valueOf(). Wrapper classes like Character,
Byte, Short, Integer, and Long cache wrapper objects for values 0 to 127 or -128 to
127. Depending on how you initialize wrapper instances, they might or might not
refer to the same instances. The following example initializes Integer variables using
constructors, the static method valueOf, and autoboxing (covered in the next section). Let’s compare these references using ==:
Integer i1 = new Integer(10);
Integer i2 = new Integer(10);
Integer i3 = Integer.valueOf(10);
Integer i4 = Integer.valueOf(10);
Integer i5 = 10;
Integer i6 = 10;
Constructors always
create new instances.
valueOf returns a cached
copy for int value 10.
Autoboxing returns a cached
copy for applicable values.
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System.out.println(i1
System.out.println(i3
System.out.println(i4
System.out.println(i5
==
==
==
==
129
i2);
i4);
i5);
i6);
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
false
true
true
true
As evident from the output of the preceding code, Integer instances created using
the method valueOf and autoboxing for int value 10 refer to the same instance. If
you replace == with equals() in the preceding lines of code, they will output true:
System.out.println(i1.equals(i2));
System.out.println(i3.equals(i4));
System.out.println(i4.equals(i5));
System.out.println(i5.equals(i6));
Output
true
But the same isn’t applicable for Integer instances created for int value 200 and compared using == (because they aren’t stored in the Integer cache):
Integer i1 = new Integer(200);
Integer i2 = new Integer(200);
Integer i3 = Integer.valueOf(200);
Integer i4 = Integer.valueOf(200);
Integer i5 = 200;
Integer i6 = 200;
System.out.println(i1
System.out.println(i3
System.out.println(i4
System.out.println(i5
==
==
==
==
i2);
i4);
i5);
i6);
Return false—no
cached copies for
int value 200
Again, if you replace == with equals() in the preceding code, the code will output
true for all comparisons.
Cached instances exist for the wrapper Boolean class for the values
true and false. The Character class caches instances with values from 0 to
127. Classes Byte, Short, Integer, and Long cache instances for values -127 to
128. No cached instances exist for the Float and Double wrapper classes.
EXAM TIP
The method equals compares the values stored by wrapper instances. The
comparison operator == compares reference variables—checking whether
they refer to the same instance.
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Using hashCode() and equals() to determine equality of wrapper class
instances
Instances of wrapper classes can be used with the Java collection framework, as
keys, with classes that support key-value pairs (like HashMap). These classes use
hashCode() and equals() to determine the equality of instances. Because the collection framework classes (apart from ArrayList) aren’t on this exam, I don’t cover
them in this book.
You can’t compare wrapper instances for equality using equals() or ==, if they aren’t
of the same class. The code won’t compile for instances that are compared using ==.
When compared using equals(), the output will be false:
Integer obj1 = 100;
Short obj2 = 100;
Outputs false
System.out.println(obj1.equals(obj2));
System.out.println(obj1 == obj2);
Doesn’t compile
EXAM TIP Objects of different wrapper classes with same values are not
equal. Using equals() with such instances will return false. If you use ==
with such instances, the code won’t compile.
The next section covers autoboxing and unboxing, used by the compiler to convert
primitive values to wrapper objects and vice versa.
2.5.7
Autoboxing and unboxing
Autoboxing is the automatic conversion of a primitive data type to an object of the corresponding wrapper class (you box the primitive value). Unboxing is the reverse process
(you unbox the primitive value), as shown in figure 2.19.
Autoboxing
Object of
wrapper
class
Primitive
value
Unboxing
Figure 2.19
Autoboxing and unboxing
The wrapper classes use autoboxing and unboxing features quite frequently:
Double d1 = new Double(12.67);
System.out.println(d1.compareTo(21.68));
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Prints -1, since
12.67 < 21.68
131
Wrapper classes
Compare the use of the preceding method against the following method defined by
the class Double:
public int compareTo(Double anotherDouble)
Wait—did I just mention that the compareTo() method defined in the class Double
accepts an object of the class Double and not a double primitive data type? Then why
does the preceding code compile? The answer is autoboxing. Java converted the primitive double to an object of the class Double (by using the valueOf() method), so it
works correctly. The Java compiler converted it to the following at runtime:
Double d1 = new Double(12.67D);
System.out.println(d1.compareTo(Double.valueOf(21.68D)));
Now examine the following code (an example of unboxing with autoboxing):
public class Unboxing {
public static void main (String args[]) {
ArrayList list = new ArrayList();
list.add(12.12);
list.add(11.24);
Double total = 0.0;
for (Double d : list)
total += d;
Unbox to use operator
}
+= with total
}
List of
Double
Autoboxing—add double
In the preceding code, at the end of execution of the for loop, total will be assigned
a Double value of 23.36. The arithmetic operators like += can’t be used with objects.
So why do you think the code compiles? In this example, the Java compiler converted
the preceding code to the following at runtime:
public class Unbox {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList list = new ArrayList();
list.add(new Double(12.12D));
list.add(new Double(11.24D));
Double total = Double.valueOf(0.0D);
for(Iterator iterator = list.iterator(); iterator.hasNext();) {
Double d = (Double)iterator.next();
total = total.doubleValue() + d.doubleValue();
}
}
In the previous section, I mentioned that wrapper classes are immutable. So what happens when you add a value to the variable total, a Double object? In this case, the variable total refers to a new Double object.
EXAM TIP Wrapper classes are immutable. Adding a primitive value to a
wrapper class variable doesn’t modify the value of the object it refers to. The
wrapper class variable is assigned a new object.
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Here’s another interesting question. What happens if you pass null as an argument to
the following method?
public int increment(Integer obj) {
return ++i;
}
Because the Java compiler would call obj.intValue() to get obj’s int value, passing
null to the increment() method will throw a NullPointerException.
EXAM TIP Unboxing a wrapper reference variable, which refers to null, will
throw a NullPointerException.
2.6
Summary
In this chapter, we started with the primitive data types in Java, including examples of
where to use each of the kinds and their literal values. We also categorized the primitives into character type, integer type, and floating type. Then we covered the ingredients of valid and invalid Java identifiers. We covered the differences between primitive
and reference types.
We discussed the operators used to manipulate primitives (limited to the ones
required for the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam). We also covered the conditions
in which a particular operator can be used. For example, if you wish to check whether
a set of conditions is true, you can use the logical operators. It’s also important to
understand the operand types that can be used for each of these operators. For example, you can’t use boolean operands with the operators >, >=, =<, and <.
We discussed the wrapper classes, including their class hierarchy, creating their
instances, retrieving primitive values stored by wrapper class instance, parsing string
values to primitive types, and comparing instances of wrapper classes. At the end of
the chapter, we covered autoboxing and unboxing.
2.7
Review notes
Primitive data types:
■
Java defines eight primitive data types: char, byte, short, int, long, float, double, and boolean.
■
■
■
Primitive data types are the simplest data types.
Primitive data types are predefined by the programming language. A user can’t
define a primitive data type in Java.
It’s helpful to categorize the primitive data types as Boolean, numeric, and character data types.
The boolean data type:
■
The boolean data type is used to store data with only two possible values. These
two possible values may be thought of as yes/no, 0/1, true/false, or any other
combination. The actual values that a boolean can store are true and false.
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■
true and false are literal values.
■
A literal is a fixed value that doesn’t need further calculations to be assigned to
any variable.
Numeric data types:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Numeric values can be stored as either integers or decimal numbers.
byte, short, int, and long can be used to store integers.
The byte, short, int, and long data types use 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, respectively,
to store their values.
float and double can be used to store decimal numbers.
The float and double data types use 32 and 64 bits, respectively, to store their
values.
The default type of integers—that is, nondecimal numbers—is int.
To designate an integer literal value as a long value, add the suffix L or l to the
literal value.
Numeric values can be stored in binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal number formats. This exam won’t ask you to convert a number from one number
system to another.
Literal values in the decimal number system use digits from 0 to 9 (a total of
10 digits).
Literal values in the octal number system use digits from 0 to 7 (a total of
8 digits).
Literal values in the hexadecimal number system use digits from 0 to 9 and letters from A to F (a total of 16 digits and letters).
Literal values in the binary number system use digits 0 and 1 (a total of 2 digits).
The literal values in the octal number system start with the prefix 0. For example, 0413 in the octal number system is 267 in the decimal number system.
The literal values in the hexadecimal number system start with the prefix 0x.
For example, 0x10B in the hexadecimal number system is 267 in the decimal
number system.
The literal values in the binary number system start with the prefix 0b or 0B. For
example, the decimal value 267 is 0B100001011 in the binary system.
Starting with Java 7, you can use underscores within the Java literal values to
make them more readable. 0B1_0000_10_11, 0_413, and 0x10_B are valid
binary, octal, and hexadecimal literal values.
The default type of a decimal number is double.
To designate a decimal literal value as a float value, add the suffix F or f to the
literal value.
The suffixes D and d can be used to mark a literal value as a double value.
Though it’s allowed, doing so is not required because the default value of decimal literals is double.
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Character primitive data types:
■
■
■
■
■
■
A char data type can store a single 16-bit Unicode character; that is, it can store
characters from virtually all the world’s existing scripts and languages.
You can use values from \u0000 (or 0) to a maximum of \uffff (or 65,535
inclusive) to store a char. Unicode values are defined in the hexadecimal number system.
Internally, the char data type is stored as an unsigned integer value (only positive integers).
When you assign a letter to a char, Java stores its integer equivalent value. You
may assign a positive integer value to a char instead of a letter, such as 122.
The literal value 122 is not the same as the Unicode value \u0122. The former is
a decimal number and the latter is a hexadecimal number.
Single quotes, not double quotes, are used to assign a letter to a char variable.
Valid identifiers:
■
■
■
■
■
A valid identifier starts with a letter (a–z, upper- or lowercase), a currency sign,
or an underscore. There is no limit to its length.
A valid identifier can contain digits but not in the starting place.
A valid identifier can use the underscore and currency sign at any position of
the identifier.
A valid identifier can’t have the same spelling as a Java keyword, such as switch.
A valid identifier can’t use any special characters, including !, @, #, %, ^, &, *, (,
), ', :, ;, [, /, \, and }.
Assignment operators:
■
■
■
■
Assignment operators can be used to assign or reassign values to all types of
variables.
A variable can’t be assigned to an incompatible value. For example, character
and numeric values can’t be assigned to a boolean variable and vice versa.
+= and -= are short forms of addition/subtraction and assignment.
+= can be read as “first add and then assign” and -= can be read as “first subtract
and then assign.”
Arithmetic operators:
■
■
■
■
Arithmetic operators can’t be used with the boolean data type. Attempting to
do so will make the code fail to compile.
++ and –- are unary increment and decrement operators. These operators work
with single operands.
Unary operators can be used in prefix or postfix notation.
When the unary operators ++ and -- are used in prefix notation, the value of the
variable increments/decrements just before the variable is used in an expression.
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■
■
135
When the unary operators ++ and -- are used in postfix notation, the value
of the variable increments/decrements just after the variable is used in an
expression.
By default, unary operators have a higher precedence than multiplication operators and addition operators.
Relational operators:
■
■
■
■
■
■
Relational operators are used to compare values for equality (==) and inequality (!=). They’re also used to determine whether two numeric values are greater
than (>, >=) or less than (<, <=) each other.
You can’t compare incomparable values. For example, you can’t compare a
boolean with an int, a char, or a floating-point number. If you try to do so,
your code will not compile.
The operators equal to (==) and not equal to (!=) can be used to compare all
types of primitives: char, byte, short, int, long, float, double, and boolean.
The operator == returns true if the primitive values being compared are equal.
The operator != returns true if the primitive values being compared are not
equal.
The result of the relational operator is always a boolean value.
Logical operators:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
You can use the logical operators to determine whether a set of conditions is
true or false and proceed accordingly.
Logical AND (&&) evaluates to true if all operands are true and false otherwise.
Logical OR (||) evaluates to true if any or all the operands are true.
Logical negation (!) negates the boolean value. It evaluates to true for false
and vice versa.
The result of a logical operation is always a boolean value.
The logical operators && and || are also called short-circuit operators. If these
operators can determine the output of the expression with the evaluation of the
first operand, they don’t evaluate the second operand.
The && operator returns true only if both of the operands are true. If the first
operand to this operator evaluates to false, the result can never be true.
Therefore, && does not evaluate the second operand.
Similarly, the || operator returns true if any of the operands is true. If the first
operand to this operator evaluates to true, the result can never be false.
Therefore, || does not evaluate the second operator.
Wrapper classes:
■
■
The wrapper classes are used to wrap primitives in an object, so they can be
added to a collection object.
All the wrapper classes are immutable.
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■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
2.8
You can create objects of all the wrapper classes in multiple ways:
– Assignment—By assigning a primitive to a wrapper class variable (autoboxing)
– Constructor—By using wrapper class constructors
– Static methods—By calling the static method of wrapper classes, like valueOf()
All wrapper classes (except Character) define a constructor that accepts a
String argument representing the primitive value that needs to be wrapped.
None of the wrapper class defines a no-argument constructor.
You can assign a primitive value directly to a reference variable of its wrapper
class type, called autoboxing. The reverse is unboxing, when an object of a
primitive wrapper class is converted to its corresponding primitive value.
All wrapper classes define methods of the format primitive Value(), where the
term primitive refers to the exact primitive data type name.
To get a primitive data type value corresponding to a string value, you can use
the static utility method parseDataType, where DataType refers to the type of the
return value.
The valueOf() method returns an object of the corresponding wrapper class
when it’s passed an argument of a primitive type or String.
You can compare objects of wrapper classes for equality by using the method
equals or the comparison operator, ==.
The method equals always compares the primitive value stored by a wrapper
instance and == compares object references. The operator == returns true if
the variables being compared refer to the same instance.
In the case of the Boolean class, the cached instances are accessible directly
because only two exist: the static constants Boolean.TRUE and Boolean.FALSE.
The Character class caches instances with values from 0 to 127. Classes Byte,
Short, Integer, and Long cache instances for values -128 to 127. No cached
instances exist for the Float and Double wrapper classes.
Wrapper classes are immutable. Adding a primitive value to a wrapper class variable doesn’t modify the value of the object it refers to. The wrapper class variable is assigned a new object.
Unboxing a wrapper reference variable, which refers to null, will throw a NullPointerException.
Sample exam questions
Q2-1. Given:
int myChar = 97;
int yourChar = 98;
System.out.print((char)myChar + (char)yourChar);
int age = 20;
System.out.print(" ");
System.out.print((float)age);
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Sample exam questions
What is the output?
a
b
c
d
e
f
195 20.0
195 20
ab 20.0
ab 20
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Q2-2. Which of the options are correct for the following code?
public class Prim {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char a = 'a';
char b = -10;
char c = '1';
integer d = 1000;
System.out.println(++a + b++ * c - d);
}
}
a
b
c
d
Code at line 4 fails to compile.
Code at line 5 fails to compile.
Code at line 6 fails to compile.
Code at line 7 fails to compile.
Q2-3. What is the output of the following code?
public class Foo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10;
long b = 20;
short c = 30;
System.out.println(++a + b++ * c);
}
}
a
b
c
d
611
641
930
960
Q2-4. Given:
Boolean buy = new Boolean(true);
Boolean sell = new Boolean(true);
System.out.print(buy == sell);
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//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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CHAPTER 2 Working with Java data types
boolean buyPrim = buy.booleanValue();
System.out.print(!buyPrim);
System.out.print(buy && sell);
What is the output?
a
b
c
d
e
f
falsefalsefalse
truefalsetrue
falsetruetrue
falsefalsetrue
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Q2-5. Which of the following options contain correct code to declare and initialize
variables to store whole numbers?
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
bit a = 0;
integer a2 = 7;
long a3 = 0x10C;
short a4 = 0512;
double a5 = 10;
byte a7 = -0;
long a8 = 123456789;
Q2-6. Select the options that, when inserted at // INSERT CODE HERE, will make the following code output a value of 11:
public class IncrementNum {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int ctr = 50;
// INSERT CODE HERE
System.out.println(ctr % 20);
}
}
a
b
c
d
ctr += 1;
ctr =+ 1;
++ctr;
ctr = 1;
Q2-7. What is the output of the following code?
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = (a * (b + 2)) - 10-4 * ((2*2) - 6;
System.out.println(c);
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Sample exam questions
c
218
232
246
d
Compilation error
a
b
Q2-8. What is true about the following lines of code?
boolean b = false;
int i = 90;
System.out.println(i >= b);
a
b
c
d
Code prints true
Code prints false
Code prints 90 >= false
Compilation error
Q2-9. Examine the following code and select the correct options:
public class Prim {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int num1 = 12;
float num2 = 17.8f;
boolean eJavaResult = true;
boolean returnVal = num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567
|| eJavaResult == true;
System.out.println(returnVal);
}
}
a
b
c
//
//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
// line 7
// line 8
// line 9
Code prints false
Code prints true
Code will print true if code on line 6 is modified to the following:
boolean returnVal = (num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567) || eJavaResult == true;
d
Code will print true if code on line 6 is modified to the following:
boolean returnVal = num1 >= 12 && (num2 < 4.567 || eJavaResult == false);
Q2-10. Given:
boolean myBool = false;
int yourInt = 10;
float hisFloat = 19.54f;
System.out.println(hisFloat = yourInt);
System.out.println(yourInt > 10);
System.out.println(myBool = false);
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//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
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What is the result?
2.9
a
true
true
false
b
10.0
false
false
c
false
false
false
d
Compilation error
Answers to sample exam questions
Q2-1. Given:
int myChar = 97;
int yourChar = 98;
System.out.print((char)myChar + (char)yourChar);
int age = 20;
System.out.print(" ");
System.out.print((float)age);
What is the output?
a
b
c
d
e
f
195 20.0
195 20
ab 20.0
ab 20
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Answer: a
Explanation: When a char primitive data type is used as an operand to arithmetic
operators, its corresponding ASCII value is used in the arithmetic operation. Though
(char)myChar explicitly casts int variable myChar to char type, its value 97 is used in
the arithmetic operation. When literal value 20 is explicitly cast to a float type, it outputs its value as a decimal number, that is, 20.0.
Q2-2. Which of the options are correct for the following code?
public class Prim {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char a = 'a';
char b = -10;
char c = '1';
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//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
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Answers to sample exam questions
integer d = 1000;
System.out.println(++a + b++ * c - d);
}
}
a
b
c
d
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
6
7
8
9
Code at line 4 fails to compile.
Code at line 5 fails to compile.
Code at line 6 fails to compile.
Code at line 7 fails to compile.
Answer: a, c, d
Explanation: Option (a) is correct. The code at line 4 fails to compile because you
can’t assign a negative value to a primitive char data type without casting.
Option (c) is correct. There is no primitive data type with the name “integer.” The
valid data types are int and Integer (a wrapper class with I in uppercase).
Option (d) is correct. The variable d remains undefined on line 7 because its declaration fails to compile on line 6. So the arithmetic expression (++a + b++ * c - d)
that uses variable d fails to compile. There are no issues with using the variable c of
the char data type in an arithmetic expression. The char data types are internally
stored as unsigned integer values and can be used in arithmetic expressions.
Q2-3. What is the output of the following code?
public class Foo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10;
long b = 20;
short c = 30;
System.out.println(++a + b++ * c);
}
}
a
b
c
d
611
641
930
960
Answer: a
Explanation: The prefix increment operator (++) used with the variable a will increment its value before it’s used in the expression ++a + b++ * c. The postfix increment
operator (++) used with the variable b will increment its value after its initial value is
used in the expression ++a + b++ * c.
Therefore, the expression ++a + b++ * c evaluates with the following values:
11 + 20 * 30
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Because the multiplication operator has a higher precedence than the addition operator, the values 20 and 30 are multiplied before the result is added to the value 11.
The example expression evaluates as follows:
(++a + b++ * c)
= 11 + 20 * 30
= 11 + 600
= 611
Although questions 2-2 and 2-3 seemed to test you on your understanding of operators, they actually tested you on different topics. Question 2-2
tested you on the name of the primitive data types. Beware! The real exam
has many such questions. A question that may seem to test you on threads
may actually be testing you on the use of a do-while loop!
EXAM TIP
Q2-4. Given:
Boolean buy = new Boolean(true);
Boolean sell = new Boolean(true);
System.out.print(buy == sell);
boolean buyPrim = buy.booleanValue();
System.out.print(!buyPrim);
System.out.print(buy && sell);
What is the output?
c
falsefalsefalse
truefalsetrue
falsetruetrue
d
falsefalsetrue
e
Compilation error
Runtime exception
a
b
f
Answer: d
Explanation: The Boolean instances buy and sell are created using constructors.
Constructors don’t refer to existing instances in cache; they create new instances.
Because the comparison operator == compares object references and not the primitive value stored by a wrapper instance, buy == sell returns false.
The method booleanValue() can be used to get the primitive boolean value
stored by a Boolean wrapper instance. So buy.booleanValue() returns false. Because
wrapper instances can be used with arithmetic and logical operators, buy && sell compiles, returning true.
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Answers to sample exam questions
143
Q2-5. Which of the following options contain correct code to declare and initialize
variables to store whole numbers?
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
bit a = 0;
integer a2 = 7;
long a3 = 0x10C;
short a4 = 0512;
double a5 = 10;
byte a7 = -0;
long a8 = 123456789;
Answer: c, d, f, g
Explanation: Options (a) and (b) are incorrect. There are no primitive data types in
Java with the names bit and integer. The correct names are byte and int.
Option (c) is correct. It assigns a hexadecimal literal value to the variable a3.
Option (d) is correct. It assigns an octal literal value to the variable a4.
Option (e) is incorrect. It defines a variable of type double, which is used to store
decimal numbers, not integers.
Option (f) is correct. -0 is a valid literal value.
Option (g) is correct. 123456789 is a valid integer literal value that can be assigned
to a variable of type long.
Q2-6. Select the options that, when inserted at // INSERT CODE HERE, will make the following code output a value of 11:
public class IncrementNum {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int ctr = 50;
// INSERT CODE HERE
System.out.println(ctr % 20);
}
}
a
b
c
d
ctr += 1;
ctr =+ 1;
++ctr;
ctr = 1;
Answer: a, c
Explanation: To output a value of 11, the value of the variable ctr should be 51
because 51%20 is 11. Operator % outputs the remainder from a division operation. The
current value of the variable ctr is 50. It can be incremented by 1 using the correct
assignment or increment operator.
Option (b) is incorrect. Java does not define a =+ operator. The correct operator
is +=.
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Option (d) is incorrect because it’s assigning a value of 1 to the variable result,
not incrementing it by 1.
Q2-7. What is the output of the following code?
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = (a * (b + 2)) - 10-4 * ((2*2) - 6;
System.out.println(c);
c
218
232
246
d
Compilation error
a
b
Answer: d
Explanation: First of all, whenever you answer any question that uses parentheses to
override operator precedence, check whether the number of opening parentheses
matches the number of closing parentheses. This code won’t compile because the
number of opening parentheses doesn’t match the number of closing parentheses.
Second, you may not have to answer complex expressions in the real exam. Whenever you see overly complex code, look for other possible issues in the code. Complex
code may be used to distract your attention from the real issue.
Q2-8. What is true about the following lines of code?
boolean b = false;
int i = 90;
System.out.println(i >= b);
a
b
c
d
Code prints true
Code prints false
Code prints 90 >= false
Compilation error
Answer: d
Explanation: The code will fail to compile; hence, it can’t execute. You can’t compare
incomparable types, such as a boolean value with a number.
Q2-9. Examine the following code and select the correct options:
public class Prim {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int num1 = 12;
float num2 = 17.8f;
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//
//
//
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
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Answers to sample exam questions
boolean eJavaResult = true;
boolean returnVal = num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567
|| eJavaResult == true;
System.out.println(returnVal);
}
}
a
b
c
// line 5
// line 6
// line 7
// line 8
// line 9
Code prints false
Code prints true
Code will print true if code on line 6 is modified to the following:
boolean returnVal = (num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567) || eJavaResult == true;
d
Code will print true if code on line 6 is modified to the following:
boolean returnVal = num1 >= 12 && (num2 < 4.567 || eJavaResult == false);
Answer: b, c
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect because the code prints true.
Option (d) is incorrect because the code prints false.
The code in option (c) uses parentheses to indicate which expression should evaluate prior to the rest. Here are the steps of execution:
boolean returnVal = (num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567) || eJavaResult == true;
returnVal = false || eJavaResult == true;
returnVal = true;
The original code in the question doesn’t use parentheses to group the expressions.
In this case, because the operator && has a higher operator precedence than ||, the
expression 'num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567' will be the first expression to execute. Here
are the steps of execution:
boolean returnVal = num1 >= 12 && num2 < 4.567 || eJavaResult == true;
returnVal = false || eJavaResult == true;
returnVal = true;
Q2-10. Given:
boolean myBool = false;
int yourInt = 10;
float hisFloat = 19.54f;
System.out.println(hisFloat = yourInt);
System.out.println(yourInt > 10);
System.out.println(myBool = false);
What is the result?
a
true
true
false
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//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
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b
10.0
false
false
c
false
false
false
d
Compilation error
Answer: b
Explanation: The expression myBool = false uses the assignment operator (=) and
not a comparison operator (==). This expression assigns the boolean literal false to
myBool; it doesn’t compare false with myBool. Watch out for similar (trick) assignments in the exam, which may seem to be comparing values.
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Methods and encapsulation
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[1.1] Define the scope of variables.
Variables can have multiple scopes: class, instance,
method, and local.
Accessibility of a variable in a given scope.
[2.3] Know how to read or write to
object fields.
Object fields can be read from and written to by
directly accessing instance variables and calling
methods.
The correct notation to call methods on an object.
Methods may or may not change the value of instance
variables.
Access modifiers affect access to instance variables
and methods that can be called using a reference
variable.
Nonstatic methods can’t be called on uninitialized
objects.
[2.4] Explain an Object's Lifecycle
(creation, “dereference by reassignment”
and garbage collection).
Differences between when an object is declared, initialized, accessible, and eligible to be collected by
Java’s garbage collection.
Garbage collection in Java.
[6.1] Create methods with arguments
and return values; including overloaded
methods.
Creation of methods with correct return types and
method argument lists.
Creation of methods with the same names, but a
different set of argument lists.
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Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[6.3] Create and overload constructors;
including impact on default constructors.
Like regular methods, constructors can be overloaded.
A default constructor isn’t the same as a no-argument
constructor.
Java defines a no-argument constructor when no userdefined constructors are created. User-defined constructors can be overloaded.
[6.5] Apply encapsulation principles to
a class.
Need for and benefits of encapsulation.
Definition of classes that correctly implement the encapsulation principle.
[6.6] Determine the effect upon object references and primitive values when they
are passed into methods that change
the values.
Object references and primitives are treated in a different
manner when passed to methods.
Unlike reference variables, the values of primitives are
never changed in the calling method when they’re passed
to methods.
Look around, and you’ll find multiple examples of well-encapsulated objects. For instance,
most of us use the services of a bank, which applies a set of well-defined processes that
enable us to secure our money and valuables (a bank vault). The bank may require
input from us to execute some of its processes, such as depositing money into our
accounts. But the bank may or may not inform us about the results of other processes;
for example, it may inform us about an account balance after a transaction, but it
likely won’t inform us about its recruitment plans for new employees.
In Java, you can compare a bank to a well-encapsulated class and the bank processes to Java methods. In this analogy, your money and valuables are like object fields
in Java. You can also compare inputs that a bank process requires to Java’s method
parameters and compare the bank process result to a Java method’s return value.
Finally, you can compare the set of steps that a bank executes when it opens a bank
account to constructors in Java.
In the exam, you must answer questions about methods and encapsulation. This
chapter will help you get the correct answers by covering the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Defining the scope of variables
Explaining an object’s life cycle
Creating methods with primitive and object arguments and return values
Creating overloaded methods and constructors
Reading and writing to object fields
Calling methods on objects
Applying encapsulation principles to a class
Let’s get started with the scope of variables.
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Scope of variables
3.1
149
Scope of variables
[1.1] Define the scope of variables
The scope of a variable specifies its life span and its visibility. In this section, we’ll cover
the scopes of variables, including the domains in which they’re accessible. Here are
the available scopes of variables:
■
■
■
■
Local variables (also known as method-local variables)
Method parameters (also known as method arguments)
Instance variables (also known as attributes, fields, and nonstatic variables)
Class variables (also known as static variables)
As a rule of a thumb, the scope of a variable ends when the brackets of the block of
code it’s defined in get closed. This might be hard to understand now, but it will
become clearer when you go through the examples. Let’s get started by defining
local variables.
3.1.1
Local variables
Local variables are defined within a method. They may or may not be defined within
code constructs such as if-else constructs, looping constructs, or switch statements.
Typically, you’d use local variables to store the intermediate results of a calculation.
Compared to the other three variable scopes listed previously, they have the shortest
scope (life span).
In the following code, a local variable avg is defined within the method getAverage():
class Student {
private double marks1, marks2, marks3;
Instance variables
private double maxMarks = 100;
public double getAverage() {
Local variable avg
double avg = 0;
avg = ((marks1 + marks2 + marks3) / (maxMarks*3)) * 100;
return avg;
}
public void setAverage(double val) {
This code won’t compile
avg = val;
because avg is inaccessible
outside the method getAverage.
}
}
As you can see, the variable avg, defined locally in the method getAverage, can’t be
accessed outside it, in the method setAverage. The scope of this local variable, avg, is
depicted in figure 3.1. The unshaded area marks where avg is accessible, and the
shaded area is where it won’t be available.
The life span of a variable is determined by its scope. If the scope of a
variable is limited to a method, its life span is also limited to that method. You
may notice that these terms are used interchangeably.
NOTE
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variables
{
marks1, marks2, marks3
maxMarks
Methods and encapsulation
Object of class
Student
Local
variable
avg
Method getAverage
Method
parameter
val
Method setAverage
Figure 3.1 You can access the
local variable avg only within the
method getAverage.
Let’s define another variable, avg, local to the if block of an if statement (code that
executes when the if condition evaluates to true):
public double getAverage() {
if (maxMarks > 0) {
double avg = 0;
avg = (marks1 + marks2 + marks3)/(maxMarks*3) * 100;
return avg;
}
else {
Variable avg can’t be accessed because it’s
avg = 0;
local to the if block. Variables local to the if
return avg;
block can’t be accessed in the else block.
}
}
Variable avg is
local to if block
In this case, the scope of the local variable avg is reduced to the if block of the if-else
statement defined within the getAverage method. The scope of this local variable avg
is depicted in figure 3.2, where the unshaded area marks where avg is accessible, and
the shaded part marks the area where it won’t be available.
Method getAverage
Local
variable
avg
if block
Figure 3.2 The scope of
local variable avg is part of
the if statement.
else block
Similarly, loop variables aren’t accessible outside the loop body:
public void localVariableInLoop() {
for (int ctr = 0; ctr < 5; ++ctr) {
System.out.println(ctr);
}
System.out.println(ctr);
}
Variable ctr is defined
within the for loop
Variable ctr isn’t accessible outside
the for loop; this line won’t compile.
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151
The local variables topic is a favorite of OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam authors. You’re likely to be asked a question that seems to be
about a rather complex topic, such as inheritance or exception handling, but
instead it’ll be testing your knowledge on the scope of a local variable.
EXAM TIP
Can a local variable be accessed in a method, before its declaration? No. A forward reference to local variables isn’t allowed:
public void forwardReference() {
int a = b;
int b = 20;
}
Won’t
compile
If you reverse the declaration of the variables in the preceding example, the code
will compile:
public void noForwardReference() {
int b = 20;
int a = b;
}
No forward reference;
code compiles
The scope of a local variable depends on the location of its declaration within a method.
The scope of local variables defined within a loop, if-else, or switch construct or
within a code block (marked with {}) is limited to these constructs. Local variables
defined outside any of these constructs are accessible across the complete method.
The next section discusses the scope of method parameters.
3.1.2
Method parameters
The variables that accept values in a method signature are called method parameters.
They’re accessible only in the method that defines them. In the following example, a
method parameter val is defined for the method setTested:
class Phone {
Method parameter val is accessible
private boolean tested;
only in method setTested
public void setTested(boolean val) {
tested = val;
Variable val can’t be accessed
}
in method isTested
public boolean isTested() {
val = false;
return tested;
This line of code
}
won’t compile.
}
In the preceding code, you can access the method parameter val only within the
method setTested. It can’t be accessed in any other method.
The scope of the method parameter val is depicted in figure 3.3. The unshaded
area marks where the variable is accessible, and the shaded part marks where it won’t
be available.
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variable
Method
parameter
Methods and encapsulation
Object of class
Phone
tested
Method setTested
val
Method isTested
Figure 3.3 The scope of the
method parameter val, which is
defined in the method setTested
The scope of a method parameter may be as long as that of a local variable or longer,
but it can never be shorter. The following method, isPrime, defines a method parameter, num, and two local variables, result and ctr:
boolean isPrime(int num) {
if (num <= 1) return false;
boolean result = true;
for (int ctr = num-1; ctr > 1; ctr--) {
if (num%ctr == 0) result = false;
}
return result;
}
Method
parameter num
Local variable
result
Local
variable ctr
The scope of the method parameter num is as long as the scope of the local variable
result. Because the scope of the local variable ctr is limited to the for block, it’s
shorter than the method parameter num. The comparison of the scope of all of these
three variables is shown in figure 3.4, where the scope of each variable (defined in an
oval) is shown by the rectangle enclosing it.
Method
parameter
result
Local
variables
ctr
num
Method
isPrime
for block
Figure 3.4 Comparison of the scope of
method parameters and local variables
Let’s move on to instance variables, which have a larger scope than method parameters.
3.1.3
Instance variables
Instance is another name for an object. Hence, an instance variable is available for the
life of an object. An instance variable is declared within a class, outside all the methods. It’s accessible to all the instance (or nonstatic) methods defined in a class.
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Scope of variables
In the following example, the variable tested is an instance variable—it’s defined
within the class Phone, outside all the methods. It can be accessed by all the methods
of class Phone:
Instance variable
class Phone {
tested
private boolean tested;
public void setTested(boolean val) {
Variable tested is accessible
tested = val;
in method setTested
}
public boolean isTested() {
Variable tested is also
return tested;
accessible in method isTested
}
}
The scope of the instance variable tested is depicted in figure 3.5. As you can see, the
variable tested is accessible across the object of class Phone, represented by the
unshaded area. It’s accessible in the methods setTested and isTested.
Instance
variable
Local
variable
tested
val
Object of class
Phone
Method setTested
Method isTested
Figure 3.5 The instance variable
tested is accessible across the
object of class Phone.
The scope of an instance variable is longer than that of a local variable or a method parameter.
EXAM TIP
Class variables, covered in the next section, have the largest scope of all types of variables.
3.1.4
Class variables
A class variable is defined by using the keyword static. A class variable belongs to a
class, not to individual objects of the class. A class variable is shared across all objects—
objects don’t have a separate copy of the class variables.
You don’t even need an object to access a class variable. It can be accessed by using
the name of the class in which it’s defined:
package com.mobile;
class Phone {
static boolean softKeyboard = true;
}
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Class variable
softKeyboard
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Let’s try to access this variable in another class:
package com.mobile;
class TestPhone {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Phone.softKeyboard = false;
Phone p1 = new Phone();
Phone p2 = new Phone();
System.out.println(p1.softKeyboard);
System.out.println(p2.softKeyboard);
Prints
p1.softKeyboard = true;
false
System.out.println(p1.softKeyboard);
System.out.println(p2.softKeyboard);
System.out.println(Phone.softKeyboard);
}
}
Accesses the class variable by
using the name of the class. It
can be accessed even before any
of the class’s objects exist.
Prints false. A class
variable can be read by
using objects of the class.
Prints
true
A change in the
value of this variable
will be reflected
when the variable is
accessed via objects
or class name.
As you can see in the preceding code, the class variable softKeyboard is accessible using
all the following:
■
■
■
Phone.softKeyboard
p1.softKeyboard
p2.softKeyboard
It doesn’t matter whether you use the name of the class (Phone) or reference to an
object (p1) to access a class variable. You can change the value of a class variable using
either of them because they all refer to a single shared copy. When you access static
variable softKeyboard, Java refers to the type of reference variables p1 and p2 (which
is Phone) and not to the objects referred to by them. So accessing a static variable
using a null reference won’t throw an exception:
Phone p1 = null;
System.out.println(p1.softKeyboard);
Won’t throw an exception,
even though p1 is set to null
The scope of the class variable softKeyboard is depicted in figure 3.6. As you can see,
a single copy of this variable is accessible to all the objects of the class Phone. The variable softKeyboard is accessible even without the existence of any Phone instance. The
class variable softKeyboard is made accessible by the JVM when it loads the Phone
class into memory. The scope of the class variable softKeyboard depends on its access
modifier and that of the Phone class. Because the class Phone and the class variable
softKeyboard are defined using default access, they’re accessible only within the
package com.mobile.
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Scope of variables
com.mobile
Class
variable
softKeyboard
Figure 3.6 The scope of the class
variable softKeyboard is limited to
the package com.mobile because it’s
defined in the class Phone, which is
defined with default access. The class
variable softKeyboard is shared and
accessible across all objects of the
class Phone.
Class
Phone
Object of class
Phone (p1)
Object of class
Phone (p2)
COMPARING THE USE OF VARIABLES IN DIFFERENT SCOPES
Here’s a quick comparison of the use of the local variables, method parameters,
instance variables, and class variables:
■
■
■
■
3.1.5
Local variables are defined within a method and are normally used to store the
intermediate results of a calculation.
Method parameters are used to pass values to a method. These values can be
manipulated and may also be assigned to instance variables.
Instance variables are used to store the state of an object. These are the values
that need to be accessed by multiple methods.
Class variables are used to store values that should be shared by all the objects
of a class.
Overlapping variable scopes
In the previous sections on local variables, method parameters, instance variables, and
class variables, did you notice that some of the variables are accessible in multiple
places within an object? For example, all four variables will be accessible in a loop
within a method.
This overlapping scope is shown in figure 3.7. The variables are defined in ovals and
are accessible within all methods and blocks, as illustrated by their enclosing rectangles.
classVariable
instanceVariable
instanceVariable
localVariable
localVariable
localVariable
localVariable
methodParameter
methodParameter
method2
method1
method2
method1
object1
object2
Figure 3.7 The scopes of variables can overlap.
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As shown in figure 3.7, an individual copy of classVariable can be accessed and
shared by multiple objects (object1 and object2) of a class. Both object1 and object2
have their own copy of the instance variable instanceVariable, so instanceVariable
is accessible across all the methods of object1. The methods method1 and method2
have their own copies of localVariable and methodParameter when used with object1
and object2.
NOTE The scope of instanceVariable overlaps with the scope of localVariable and methodParameter, defined in method1. Hence, all three of
these variables (instanceVariable, localVariable, and methodParameter)
can access each other in this overlapped area. But instanceVariable can’t
access localVariable and methodParameter outside method1.
COMPARING THE SCOPE OF VARIABLES
Figure 3.8 compares the life spans of local variables, method parameters, instance
variables, and class variables.
Local variables
Different local variables
can have different
scopes
Variable types
Local variables
Method parameters
Instance variables
Class variables
block
object life
method
application/
class life
Variable scope or life span
Figure 3.8 Comparing the scope,
or life span, of all four variables
As you can see in figure 3.8, local variables have the shortest scope or life span, and
class variables have the longest scope or life span.
Different local variables can have different scopes. The scope of
local variables may be shorter than or as long as the scope of method parameters. The scope of local variables is less than the scope of a method if they’re
declared in a sub-block (within braces {}) in a method. This sub-block can be
an if statement, a switch construct, a loop, or a try-catch block (discussed
in chapter 7).
EXAM TIP
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VARIABLES WITH THE SAME NAME IN DIFFERENT SCOPES
The fact that the scopes of variables overlap results in interesting combinations of variables within different scopes but with the same names. Some rules are necessary to
prevent conflicts. In particular, you can’t define a static variable and an instance
variable with the same name in a class:
Won’t compile. Class variable and
instance variable can’t be defined
using the same name in a class.
class MyPhone {
static boolean softKeyboard = true;
boolean softKeyboard = true;
}
Similarly, local variables and method parameters can’t be defined with the same name.
The following code defines a method parameter and a local variable with the same
name, so it won’t compile:
void myMethod(int weight) {
int weight = 10;
}
Won’t compile. Method parameter and local variable
can’t be defined using the same name in a method.
A class can define local variables with the same name as the instance or class variables,
also referred to as shadowing. The following code defines a class variable and a local variable, softKeyboard, with the same name, and an instance variable and a local variable,
phoneNumber, with the same name, which is acceptable:
class MyPhone {
static boolean softKeyboard = true;
String phoneNumber;
void myMethod() {
boolean softKeyboard = true;
String phoneNumber;
}
}
Class variable
softKeyboard
Instance variable
phoneNumber
Local variable softKeyboard can coexist
with class variable softKeyboard
Local variable phoneNumber can coexist
with instance variable phoneNumber
Defining variables with the same name in overlapping scopes can be a
dangerous coding practice. It’s usually accepted only in very specific situations, like constructors and setters. Please write code that’s easy to read, comprehend, and maintain.
NOTE
What happens when you assign a value to a local variable that has the same name as
an instance variable? Does the instance variable reflect this modified value? This
question provides the food for thought in this chapter’s first Twist in the Tale exercise.
It should help you remember what happens when you assign a value to a local variable
when an instance variable already exists with the same name in the class (answer in
the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 3.1
The class Phone defines a local variable and an instance variable, phoneNumber, with the
same name. Examine the definition of the method setNumber. Execute the class on your
system and select the correct output of the class TestPhone from the given options:
class Phone {
String phoneNumber = "123456789";
void setNumber () {
String phoneNumber;
phoneNumber = "987654321";
}
}
class TestPhone {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Phone p1 = new Phone();
p1.setNumber();
System.out.println (p1.phoneNumber);
}
}
a
b
c
d
123456789
987654321
No output
The class Phone will not compile.
In this section, you worked with variables in different scopes. When variables go out of
scope, they’re no longer accessible by the remaining code. In the next section, you’ll
see how an object is created and made accessible and then inaccessible.
3.2
Object’s life cycle
[2.4] Explain an Object’s Lifecycle (creation, “dereference by reassignment”
and garbage collection)
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam will test your understanding of when an
object is created, when it can be accessed, and when it can be dereferenced. The
exam also tests your ability to determine the total number of objects that are accessible at a particular line of code. Primitives aren’t objects, so they’re not relevant in
this section.
Unlike some other programming languages, such as C, Java doesn’t allow you to
allocate or deallocate memory yourself when you create or destroy objects. Java manages the memory for allocating objects and reclaiming the memory occupied by
unused objects.
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Object’s life cycle
The task of reclaiming unused memory is taken care of by Java’s garbage collector,
which is a low-priority thread. It runs periodically and frees up space occupied by
unused objects.
Java also provides a method called finalize, which is accessible to all the classes.
The method finalize is defined in the class java.lang.Object, which is the base
class of all Java classes. All Java classes can override the method finalize, which executes just before an object is garbage collected. In theory, you can use this method to
free up resources being used by an object, although doing so isn’t recommended
because its execution isn’t guaranteed to happen.
An object’s life cycle starts when it’s created and lasts until it goes out of scope or is
no longer referenced by a variable. When an object is accessible, it can be referenced
by a variable and other classes can use it by calling its methods and accessing its variables. I’ll discuss these stages in detail in the following subsections.
3.2.1
An object is born
An object comes into the picture when you use the keyword operator new. You can initialize a reference variable with this object. Note the difference between declaring a
variable and initializing it. The following is an example of a class Person and a class
ObjectLifeCycle:
class Person {}
class ObjectLifeCycle {
Person person;
}
Class Person
Declaring a reference
variable of type Person
In the preceding code, no objects of class Person are created in the class ObjectLifeCycle; it declares only a variable of type Person. An object is created when a reference
variable is initialized:
class ObjectLifeCycle2 {
Person person = new Person();
}
Declaring and initializing
a variable of type Person
The difference in variable declaration and object creation is illustrated in figure 3.9,
where you can compare a baby name to a reference variable and a real baby to an
object. The left box in figure 3.9 represents variable declaration, because the baby
hasn’t been born yet. The right box in figure 3.9 represents object creation.
Syntactically, an object comes into being by using the new operator. But the String
class is an exceptional case here. String reference variables can also be initialized by
using string literal values:
class ObjectLifeCycle3 {
String obj1 = new String("eJava");
String obj2 = "Guru";
}
String object
referenced by obj1
Another String object
referenced by obj2
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Only variable declaration
Object creation
I have a name, ‘Mia’,
for my baby, but the
baby hasn’t been
born yet.
Mia
The baby is born!
I have a name and
a baby too!
No baby!
Mia
Figure 3.9 The
difference between
declaring a reference
variable and initializing
a reference variable
Initializing a reference variable and an instance is not same. Initializing a reference variable might not always result in the creation of a new
instance. In chapter 4, we’ll cover in detail how String literal values are
pooled in a String pool by JVM. Although using the new operator always creates
a new String object, using a String literal value to initialize a String reference variable might not always create a new String object.
NOTE
What happens when you create a new object without assigning it to any reference variable? Let’s create a new object of class Person in class ObjectLifeCycle2 without
assigning it to any reference variable (modifications in bold):
class ObjectLifeCycle2 {
Person person = new Person();
ObjectLifeCycle2() {
new Person();
}
}
An unreferenced
object
In the preceding example, an object of the class Person is created, but it can’t be
accessed using any reference variable. Creating an object in this manner will execute
the relevant constructors of the class.
Watch out for a count of instances created in a given code—the
ones that are eligible for garbage collection and the ones that aren’t.
EXAM TIP
In the next section, you’ll learn what happens after an object is created.
3.2.2
Object is accessible
Once an object is created, it can be accessed using its reference variable. It remains
accessible until it goes out of scope or its reference variable is explicitly set to null.
Also, if you reassign another object to an initialized reference variable, the previous
object becomes inaccessible from that variable. You can access and use an object within
other classes and methods.
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Object’s life cycle
Look at the following definition of the class Exam:
class Exam {
String name;
public void setName(String newName) {
name = newName;
}
}
The class ObjectLife1 declares a variable of type Exam, creates its object, calls its
method, sets it to null, and then reinitializes it:
class ObjectLife1 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Exam myExam = new Exam();
myExam.setName("OCA Java Programmer 1");
myExam = null;
myExam = new Exam();
myExam.setName("PHP");
Access
}
method
}
f
b
e
Object
creation
Another
object
creation
c
d
Access
method
Set reference
variable to null
The preceding example creates two objects of the class Exam using the same reference
variable myExam. Let’s walk through what’s happening in the example:
■
■
■
■
■
B
creates a reference variable myExam and initializes it with an object of
class Exam.
c calls method setName on the object referenced by the variable myExam.
d assigns a value null to the reference variable myExam such that the object referenced by this variable is no longer accessible through myExam.
e creates a new object of class Exam and assigns it to the reference variable
myExam.
f calls method setName on the second Exam object, created in method main.
When e creates another object of class Exam and assigns it to the variable myExam,
what happens to the first object created by B? Because the first object can no longer
be accessed using any variable, it’s considered garbage by Java and deemed eligible to
be sent to the garbage bin by Java’s garbage collector. As mentioned earlier, the garbage collector is a low-priority thread that reclaims the space used by unused or unreferenced objects in Java.
What happens when an object become inaccessible? You’ll find out in the next
section.
3.2.3
Object is inaccessible
An object can become inaccessible if it goes out of scope or is dereferenced by
reassignment.
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VARIABLE GOES OUT OF SCOPE
An object can become inaccessible if it goes out of scope:
public void myMethod() {
int result = 88;
if (result > 78) {
Exam myExam1 = new Exam();
myExam1.setName("Android");
}
else {
Exam myExam2 = new Exam();
myExam2.setName("MySQL");
}
}
b
c
Scope of local
variable myExam1
Start of else block
d
End of else block
In the preceding code, the variable myExam1 is a local variable defined within the if
block. Its scope starts from the line where it’s declared until the end of the if block,
marked with a closing brace B. After this closing brace, the object referred by the
variable myExam1 is no longer accessible. It goes out of scope and is marked as eligible
for garbage collection by Java’s garbage collector. Similarly, the object referred to by
the variable myExam2 becomes inaccessible at the end of the else block, marked with a
closing brace d.
When an object goes out of scope, it can no longer be referenced
and is marked for garbage collection.
EXAM TIP
DEREFERENCING BY REASSIGNMENT
A variable that already refers to an instance can be assigned another instance. In this
case, the earlier instance is dereferenced and becomes eligible for garbage collection.
Let’s work with a modified version of a previous code example:
class Exam {
String name;
public Exam(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
}
class ObjectLife2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Exam myExam = new Exam("PHP");
myExam = null;
myExam = new Exam("SQL");
myExam = new Exam("Java");
}
c
d
e
Exam yourExam = new Exam("PMP");
yourExam = myExam;
}
b
f
g
In the preceding code, an Exam instance is created and assigned to the variable
myExam B. At c myExam is set to null before being assigned another Exam instance d.
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Object’s life cycle
The code at e reassigns yet another Exam instance to myExam, without explicitly setting it to null. Again, the instance created at d is dereferenced. After the execution
of e, two MyExam instances are dereferenced by reassignment and are eligible for garbage collection.
At f, another variable, yourExam, is initialized using an Exam instance. At g, the
variable myExam is assigned to the variable yourExam. This dereferences the Exam
instance, which was assigned to yourExam earlier.
Figure 3.10 shows how Exam instances are referred to by the variables myExam
and yourExam. The Exam instances highlighted using gray boxes represent unreferenced objects.
1
myExam
PHP
2
myExam
PHP
3
myExam
4
myExam
SQL
PHP
Java
SQL
PHP
myExam
Java
SQL
PHP
yourExam
PMP
myExam
Java
SQL
PHP
yourExam
PMP
5
6
Figure 3.10 Objects can be
dereferenced by reassignment
of variables.
An instance is dereferenced by reassignment when a variable is either
explicitly set to null or is assigned another instance or reference variable.
EXAM TIP
3.2.4
Garbage collection
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’re likely to answer questions on garbage collection for code that has multiple variable declarations and initializations.
The exam may query you on the total number of objects that are eligible for garbage
collection after a particular line of code.
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AUTOMATIC MEMORY MANAGEMENT
The garbage collector is a low-priority thread that marks the objects eligible for garbage collection in the JVM and then clears the memory of these objects. It enables
automatic memory management because programmers aren’t required to mark these
instances themselves.
WHEN IS AN OBJECT GARBAGE COLLECTED?
You can determine only which objects are eligible to be garbage collected. You can
never determine when a particular object will be garbage collected. A user can’t control or determine the execution of a garbage collector. It’s controlled by the JVM.
Watch out for questions with wordings such as “which objects are
sure to be collected during the next GC cycle,” for which the real answer can
never be known.
EXAM TIP
Let’s revisit the dog and leash analogy I used in chapter 2 to define object reference
variables. In figure 3.11, you can compare an object reference variable with a leash
and an object with a dog. Review the following comparisons, which will help you to
understand the life cycle of an object and garbage collection:
■
■
■
An uninitialized reference variable can be compared to a dog leash without a dog.
An initialized reference variable can be compared to a leashed dog.
An unreferenced object can be compared to an unleashed dog.
A leash without a dog.
A dog without a leash.
Several leashes may be tethered to one dog.
Figure 3.11 Comparing object reference variables and objects to dog leashes
and leashed and unleashed dogs
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Object’s life cycle
You can compare Java’s garbage collector to animal control. The way animal control
picks up untethered dogs is like the way Java’s garbage collector reclaims the memory
used by unreferenced objects.
USING SYSTEM.GC() OR RUNTIME.GETRUNTIME().GC()
As a programmer, you can’t start execution of Java’s garbage collector. You can only
request it to be started by calling System.gc() or Runtime.getRuntime().gc(). But
calling this method doesn’t guarantee when the garbage collector would start (the call
can even be ignored by the JVM). Watch out for exam questions that query you on the
number of instances that have been garbage collected after calling System.gc(). It
won’t guarantee any count, at any line of code.
GARBAGE COLLECTING REFERENCED OBJECTS
The garbage collector can also reclaim memory from a group of referenced objects.
This group of variables is referred to as an island of isolation.
An instance can be referred to by multiple variables. So when you assign null to
one of these variables, the instances can still be referenced using other variable(s).
But a group of instances with no external reference becomes eligible for garbage collection. Let’s work with an example:
class Exam {
private String name;
private Exam other;
public Exam(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
public void setExam(Exam exam) {
other = exam;
}
}
class IslandOfIsolation {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Exam php = new Exam("PHP");
Exam java = new Exam("Java");
b
Initialize
variable php
c
Initialize
variable java
php.setExam(java);
java.setExam(php);
d
php = null;
java = null;
}
}
g
Assign null
to java
f
Assign null
to php
e
Assign object referred
by java to php.exam
Assign object referred
by php to java.exam
In the preceding example, an Exam instance can refer to an object of its own type,
using its field other. At B and c, two variables, php and java, are created and initialized using Exam instances. At d, java is assigned to php.other. At e, php is assigned
to java.other. At f, when php is set to null, the instance referred to by it isn’t eligible for garbage collection because it can still be referenced using java.other. At g,
when java is also set to null, both the objects referred to by java and php become
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eligible for garbage collection. As shown in figure 3.12, even though both these objects
can be referred to by each other, they can no longer be referenced in the method
main. They form an island of isolation. Java’s garbage collector can determine such
groups of instances.
1
php
2
java
3
4
5
null
Java
other
null
php
PHP
other
java
Java
other
php
PHP
other
java
Java
other
php
null
php
java
null
PHP
other
Java
other
java
6
PHP
other
null
null
PHP
other
Java
other
Figure 3.12 A group of instances with
no external references forms an island of
isolation, which is eligible for garbage
collection.
Now that you’re familiar with an object’s life cycle, you can create methods that accept
primitive data types and objects as method arguments; these methods return a value,
which can be either a primitive data type or an object.
3.3
Create methods with arguments and return values
[6.1] Create methods with arguments and return values; including
overloaded methods
In this section, you’ll work with the definitions of methods, which may or may not
accept input parameters and may or may not return any values.
A method is a group of statements identified with a name. Methods are used to
define the behavior of an object. A method can perform different operations, as
shown in figure 3.13.
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Create methods with arguments and return values
class Phone{
class Phone{
class Phone{
String model;
String model;
String model;
void setModel(String val)
void printVal(String val) {
String todaysDate() {
model = val;
System.out.print(val);
}
return new java.util.Date().toString();
}
}
}
}
}
Method that modifies
an instance variable
Figure 3.13
a
b
c
167
Method that only uses
a method parameter
Method that doesn’t use
a method parameter or instance variable
Different types of methods
The method setModel can access and modify the state of a Phone instance.
The method printVal uses only the method parameter passed to it.
The method todaysDate initializes a java.util.Date instance and returns its
String presentation.
In the following subsections, you’ll learn about the components of a method:
■
■
■
■
■
Return type
Method parameters
return statement
Access modifiers (covered in chapter 1)
Nonaccess modifiers (covered in chapter 1)
Figure 3.14 shows the code of a method accepting method parameters and defining a
return type and a return statement.
Let’s get started with a discussion of the return type of a method.
Method parameters
Method’s
return type
class Phone {
public boolean sendSMS(String phNum, String msg) {
boolean msgSentStatus = false;
Details of this
method not
discussed here
if (send (phNum, msg)){
msgSentStatus = true;
}
Return
statement
return msgSentStatus;
}
//. . rest of code of class Phone
}
Figure 3.14 An example of a method that accepts method parameters and defines a
return type and a return statement
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Return type of a method
The return type of a method states the type of value that a method will return. A
method may or may not return a value. One that doesn’t return a value has a return
type of void. A method can return a primitive value or an object of any class. The
name of the return type can be any of the eight primitive types defined in Java, a class,
or an interface.
In the following code, the method setWeight doesn’t return any value, and the
method getWeight returns a value:
class Phone {
double weight;
void setWeight(double val) {
weight =val;
}
double getWeight() {
return weight;
}
}
Method with
return type void
Method with
return type double
If a method doesn’t return a value, you can’t assign the result of that method to a variable. What do you think is the output of the following class TestMethods, which uses
the preceding class Phone?
class TestMethods {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone p = new Phone();
double newWeight = p.setWeight(20.0);
}
}
Because the method
setWeight doesn’t
return any value, this
line won’t compile.
The preceding code won’t compile because the method setWeight doesn’t return a
value. Its return type is void. Because the method setWeight doesn’t return a value,
there’s nothing to be assigned to the variable newWeight, so the code fails to compile.
If a method returns a value, the calling method may or may not bother to store the
returned value from a method in a variable. Look at the following code:
class TestMethods2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone p = new Phone();
p.getWeight();
}
}
Method getWeight returns a
double value, but this value
isn’t assigned to any variable.
In the preceding example, the value returned by the method getWeight isn’t assigned
to any variable, which isn’t an issue for the Java compiler. The compiler will happily
compile the code for you.
You can optionally assign the value returned by a method to a variable. If you don’t assign the returned value from a method, it’s neither a compilation error nor a runtime exception.
EXAM TIP
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Create methods with arguments and return values
The value that you return from a method must be assignable to the variable to which
it’s being assigned. For instance, the return value of getWeight() in Phone is double.
You can assign the return value of getWeight() to a variable of type double but not to
a variable of type int (without an explicit cast). Here’s the code:
class EJavaTestMethods2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone p = new Phone();
double newWeight = p.getWeight();
int newWeight2 = p.getWeight();
}
}
b
c
Will compile
Won’t compile
In the preceding code, B will compile successfully because the return type of the
method getWeight is double and the type of the variable newWeight is also double.
But c won’t compile because the double value returned from method getWeight
can’t be assigned to variable newWeight2, which is of type int. You can make it happen
by an explicit cast:
class EJavaTestMethods2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone p = new Phone();
double newWeight = p.getWeight();
int newWeight2 = (int)p.getWeight();
}
}
Will compile
Will compile with
an explicit cast
But an explicit cast won’t work with data types that aren’t compatible:
class EJavaTestMethods2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone p = new Phone();
double newWeight = p.getWeight();
boolean newWeight2 = (boolean)p.getWeight();
}
}
Will compile
Won’t compile;
double can’t be
casted to boolean
We’ve discussed how to transfer a value out from a method. To transfer a value into a
method, you can use method arguments.
3.3.2
Method parameters
Method parameters are the variables that appear in the definition of a method and specify the type and number of values that a method can accept. In figure 3.15, the variables phNum and msg are the method parameters.
You can pass multiple values to a method as input. Theoretically, no limit exists on
the number of method parameters that can be defined by a method, but practically
it’s not a good idea to define more than three method parameters. It’s cumbersome to
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In this
section
Method parameters
Method’s
return type
class Phone {
public boolean sendSMS(String phNum, String msg) {
boolean msgSentStatus = false;
Details of this
method not
discussed here
if (send (phNum, msg)){
msgSentStatus = true;
}
Return
statement
return msgSentStatus;
}
//. . rest of code of class Phone
}
Figure 3.15 An example of a method that accepts method parameters and defines a return
type and a return statement
use a method with too many method parameters because you have to cross-check their
types and purposes multiple times to ensure that you’re passing the right values at the
right positions.
NOTE Although the terms method parameters and method arguments are not the
same, you may have noticed that many programmers use them interchangeably. Method parameters are the variables that appear in the definition of a
method. Method arguments are the actual values that are passed to a method
while executing it. In figure 3.15, the variables phNum and msg are method
parameters. If you execute this method as sendMsg("123456", "Hello"),
then the String values "123456" and "Hello" are method arguments. As you
know, you can pass literal values or variables to a method. Thus, method arguments can be literal values or variables.
A method may accept zero or multiple method arguments. The following example
accepts two int values and returns their average as a double value:
double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
double avg = 0;
avg = (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
return avg;
}
Multiple method
parameters: marks1
and marks2
The following example shows a method that doesn’t accept any method parameters:
void printHello() {
System.out.println("Hello");
}
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If a method doesn’t accept any parameters, the parentheses that follow the name of
the method are empty. Because the keyword void is used to specify that a method
doesn’t return a value, you may think it’s correct to use the keyword void to specify
that a method doesn’t accept any method parameters, but this is incorrect. The following is an invalid definition of a method that accepts no parameters:
void printHello(void) {
System.out.println("Hello");
}
Won’t compile
You can define a parameter that can accept variable arguments (varargs) in your
methods. Following is an example of the class Employee, which defines a method daysOffWork that accepts variable arguments:
class Employee {
public int daysOffWork(int... days) {
int daysOff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < days.length; i++)
daysOff += days[i];
return daysOff;
}
}
The ellipsis (...) that follows the data type indicates that the method parameter days
may be passed an array or multiple comma-separated values. Reexamine the preceding code example and note the usage of the variable days in the method daysOffWork—it works like an array. When you define a variable-length argument for a method,
Java creates an array behind the scenes to implement it.
You can define only one variable argument in a parameter list, and it must be the
last variable in the parameter list. If you don’t comply with these two rules, your code
won’t compile:
class Employee {
public int daysOffWork(String... months, int... days) {
int daysOff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < days.length; i++)
daysOff += days[i];
return daysOff;
}
}
Won’t compile.
You can’t define
multiple variables
that can accept
variable
arguments.
If your method defines multiple method parameters, the variable that accepts variable
arguments must be the last one in the parameter list:
class Employee {
public int daysOffWork(int... days, String year) {
int daysOff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < days.length; i++)
daysOff += days[i];
return daysOff;
}
}
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Won’t compile; if
multiple parameters
are defined, the
variable argument
must be the last in
the list.
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In the OCA exam, you may be questioned on the valid return types
for a method that doesn’t accept any method parameters. Note that there are
no valid or invalid combinations of the number and type of method parameters that can be passed to a method and the value that it can return. They’re
independent of each other.
EXAM TIP
You can pass any type and number of parameters to a method, including primitives,
objects of a class, or objects referenced by an interface.
RULES TO REMEMBER
Here are some points to note with respect to defining method parameters:
■
■
■
■
3.3.3
You can define multiple parameters for a method.
The method parameter can be a primitive type or object.
The method’s parameters are separated by commas.
Each method parameter is preceded by the name of its type. Each method
parameter must have an explicit type declared with its name. You can’t declare
the type once and then list the parameters separated by commas, as you can
for variables.
Return statement
A return statement is used to exit from a method, with or without a value. For methods that define a return type, the return statement must be immediately followed by
a return value. For methods that don’t return a value, the return statement can be
used without a return value to exit a method. Figure 3.16 illustrates the use of a
return statement.
Method parameters
Method’s
return type
class Phone {
public boolean sendSMS(String phNum, String msg) {
boolean msgSentStatus = false;
Details of this
method not
discussed here
if (send (phNum, msg)){
msgSentStatus = true;
}
Return
statement
In this
section
return msgSentStatus;
}
//. . rest of code of class Phone
}
Figure 3.16 An example of a method that accepts method parameters and defines a
return type and a return statement
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In this example, we’ll revisit the previous example of method calcAverage, which
returns a value of type double, using a return statement:
double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
double avg = 0;
return
avg = (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
statement
return avg;
}
The methods that don’t return a value (the return type is void) aren’t required to
define a return statement:
void setWeight(double val) {
weight = val;
}
return statement not required for
methods with return type void
But you can use the return statement in a method even if it doesn’t return a value.
Usually this statement is used to define an early exit from a method:
void setWeight(double val) {
if (val < -1) return;
weight = val;
}
This code compiles successfully;
control exits the method if this
condition is true.
Method with return
type void can use
return statement
Also, the return statement must be the last statement to execute in a method, if present.
The return statement transfers control out of the method, which means that there’s no
point in defining any code after it. The compiler will fail to compile such code:
void setWeight(double val) {
return;
weight = val;
}
The return statement
must be the last statement
to execute in a method.
This code can’t execute
due to the presence of the
return statement before it.
Note that there’s a difference in the return statement being the last statement in a
method and being the last statement to execute in a method. The return statement
need not be the last statement in a method, but it must be the last statement to execute
in a method:
void setWeight(double val) {
if (val < 0)
return;
else
weight = val;
}
In the preceding example, the return statement isn’t the last statement in this method.
But it’s the last statement to execute for method parameter values of less than zero.
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RULES TO REMEMBER WHEN DEFINING A RETURN STATEMENT
Here are some items to note when defining a return statement:
■
■
■
For a method that returns a value, the return statement must be followed
immediately by a value.
For a method that doesn’t return a value (return type is void), the return statement must not be followed by a return value.
If the compiler determines that a return statement isn’t the last statement to
execute in a method, the method will fail to compile.
Do you think we’ve covered all the rules for defining a method? Not yet! Do you think
you can define multiple methods in a class with the same name? You can, but you
need to be aware of some additional rules, which are discussed in the next section.
3.4
Create an overloaded method
[6.1] Create methods with arguments and return values; including
overloaded methods
Overloaded methods are methods with the same name but different method parameter
lists. In this section, you’ll learn how to create and use overloaded methods.
Imagine that you’re delivering a lecture and need to instruct the audience to take
notes using paper, a smartphone, or a laptop—whichever is available to them for the
day. One way to do this is give the audience a list of instructions as follows:
■
■
■
Take notes using paper.
Take notes using a smartphone.
Take notes using a laptop.
Another method is to instruct them to “take notes” and then provide them with the
paper, a smartphone, or a laptop they’re supposed to use. Apart from the simplicity of
the latter method, it also gives you the flexibility to add other media on which to take
notes (such as one’s hand, some cloth, or the wall) without needing to remember the
list of all the instructions.
This second approach, providing one set of instructions (with the same name) but
a different set of input values can be compared to using overloaded methods in Java,
as shown in figure 3.17.
Again, overloaded methods are methods that are defined in the same class with
the same name, but with different method argument lists. As shown in figure 3.17,
overloaded methods make it easier to add methods with similar functionality that
work with different sets of input values.
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Create an overloaded method
takeNotesUsingPaper()
takeNotes(paper)
takeNotesUsingSmartPhone()
takeNotes(smart phone)
takeNotesUsingLaptop()
takeNotes(laptop)
Unrelated methods,
different names
Overloaded methods,
same name
Figure 3.17 Real-life
examples of overloaded
methods
Let’s work with an example from the Java API classes that we all use frequently: System
.out.println(). The println method accepts multiple types of method parameters:
int intVal = 10;
System.out.println(intVal);
boolean boolVal = false;
System.out.println(boolVal);
String name = "eJava";
System.out.println(name);
Prints an
int value
Prints a
boolean value
Prints a
string value
When you use the method println, you know that whatever you pass to it as a method
argument will be printed to the console. Wouldn’t it be crazy to use methods like
printlnInt, printlnBool, and printlnString for the same functionality? I think so,
too. But opinions change across different conditions. At times, you might use specific
methods instead of overloading because it reads well and avoids confusion. As you
work with more code, you’ll be able to judge these situations for yourself.
RULES TO REMEMBER FOR DEFINING OVERLOADED METHODS
Here are a few rules for defining overloaded methods:
■
■
■
■
Overloaded methods must have method parameters different from one another.
Overloaded methods may or may not define a different return type.
Overloaded methods may or may not define different access levels.
Overloaded methods can’t be defined by only changing their return type or
access modifiers or both.
Next, I’ll describe in detail the preceding rules—valid argument list, return types, and
access level to define overloaded methods.
3.4.1
Argument list
Overloaded methods accept different lists of arguments. The argument lists can differ
in terms of any of the following:
■
■
Change in the number of parameters that are accepted
Change in the types of parameters that are accepted
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Change in the positions of the parameters that are accepted (based on parameter type, not variable names)
Following is an example of the overloaded method calcAverage, which accepts different numbers of method parameters:
double calcAverage(int marks1, double marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2, int marks3) {
return (marks1 + marks2 + marks3)/3.0;
}
Two method
arguments
Three method
arguments
The preceding code is an example of the simplest flavor of overloaded methods. You
can also define overloaded methods in which the difference in the argument list is in
the types of the parameters that are accepted:
double calcAverage(int marks1, double marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
double calcAverage(char marks1, char marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
Arguments:
int, double
Arguments:
char, char
But you can’t define overloaded methods by just switching an array parameter into a
vararg or vice versa (unless the vararg or array item type doesn’t remain the same).
Behind the scenes, varargs are implemented as arrays. So the following overloaded
methods won’t compile:
double calcAverage(int[] marks) {
//return a double value
}
double calcAverage(int... marks) {
//return a double value
}
Arguments:
array
Arguments:
int… (varags)
The methods are also correctly overloaded if they change only the positions of the
parameters that are passed to them:
double calcAverage(double marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
double calcAverage(int marks1, double marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
Arguments:
double, int
Arguments:
int, double
Although you might argue that the arguments being accepted are one and the same,
with only their positions differing, the Java compiler treats them as different argument
lists. The compiler can understand which method implementation you want to call by
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Create an overloaded method
looking at the sequence of arguments you specified in your code. Hence, the preceding
code is a valid example of overloaded methods.
But an issue arises when you try to execute this method using values that can be
passed to both versions of the overloaded methods. In this case, the code will fail
to compile:
b
class MyClass {
double calcAverage(double marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
double calcAverage(int marks1, double marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
MyClass myClass = new MyClass();
myClass.calcAverage(2, 3);
}
}
Method parameters:
double and int
c
d
Method parameters:
int and double
Compiler can’t determine
which overloaded method
calcAverage should be called
In the preceding code, B defines the method calcAverage, which accepts two method
parameters: a double and an int. c defines the overloaded method calcAverage,
which accepts two method parameters: an int and a double. Because an int literal
value can be passed to a variable of type double, literal values 2 and 3 can be passed to
both of the overloaded methods declared at B and c. Because this method call is
dubious, d fails to compile.
3.4.2
Return type
Methods can’t be defined as overloaded methods if they differ only in their return
types, because return type is not part of a method signature:
double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
int calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2;
}
Return type of method
calcAverage is double
Return type
is int
Methods in the preceding code can’t be termed overloaded methods.
3.4.3
Access level
Methods can’t be defined as overloaded methods if they differ only in their access levels:
public double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
private double calcAverage(int marks1, int marks2) {
return (marks1 + marks2)/2.0;
}
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Access—private
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If you define overloaded calcAverage methods as shown in the preceding code, the
code won’t compile.
In the next section, you’ll create special methods called constructors, which are
used to create objects of a class.
3.5
Constructors of a class
[6.3] Create and overload constructors; including impact on default
constructors
In this section, you’ll create constructors, learn the differences between default and
user-defined constructors, and create overloaded constructors.
What happens when you open a new bank account? Depending on the services your
bank provides, you may be assigned a new bank account number, provided with a checkbook, and given access to a new online account the bank has created for you. These
details are created and returned to you as part of setting up your new bank account.
Compare these steps with what a constructor does in Java, as illustrated in figure 3.18.
Create new Bank Account
1. Assign an account number
2. Issue a checkbook
3. Create online web account
Figure 3.18 The series of steps that may
be executed when you create a new bank
account. These steps can be compared
with what a constructor does in Java.
Constructors are special methods that create and return an object of the class in which
they’re defined. Constructors have the same name as the class in which they’re
defined, and they don’t specify a return type—not even void.
A constructor can accomplish the following tasks:
■
■
Call the superclass’s constructor; this can be an implicit or explicit call.
Initialize all the instance variables of a class with their default values.
Constructors come in two flavors: user-defined constructors and default constructors,
which we’ll cover in detail in the next sections.
3.5.1
User-defined constructors
The author of a class has full control over the definition of the class. An author may or
may not define a constructor in a class. If the author defines a constructor in a class,
it’s known as a user-defined constructor. Here the word user doesn’t refer to another person or class that uses this class but instead refers to the person who created the class.
It’s called “user-defined” because it’s not created by the Java compiler.
Figure 3.19 shows a class Employee that defines a constructor.
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I wrote this
class.
class Employee {
Employee () {
System.out.println("Constructor");
}
Paul
I created this
constructor.
Hence, it is a
user-defined
constructor.
}
Figure 3.19
A class, Employee, with a constructor defined by the user Paul
Here’s a class, Office, that creates an object of class Employee:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
}
}
b
Constructor is called
on object creation
In the preceding example, B creates an object of class Employee using the keyword
new, which triggers the execution of the Employee class constructor. The output of the
class Office is as follows:
Constructor
Because a constructor is called as soon as an object is created, you can use it to assign
default values to the instance variable of your class, as follows (modified and additional
code is highlighted in bold):
class Employee {
String name;
Instance variable
int age;
Employee() {
age = 20;
System.out.println("Constructor");
}
}
Initialize age
Let’s create an object of the class Employee in the class Office and see if there’s any
difference:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
System.out.println(emp.age);
}
}
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The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Constructor
20
Because a constructor is a method, you can also pass method parameters to it, as follows (changes are highlighted in bold):
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee(int newAge, String newName) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
System.out.println("Constructor");
}
}
You can use this constructor in the class Office by passing to it the required method
arguments, as follows:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee(30, "Pavni Gupta");
}
}
Revisit the use and declaration of the previously mentioned constructors. Note that a
constructor is called when you create an object of a class. A constructor does have an
implicit return type, which is the class in which it’s defined. It creates and returns an
object of its class, which is why you can’t define a return type for a constructor. Also
note that you can define constructors using any of the four access levels.
EXAM TIP
You can define a constructor using all four access levels: public,
protected, default, and private.
What happens if you define a return type for a constructor? Java will treat it as another
method, not a constructor, which also implies that it won’t be called implicitly when
you create an object of its class:
class Employee {
void Employee() {
System.out.println("Constructor");
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
}
}
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b
Doesn’t call method
Employee with
return type void
181
Constructors of a class
In the preceding example, B won’t call the method Employee with the return type
void defined in the class Employee. Because the method Employee defines its return
type as void, it’s no longer treated as a constructor.
If the class Employee defines the return type of the method Employee as void, how
can Java use it to create an object? The method (with the return type void) is treated as
any other method in the class Employee. This logic applies to all the other data types: if
you define the return type of a constructor to be any data type—such as char, int,
String, long, double, or any other class—it’ll no longer be treated as a constructor.
How do you execute such a method? By calling it explicitly, as in the following
code (modified code is in bold):
class Employee {
void Employee() {
System.out.println("not a Constructor now");
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
emp.Employee();
}
}
Prints “not a
Constructor now”
Note that the Employee method in the preceding code is called like any other method
defined in the class Employee. It doesn’t get called automatically when you create an
object of the class Employee. As you can see in the preceding code, it’s allowed to
define a method that’s not a constructor in a class with the same name. Interesting.
But note that the authors of the OCA exam also found this interesting, and you’re
likely to get a few tricky questions regarding this concept. Don’t worry: with the right
information under your belt, you’re sure to answer them correctly.
A constructor must not define any return type. Instead, it creates
and returns an object of the class in which it’s defined. If you define a
return type for a constructor, it’ll no longer be treated as a constructor.
Instead, it’ll be treated as a regular method, even though it shares the same
name as its class.
EXAM TIP
INITIALIZER BLOCKS VERSUS CONSTRUCTORS
An initializer block is defined within a class, not as a part of a method. It executes for
every object that’s created for a class. In the following example, the class Employee
defines an initializer block:
class Employee {
{
System.out.println("Employee:initializer");
}
}
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In the following code, the class TestEmp creates an object of the class Employee:
class TestEmp {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e = new Employee();
}
}
Prints
Employee:initializer
If you define both an initializer and a constructor for a class, both of these will execute. The initializer block will execute prior to the constructor:
class Employee {
Employee() {
System.out.println("Employee:constructor");
}
{
System.out.println("Employee:initializer");
}
}
class TestEmp {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e = new Employee();
}
}
Constructor
Initializer block
Creates an object of class
Employee; calls both the
initializer block and the
constructor
The output of the class TestEmp is as follows:
Employee:initializer
Employee:constructor
If a class defines multiple initializer blocks, their order of execution depends on their
placement in a class. But all of them execute before the class’s constructor:
class Employee {
{
System.out.println("Employee:initializer 1");
}
Employee() {
System.out.println("Employee:constructor");
}
{
System.out.println("Employee:initializer 2");
}
}
class TestEmp {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e = new Employee();
}
}
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Constructor
Initializer block 2
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Constructors of a class
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
Employee:initializer 1
Employee:initializer 2
Employee:constructor
Does the preceding code example leave you wondering why you need both an initializer block and a constructor, if both of these execute upon the creation of an object?
Initializer blocks are used to initialize the variables of anonymous classes. An anonymous class is a type of inner class. In the absence of a name, anonymous classes can’t
define a constructor and rely on an initializer block to initialize their variables upon
the creation of an object of their class. Because inner classes aren’t on this exam, I
won’t discuss how to use an initializer block with an anonymous inner class.
A lot of action can happen within an initializer block: It can create local variables.
It can access and assign values to instance and static variables. It can call methods and
define loops, conditional statements, and try-catch-finally blocks. Unlike constructors, an initializer block can’t accept method parameters.
NOTE
Loops and conditional statements are covered in chapter 5, and try-
catch-finally blocks are covered in chapter 7.
3.5.2
Default constructor
In the previous section on user-defined constructors, I discussed how a constructor is
used to create an object. What happens if you don’t define any constructor in a class?
The following code is an example of the class Employee that doesn’t define a
constructor:
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
}
No constructor is defined
in class Employee.
You can create objects of this class in another class (Office), as follows:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
}
}
Class Employee doesn’t
define a constructor,
but this code compiles
successfully.
In this case, which method creates the object of the class Employee? Figure 3.20 shows
what happens when a class (Employee) is compiled that doesn’t define any constructor. In the absence of a user-defined constructor, Java inserts a default constructor. This
constructor doesn’t accept any method arguments. It calls the constructor of the
super (parent) class and assigns default values to all the instance variables.
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class Employee {
String name;
int age;
}
Methods and encapsulation
Poor class
Employee doesn’t
have a constructor.
Let me create
one for it.
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
super();
In
Java
compiler
Out
Default
constructor
}
}
Figure 3.20 When the Java compiler compiles a class that doesn’t define a
constructor, the compiler creates one for it.
The accessibility of a default constructor matches the accessibility of
its class. Java creates a public default constructor for a public class. It creates a
default constructor with package access for a class with package-level access.
EXAM TIP
What happens if you add another constructor to the class Employee, as in the following example?
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee(int newAge, String newName) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
System.out.println("User defined Constructor");
}
}
User-defined
constructor
In this case, upon recompilation, the Java compiler will notice that you’ve defined a
constructor in the class Employee. It won’t add a default constructor to it, as shown in
figure 3.21.
In the absence of a no-argument constructor, the following code will fail to compile:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
}
}
Won’t compile
Java defines a default constructor if and only if you don’t define a
constructor. If a class doesn’t define a constructor, the compiler will add a
default, no-argument constructor to the class. But if you modify the class later
by adding a constructor to it, the Java compiler will remove the default, noargument constructor that it initially added to the class.
EXAM TIP
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Constructors of a class
Class Employee
already has a
constructor. No
need to define
one for it.
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee(int age, String name){
...code
}
}
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee(int age, String name){
...code
}
}
In
Java
compiler
Out
No default constructor
added
Figure 3.21 When a class with a constructor is compiled, the Java compiler doesn’t add a default
constructor to it.
3.5.3
Overloaded constructors
In the same way in which you can overload methods in a class, you can also overload
the constructors in a class. Overloaded constructors follow the same rules as discussed in
the previous section for overloaded methods. Here’s a quick recap:
■
■
Overloaded constructors must be defined using different argument lists.
Overloaded constructors can’t be defined by just a change in the access levels.
Because constructors don’t define a return type, there’s no point in defining invalid
overloaded constructors with different return types.
The following is an example of an Employee class that defines four overloaded
constructors:
class Employee {
String name;
No-argument
int age;
constructor
Employee() {
name = "John";
age = 25;
Constructor with one
}
String argument
Employee(String newName) {
name = newName;
age = 25;
Constructor with two
}
arguments—int and String
Employee(int newAge, String newName) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
Constructor with two
}
arguments—String and int
Employee(String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
}
b
c
d
e
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In the preceding code, B defines a constructor that doesn’t accept any method arguments. c defines another constructor that accepts a single method argument. Note
the constructors defined at d and e. Both of these accept two method arguments,
String and int. But the placement of these two method arguments is different in d
and e, which is acceptable and valid for overloaded constructors and methods.
INVOKING AN OVERLOADED CONSTRUCTOR FROM ANOTHER CONSTRUCTOR
It’s common to define multiple constructors in a class and reuse their functionality
across constructors. Unlike overloaded methods, which can be invoked using the name
of a method, overloaded constructors are invoked by using the keyword this—an
implicit reference that’s accessible to all objects that refer to an object itself:
class Employee {
No-argument
String name;
constructor
int age;
Employee() {
this(null, 0);
}
Employee(String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
}
b
c
d
Invokes constructor
that accepts two
method arguments
Constructor that
accepts two method
arguments
The code at B creates a no-argument constructor. At c, this constructor calls the
overloaded constructor by passing to it values null and 0. d defines an overloaded
constructor that accepts two method arguments.
Because a constructor is defined using the name of its class, it’s a common mistake
to try to invoke a constructor from another constructor using the class’s name:
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
Employee(null, 0);
}
Employee(String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
}
Won’t compile—you can’t
invoke a constructor within a
class by using the class’s name.
Also, when you invoke an overloaded constructor using the keyword this, it must be
the first statement in your constructor:
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
System.out.println("No-argument constructor");
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Constructors of a class
this(null, 0);
}
Employee(String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
Won’t compile—the call to
the overloaded constructor
must be the first statement
in a constructor.
}
You can’t call two (or more) constructors within a constructor because the call to a
constructor must be the first statement in a constructor:
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
}
Employee(String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
Employee(String newName, int newAge, boolean create) {
this();
this(newName, newAge);
Won’t compile; can’t include
if (create)
calls to multiple constructors
System.out.println(10);
in a constructor
}
}
That’s not all: you can’t call a constructor from any other method in your class. None
of the other methods of the class Employee can invoke its constructor.
RULES TO REMEMBER
Here’s a quick list of rules to remember for the exam for defining and using overloaded constructors:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Overloaded constructors must be defined using different argument lists.
Overloaded constructors can’t be defined by just a change in the access levels.
Overloaded constructors may be defined using different access levels.
A constructor can call another overloaded constructor by using the keyword this.
A constructor can’t invoke a constructor by using its class’s name.
If present, the call to another constructor must be the first statement in a
constructor.
You can’t call multiple constructors from a constructor.
A constructor can’t be invoked from a method (except by instantiating a class
using the new keyword).
The next Twist in the Tale exercise hides an important concept within its code, which
you can get to know only if you execute the modified code (answer in the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 3.2
Let’s modify the definition of the class Employee that I used in the section on overloaded constructors, as follows:
class Employee {
String name;
int age;
Employee() {
this ();
}
Employee (String newName, int newAge) {
name = newName;
age = newAge;
}
}
Question: What is the output of this modified code, and why?
Now that you’ve seen how to create methods and constructors, and their overloaded
variants, we’ll turn to how all of these can be used to access and modify object fields in
the next section.
3.6
Accessing object fields
[2.3] Know how to read or write to object fields
In this section, you’ll learn what object fields are and how to read, initialize, and modify them. You’ll also learn the correct notation used to call methods on objects. Access
modifiers also determine whether you can call a method on an object.
3.6.1
What is an object field?
An object field is another name for an instance variable defined in a class. I’ve often
seen certification aspirants who are confused over whether the object fields are the
same as instance variables of a class.
Here’s an example of the class Star:
class Star {
double starAge;
public void setAge(double newAge) {
starAge = newAge;
}
public double getAge() {
return starAge;
}
}
b
Instance variable—
starAge
c
d
Setter method—
setAge
Getter method—
getAge
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In the preceding example, B defines an instance variable, starAge. c defines a setter
method, setAge. A setter (or mutator) method is used to set the value of a variable. d
defines a getter (or accessor) method, getAge. A getter method is used to retrieve the
value of a variable. In this example, the object field is starAge, not age or newAge. The
name of an object field is not determined by the name of its getter or setter methods.
JavaBeans properties and object fields
The reason for the confusion over the name of the object field is that Java classes
can also be used to define visual or nonvisual components called JavaBeans, which
are used in visual and nonvisual environments like Spring, Hibernate, and others.
These classes are supposed to define getter and setter methods to retrieve and set
the properties of the visual components. If a visual JavaBean component defines a
property such as age, then the name of its getter and setter methods will be getAge
and setAge. For a JavaBean, you don’t have to worry about the name of the variable that’s used to store the value of this property. In a JavaBean, an object field
thisIsMyAge can be used to store the value of its property age.
Note that the JavaBeans I mentioned aren’t Enterprise JavaBeans. Enterprise JavaBeans are used in enterprise applications written in Java, which run on servers.
3.6.2
Read and write object fields
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam will test you on how to read values from and
write them to fields of an object, which can be accomplished by any of following:
■
■
■
Using methods to read and write object fields
Using constructors to write values to object fields
Directly accessing instance variables to read and write object fields
Although object fields can be manipulated by direct access, it isn’t
a recommended practice. It makes an object vulnerable to invalid data. Such
a class isn’t well encapsulated.
EXAM TIP
This exam objective (2.3) will also test your understanding of how to assign different
values to the same object fields for multiple objects. Let’s start with an example:
class Employee {
String name;
Object fields
int age;
Employee() {
age = 22;
Assign value
}
to age
public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
Assign val
}
to name
public void printEmp() {
System.out.println("name = " + name + " age = " + age);
}
}
b
c
d
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In the class Employee, B defines two object fields: name and age. It defines a (no-argument) constructor. And c assigns a value of 22 to its field age. This class also defines
a method setName, where d assigns the value passed to it to the object field name. The
method printEmp is used to print the values of object fields name and age.
The following is the definition of a class, Office, which creates two instances, e1
and e2, of the class Employee and assigns values to its fields. Let’s look at the definition
of the class Office:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e1 = new Employee();
Employee e2 = new Employee();
e1.name = "Selvan";
e2.setName("Harry");
e1.printEmp();
e2.printEmp();
}
}
This is the output of the preceding code:
name = Selvan age = 22
name = Harry age = 22
Figure 3.22 defines object diagrams (a diagram with the name and type of an object,
the name of the object’s fields, and their corresponding values), which will help you
to better understand the preceding output.
e1:Employee
e2:Employee
name = Selvan
age = 22
name = Harry
age = 22
Figure 3.22
Two objects of the class Employee
You can access the object field name of the object of the class Employee either by using
its variable name or by using the method setName. The following line of code assigns a
value Selvan to the field name of object e1:
e1.name = "Selvan";
The following line of code uses the method setName to assign a value of Harry to the
field name of object e2:
e2.setName("Harry");
Because the constructor of the class Employee assigns a value of 22 to the variable age,
objects e1 and e2 both contain the same value, 22.
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What happens if you don’t assign any value to an object field and try to print out its
value? All the instance variables (object fields) are assigned their default values if you
try to access or read their values before writing any values to them:
Object field:
class Employee {
name
Object field:
String name;
age
int age;
public void printEmp() {
System.out.println("name = " + name + " age = " + age);
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e1 = new Employee();
e1.printEmp();
}
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows (the default value of an object is null
and int is 0):
name = null age = 0
What happens if you change the access modifier of the variable name to private, as
shown here (modified code in bold)?
Nonprivate
object field
class Employee {
Object field with
private String name;
private access
int age;
Employee() {
Assign value
age = 22;
to age
}
public void setName(String val) {
Assign val
name = val;
to name
}
public void printEmp() {
System.out.println("name = " + name + " age = " + age);
}
}
You won’t be able to set the value of the object field name as follows:
e1.name = "Selvan";
This line of code won’t compile. Instead, it complains that the variable name has private access in the class Employee and can’t be accessed from any other class:
Office.java:6: name has private access in Employee
e1.name = "Selvan";
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When you answer questions on reading values from and writing them to an object
field, watch out for the following points in the exam:
■
■
■
3.6.3
Access modifier of the object field
Access modifiers of methods used to read and write the value of the object field
Constructors that assign values to object fields
Calling methods on objects
You can call methods defined in a class using an object reference variable. In this
exam objective, this exam will specifically test you on the following:
■
■
■
The correct notation used to call a method on an object reference variable
The right number of method parameters that must be passed to a method
The return value of a method that’s assigned to a variable
Java uses the dot notation (.) to execute a method on a reference variable. Suppose
the class Employee is defined as follows:
class Employee {
private String name;
public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
}
}
Class Employee
Method setName
You can create an object of class Employee and call the method setName on it like this:
Employee e1 = new Employee();
e1.setName("Java");
The following method invocations aren’t valid in Java:
e1->setName("Java");
e1->.setName("Java");
e1-setName("Java");
Invalid method
invocations
When you call a method, you must pass to it the exact number of method parameters
that are defined by it. In the previous definition of the Employee class, the method setName defines a method parameter of type String. You can pass a literal value or a variable to a method, as a method parameter. The following code invocations are correct:
Employee e1 = new Employee();
String anotherVal = "Harry";
e1.setName("Shreya");
e1.setName(anotherVal);
Passing literal value
as method parameter
Passing variable as
method parameter
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A call to a method must be followed by passing values to all its
method parameters. For a method that defines one or more method parameters, you can’t call the method followed by () to indicate it doesn’t need to be
passed values.
EXAM TIP
If the parameter list of the called method defines a variable argument at the rightmost
position, you can call the method with a variable number of arguments. Let’s add a
method daysOffWork in the class Employee that accepts a variable list of arguments
(modifications in bold):
class Employee {
private String name;
public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
}
public int daysOffWork(int... days) {
int daysOff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < days.length; i++)
daysOff += days[i];
return daysOff;
}
You can call this method using a variable list of arguments:
Class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e = new Employee();
System.out.println(e.daysOffWork(1, 2, 3, 4));
System.out.println(e.daysOffWork(1, 2, 3));
}
}
Call method
daysOffWork with four
method arguments
Call method daysOffWork
with three method
arguments
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
10
6
Methods that accept varargs parameters can be called with a different count of actual arguments. Also, a method that accepts a vararg can be
invoked with an array in place of the vararg.
EXAM TIP
Let’s add the method getName to the class Employee that returns a String value
(changes in bold):
class Employee {
private String name;
public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
}
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public String getName() {
return name;
}
}
You can assign the String value returned from the method getName to a String variable or pass it on to another method, as follows:
Employee e1 = new Employee();
Employee e2 = new Employee();
String name = e1.getName();
e2.setName(e1.getName());
Assign method’s return
value to a variable
Pass method’s return
value to another method
In the preceding code, the return type of the method setName is void; therefore, you
can’t use it to assign a value to a variable:
Employee e1 = new Employee();
String name = e1.setName();
Won’t compile
Also, you can’t assign a return value of a method to an incompatible variable, as follows:
Employee e1 = new Employee();
int val = e1.getName();
You can’t assign the String returned from
method getName to an int variable.
You can read and write object fields either by using methods or by directly accessing
the instance variables of a class. But it’s not a good idea to enable access to the instance
variables outside a class.
In the next section, you’ll see the risks of exposing instance variables outside a
class and the benefits of a well-encapsulated class.
3.7
Apply encapsulation principles to a class
[6.5] Apply encapsulation principles to a class
As the heading of this section suggests, we’ll apply the encapsulation principle to a
class. A well-encapsulated object doesn’t expose its internal parts to the outside world.
It defines a set of methods that enables the users of the class to interact with it.
As an example from the real world, you can compare a bank to a well-encapsulated
class. A bank doesn’t expose its internal parts—for example, its vaults and bank
accounts—to the outside world, just as a well-encapsulated class in Java shouldn’t
expose the variables that it uses to store the state of an object outside that object. The
way a bank defines a set of procedures (such as key access to vaults and verification
before money withdrawals) to protect its internal parts is much like the way a wellencapsulated class defines methods to access its variables.
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3.7.1
195
Need for encapsulation
The private members of a class—its variables and methods—are used to hide information about a class. Why would you need to hide class information? Compare a class
with yourself. Do you want everyone else to know about all of your weaknesses? Do you
want everyone else to be able to control your mind? The same applies to a class that
you define in Java. A class may need a number of variables and methods to store an
object’s state and define its behavior. But it wouldn’t like all the other classes to know
about it. Here’s a quick list of reasons to encapsulate the state of a Java object:
■
■
■
To prevent an external object from performing dangerous operations
To hide implementation details, so that the implementation can change a second time without impacting other objects
To minimize the chance of coupling
Let’s work with an example. Here’s the definition of the class Phone:
class Phone {
String model;
String company;
double weight;
void makeCall(String number) {
}
void receiveCall() {
}
}
Instance variables that store
the state of an object of Phone
Methods; details not
relevant at this point
Because the variable weight isn’t defined as a private member, any other class (in the
same package) can access it and write any value to it, as follows:
class Home {
public static void main() {
Phone ph = new Phone();
ph.weight = -12.23;
}
}
3.7.2
Assign a negative
weight to Phone
Apply encapsulation
In the previous section, you might have noticed that the object fields of a class that
isn’t well encapsulated are exposed outside the class. This approach enables the users
of the class to assign arbitrary values to the object fields.
Should this be allowed? For example, going back to the example of the Phone class
discussed in section 3.7.1, how can the weight of a phone be a negative value?
Let’s resolve this issue by defining the variable weight as a private variable in the
class Phone, as follows (irrelevant changes have been omitted):
class Phone {
private double weight;
}
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But now this variable won’t be accessible in the class Home. Let’s define methods using
this variable, which can be accessible outside the class Phone (changes in bold):
class Phone {
private double weight;
public void setWeight(double val) {
if (val >= 0 && val <= 1000) {
weight =val;
}
}
public double getWeight() {
return weight;
}
}
Negative and weight
over 1,000 not allowed
The method setWeight doesn’t assign the value passed to it as a method parameter to
the instance variable weight if it’s a negative value or a value greater than 1,000. This
behavior is known as exposing object functionality using public methods.
Let’s see how this method is used to assign a value to the variable weight in the
class Home:
class Home {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Phone ph = new Phone();
ph.setWeight(-12.23);
System.out.println(ph.getWeight());
Prints 0.0
ph.setWeight(77712.23);
System.out.println(ph.getWeight());
Prints 0.0
ph.setWeight(12.23);
System.out.println(ph.getWeight());
}
}
Assign a negative
weight to Phone object
Assign weight > 1,000
to Phone object
Assign weight in
allowed range
Prints 12.23
Note that when the class Home tries to set the value of the variable to -12.23 or 77712.23
(out-of-range values), those values aren’t assigned to the Phone’s private variable weight.
It accepts the value 12.23, which is within the defined range.
On the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you may also find the term information
hiding. Encapsulation is the concept of defining variables and the methods together in
a class. Information hiding originated from the application and purpose of the concept
of encapsulation. These terms are also used interchangeably.
EXAM TIP The terms encapsulation and information hiding are used interchangeably. By exposing object functionality only through methods, you can
prevent your private variables from being assigned any values that don’t fit
your requirements. One of the best ways to create a well-encapsulated class is
to define its instance variables as private variables and allow access to these
variables using public methods.
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The next Twist in the Tale exercise has a little hidden trick about determining a correctly encapsulated class. Let’s see if you can find it (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 3.3
Let’s modify the definition of the class Phone that I previously used to demonstrate the
encapsulation principle in this section. Given the following definition of class Phone,
which of the options, when replacing the code on lines 1–3, makes it a well-encapsulated class?
class Phone {
public String model;
double weight;
public void setWeight(double w) {weight = w;}
public double getWeight() {return weight;}
}
//LINE1
//LINE2
//LINE3
Options:
a
public double weight;
private void setWeight(double w) { weight = w; }
private double getWeight() {
return weight; }
b
public double weight;
void setWeight(double w) { weight = w; }
double getWeight() {
return weight; }
c
public double weight;
protected void setWeight(double w) { weight = w; }
protected double getWeight() {
return weight; }
d
public double weight;
public void setWeight(double w) { weight = w; }
public double getWeight() {
return weight; }
e
None of the above
Well-encapsulated classes don’t expose their instance variables outside their class.
What happens when the methods of these classes modify the state of the method arguments that are passed to them? Is this acceptable behavior? I’ll discuss what happens
in the next section.
3.8
Passing objects and primitives to methods
[6.6] Determine the effect upon object references and primitive values
when they are passed into methods that change the values
In this section, you’ll learn the difference between passing object references and
primitives to a method. You’ll determine the effect on object references and primitive
values when they’re passed into methods that change the values.
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Object references and primitives behave in a different manner when they’re
passed to a method because of the differences in how these two data types are internally stored by Java. Let’s start with passing primitives to methods.
3.8.1
Passing primitives to methods
The value of a primitive data type is copied and passed to a method. Hence, the variable whose value was copied doesn’t change:
class Employee {
int age;
void modifyVal(int a) {
Method modifyVal
a = a + 1;
accepts method
argument of type int
System.out.println(a);
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Prints 0
Employee e = new Employee();
System.out.println(e.age);
e.modifyVal(e.age);
Calls method
System.out.println(e.age);
modifyVal on an object
}
Prints 0
of class Employee
}
b
c
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
0
1
0
In the preceding code, method modifyVal seems to accept and modify the argument passed to it. This book includes such code because you
might see similar code on the exam, which doesn’t follow coding or naming
conventions. But please follow the coding conventions when you write code
on real projects.
NOTE
The method modifyVal B accepts a method argument a of type int. In this method,
the variable a is a method parameter and holds a copy of the value that’s passed to it.
The method increments the value of the method parameter a and prints its value.
When the class Office calls the method modifyVal c, it passes a copy of the value
of the object field age to it. The method modifyVal never accesses the object field
age. Hence, after the execution of this method, the value of the method field age
prints as 0 again.
What happens if the definition of the class Employee is modified as follows (modifications in bold):
class Employee {
int age;
void modifyVal(int age) {
age = age + 1;
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System.out.println(age);
}
}
The class Office will still print the same answer because the method modifyVal
defines a method parameter with the name age (do you remember the topic on variable scopes covered earlier in this chapter?). Note the following important points
related to passing a method parameter to a method:
■
■
It’s OK to define a method parameter with the same name as an instance variable (or object field). But this is not a recommended practice.
Within a method, a method parameter takes precedence over an object field.
When the method modifyVal refers to the variable age, it refers to the method
parameter age, not the instance variable age. To access the instance variable
age within the method modifyVal, the variable name age needs to be prefixed
with the keyword this (this is a keyword that refers to the object itself).
The keyword this is discussed in detail in chapter 6.
When you pass a primitive variable to a method, its value remains
the same after the execution of the method. The value doesn’t change,
regardless of whether the method reassigns the primitive to another variable
or modifies it.
EXAM TIP
3.8.2
Passing object references to methods
There are two main cases:
■
■
When a method reassigns the object reference passed to it to another variable
When a method modifies the state of the object reference passed to it
WHEN METHODS REASSIGN THE OBJECT REFERENCES PASSED TO THEM
When you pass an object reference to a method, the method can assign it to another
variable. In this case, the state of the object, which was passed on to the method,
remains intact. When a method is passed a reference value, a copy of the reference (that
is, the memory address) is passed to the invoked method. The callee can do whatever it
wants with its copy without ever altering the original reference held by the caller.
The following code example explains this concept. Suppose you have the following definition of the class Person:
class Person {
private String name;
Person(String newName) {
name = newName;
}
public String getName() {
return name;
}
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public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
}
}
What do you think is the output of the following code?
class Test {
public static void swap(Person p1, Person p2) {
Person temp = p1;
p1 = p2;
p2 = temp;
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Person person1 = new Person("John");
Creates
Person person2 = new Person("Paul");
object
System.out.println(person1.getName()
+ ":" + person2.getName());
Executes
swap(person1, person2);
method
System.out.println(person1.getName()
swap
+ ":" + person2.getName());
}
}
Method to swap two
object references
c
b
d
Prints John:Paul
before passing
objects referred by
variable person1
and person2 to
method swap
Prints John:Paul
after method swap
completes execution
In the preceding code, B creates two object references, person1 and person2, illustrated in step 1 of figure 3.23. The boxed values represent objects of the class Person.
c prints John:Paul—the value of person1.name and person2.name.
The code then calls the method swap and passes to it the objects referred to by
person1 and person2. When these objects are passed as arguments to the method
swap, the method arguments p1 and p2 also refer to these objects. This behavior is
illustrated in step 2 in figure 3.23.
Step1
Step2
person1
John
person1
John
p1
person2
Paul
person2
Paul
p2
Figure 3.23 Objects of class
Person, referred to by variables
person1, person2, p1, and p2
The method swap defines three lines of code:
■
■
■
Person temp = p1: makes temp refer to the object referred to by p1
p1 = p: makes p1 refer to the object referred to by p2
p2 = temp: makes p2 refer to the object referred to by temp
These three steps are represented in figure 3.24.
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temp
temp
temp
person1
John
p1
person1
John
p1
person1
John
p1
person2
Paul
p2
person2
Paul
p2
person2
Paul
p2
Person temp = p1;
p1 = p2;
p2 = temp;
Figure 3.24 The change in the objects referred to by variables during the execution of the method swap
As you can see in figure 3.24, the reference variables person1 and person2 are still
referring to the objects that they passed to the method swap. Because no change was
made to the values of the objects referred to by variables person1 and person2, line d
from the previous page prints John:Paul again.
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
John:Paul
John:Paul
WHEN METHODS MODIFY THE STATE OF THE OBJECT REFERENCES PASSED TO THEM
Let’s see how a method can change the state of an object so that the modified state is
accessible in the calling method. Assume the same definition of the class Person, listed
again for your convenience:
class Person {
private String name;
Person(String newName) {
name = newName;
}
public String getName() {
return name;
}
public void setName(String val) {
name = val;
}
}
What’s the output of the following code?
Create an
object
reference
person1
class Test {
public static void resetValueOfMemberVariable(Person p1) {
p1.setName("Rodrigue");
}
Print person1.name
public static void main(String args[]) {
before passing it to
Person person1 = new Person("John");
resetValueOfMemberVariable
System.out.println(person1.getName());
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resetValueOfMemberVariable(person1);
System.out.println(person1.getName());
Pass person1 to method
resetValueOfMemberVariable
}
}
Print person1.name after passing
it to resetValueOfMemberVariable
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
John
Rodrigue
The method resetValueOfMemberVariable accepts the object referred to by person1
and assigns it to the method parameter p1. Now both variables, person1 and p1, refer
to the same object. p1.setName("Rodrigue") modifies the value of the object referred
to by the variable p1. Because the variable person1 also refers to the same object,
person1.getName() returns the new name, Rodrigue, in the method main. This
sequence of actions is represented in figure 3.25.
person1
John
person1
John
p1
person1
Rodrigue
p1
Person person1 = new Person("John"); Within resetValueOfMemberVariable, p1
p1.setName("Rodrigue");
refers to person1, passed to it by method main.
Figure 3.25 Modification of the state of an object passed to the method resetValueOfMemberVariable
3.9
Summary
I started this chapter by discussing the scope of these variables: local, method parameter, instance, and class. Often these variables’ scopes overlap each other.
I also covered the constructors of a class: the user-defined and default constructors. Java inserts a default constructor in a class that doesn’t define any constructor.
You can modify the source code of such a class, add a constructor, and recompile the
class. Upon recompilation, the Java compiler removes the automatically generated
constructor.
I then covered the subobjective of reading from and writing to object fields. The
terms object fields and instance variables have the same meaning and are used interchangeably. You can read from and write to object fields by directly accessing them or
by using accessor methods. I also showed you how to apply encapsulation principles to
a class and explained why doing so is useful.
Finally, I explained the effect on references and primitives when they’re passed
into methods that change their values. When you pass a primitive value to a method,
its value never changes for the calling method. When you pass an object reference
variable to a method, a change in its value may be reflected in the calling method—if
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the called method modifies an object field of the object passed to it. If the called
method assigns a new object reference to the method argument before modifying the
value of its fields, these changes aren’t visible in the calling method.
3.10 Review notes
This section lists the main points covered in this chapter.
Scope of variables:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Variables can have multiple scopes: class, instance, local, and method parameters.
Local variables are defined within a method. Loop variables are local to the
loop within which they’re defined.
The scope of local variables is less than the scope of a method if they’re
declared in a sub-block (within braces, {}) in a method. This sub-block can be
an if statement, a switch construct, a loop, or a try-catch block (discussed in
chapter 7).
Local variables can’t be accessed outside the method in which they’re defined.
In a method, a local variable can’t be accessed before its declaration.
Instance variables are defined and accessible within an object. They’re accessible to all the instance methods of a class.
Class variables are shared by all the objects of a class—they can be accessed even
if there are no objects of the class.
Method parameters are used to accept arguments in a method. Their scope is
limited to the method where they’re defined.
A method parameter and a local variable can’t be defined using the same name.
Class and instance variables can’t be defined using the same name.
Local and instance variables can be defined using the same name. In a method,
if a local variable exists with the same name as an instance variable, the local
variable takes precedence.
Object’s life cycle:
■
■
■
■
■
■
An object’s life cycle starts when it’s initialized and lasts until it goes out of
scope or is no longer referenced by a variable.
When an object is alive, it can be referenced by a variable, and other classes can
use it by calling its methods and accessing its variables.
Declaring a reference object variable isn’t the same as creating an object.
An object is created using the operator new. Strings have special shorthand built
into the compiler. Strings can be created by using double quotes, as in "Hello".
An object is marked as eligible for garbage collection when it can no longer be
accessed.
An object can become inaccessible if it can no longer be referenced by any variable, which happens when a reference variable is explicitly set to null or when
it goes out of scope.
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The garbage collector can also reclaim memory from a group of referenced
objects. This group of variables is referred to as island of isolation.
You can be sure only about whether objects are marked for garbage collection.
You can never be sure about whether an object has been garbage collected.
Creating methods with arguments and return values:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The return type of a method states the type of value that a method will return.
You can define multiple method parameters for a method.
The method parameter can be of a primitive type or an object of a class or interface.
The method parameters are separated by commas.
Unlike the declaration of a local variable, or instance and class fields, each
method parameter must be preceded by its type. This isn’t allowed: void
description(String name, age) {}.
You can define only one variable argument in a parameter list, and it must be
the final variable in the parameter list. If these two rules aren’t followed, your
code won’t compile.
For a method that returns a value, the return statement must be followed
immediately by a compatible value.
For a method that doesn’t return a value (return type is void), the return statement must not be followed by a return value.
If there’s code that can be executed only after a return statement, the class will
fail to compile.
A method can optionally accept method arguments.
A method may optionally return a value.
A method returns a value by using the keyword return followed by the name of
a variable, whose value is passed back to the calling method.
The returned value from a method may or may not be assigned to a variable. If
the value is assigned to a variable, the variable type should be compatible with
the type of the return value.
A return statement should be the last statement in a method. Statements
placed after the return statement aren’t accessible and fail to compile.
A method can take zero or more parameters but can return only zero or one value.
Creating an overloaded method:
■
■
Overloaded methods accept different lists of arguments. The argument lists can
differ by
– Changes in the number of parameters that are accepted
– Changes in the types of parameters that are accepted
– Changes in the positions of parameters that are accepted
Methods can’t be defined as overloaded methods if they differ only in their
return types or access levels.
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Constructors of a class:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Constructors are special methods defined in a class that create and return an
object of the class in which they’re defined.
Constructors have the same name as the class, and they don’t specify a return
type—not even void.
User-defined constructors are defined by the developer.
If a class defines multiple initializer blocks, their order of execution depends on
their placement in a class. But all of them execute before a class’s constructor.
Default constructors are defined by Java, but only if the developer doesn’t
define any constructor in a class.
You can define a constructor using the four access levels: public, protected,
default, and private.
Accessibility of a default constructor matches the accessibility of its class. Java
creates a public default constructor for a public class. It creates a default constructor with package access for a class with package-level access.
If you define a return type for a constructor, it’ll no longer be treated like a constructor. It’ll be treated like a regular method, even though it shares the same
name as its class.
An initializer block is defined within a class, not as a part of a method. It executes
for every object that’s created for a class.
If you define both an initializer and a constructor for a class, both of these will
execute. The initializer block will execute prior to the constructor.
Unlike constructors, an initializer block can’t accept method parameters.
An initializer block can create local variables. It can access and assign values to
instance and static variables. It can call methods and define loops, conditional
statements, and try-catch-finally blocks.
Overloaded constructors:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
A class can also define overloaded constructors.
Overloaded constructors must be defined using different argument lists.
Overloaded constructors can’t be defined by just a change in the access levels.
Overloaded constructors may be defined using different access levels.
A constructor can call another overloaded constructor by using the keyword this.
A constructor can’t invoke a constructor by using its class’s name.
If present, a call to another constructor must be the first statement in a constructor.
Accessing object fields:
■
■
An object field is another name for an instance variable defined in a class.
An object field can be read either by directly accessing the variable (if its access
level permits) or by using a method that returns its value.
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■
■
■
■
■
■
Methods and encapsulation
Although object fields can be manipulated by direct access, it isn’t a recommended practice. It makes the object vulnerable to invalid data. Such a class
isn’t well encapsulated.
An object field can be written either by directly accessing the variable (if its
access level permits) or by using constructors and methods that accept a value
and assign it to the instance variable.
You can call methods defined in a class using an object reference variable.
You can’t call two (or more) constructors within a constructor because the call
to a constructor must be the first statement in a constructor.
When calling a method, it must be passed the correct number and type of
method arguments.
A call to a method must be followed by passing values to all its method parameters. For a method that defines one or more method parameters, you can’t call
the method followed by () to indicate it doesn’t need to be passed values.
Methods that accept varargs can be called with different counts of actual
arguments.
Applying encapsulation principles to a class:
■
■
■
■
A well-encapsulated object doesn’t expose the internal parts of an object outside it. It defines a set of well-defined interfaces (methods), which enables the
users of the class to interact with it.
A class that isn’t well encapsulated is at risk of being assigned undesired values
for its variables by the callers of the class, which can make the state of an object
unstable.
The terms encapsulation and information hiding are used interchangeably.
To define a well-encapsulated class, define its instance variables as private variables. Allow access or manipulation to these variables using methods.
Passing objects and primitives to methods:
■
■
■
Objects and primitives behave in different manners when they’re passed to a
method, because of differences in the way these two data types are internally
stored by Java.
When you pass a primitive variable to a method, its value remains the same after
the execution of the method. This doesn’t change, regardless of whether the
method reassigns the primitive to another variable or modifies it.
When you pass an object to a method, the method can modify the object’s state
by executing its methods. In this case, the modified state of the object is reflected
in the calling method.
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3.11 Sample exam questions
Q3-1. Which option defines a well-encapsulated class?
a
class Template {
public String font;
}
b
class Template2 {
public String font;
public void setFont(String font) {
this.font = font;
}
public String getFont() {
return font;
}
}
c
class Template3 {
private String font;
public String author;
public void setFont(String font) {
this.font = font;
}
public String getFont() {
return font;
}
public void setAuthor(String author) {
this.author = author;
}
public String getAuthor() {
return author;
}
}
d
None of the above
Q3-2. Examine the following code and select the correct option(s):
public class Person {
public int height;
public void setHeight(int newHeight) {
if (newHeight <= 300)
height = newHeight;
}
}
a
b
c
d
The height of a Person can never be set to more than 300.
The preceding code is an example of a well-encapsulated class.
The class would be better encapsulated if the height validation weren’t set
to 300.
Even though the class isn’t well encapsulated, it can be inherited by other classes.
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Q3-3. Which of the following methods correctly accepts three integers as method
arguments and returns their sum as a floating-point number?
a
public void addNumbers(byte arg1, int arg2, int arg3) {
double sum = arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
}
b
public double subtractNumbers(byte arg1, int arg2, int arg3) {
double sum = arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
return sum;
}
c
public double numbers(long arg1, byte arg2, double arg3) {
return arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
}
d
public float wakaWakaAfrica(long a1, long a2, short a977) {
double sum = a1 + a2 + a977;
return (float)sum;
}
Q3-4. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
c
If the return type of a method is int, the method can return a value of type
byte.
A method may or may not return a value.
If the return type of a method is void, it can define a return statement without
a value, as follows:
return;
d
e
f
A method may or may not accept any method arguments.
A method must accept at least one method argument or define its return type.
A method whose return type is String can’t return null.
Q3-5. Given the following definition of class Person,
class Person {
public String name;
public int height;
}
what is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruPassObjects1 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Person p = new Person();
p.name = "EJava";
anotherMethod(p);
System.out.println(p.name);
someMethod(p);
System.out.println(p.name);
}
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Sample exam questions
static void someMethod(Person p) {
p.name = "someMethod";
System.out.println(p.name);
}
static void anotherMethod(Person p) {
p = new Person();
p.name = "anotherMethod";
System.out.println(p.name);
}
}
a
anotherMethod
anotherMethod
someMethod
someMethod
b
anotherMethod
EJava
someMethod
someMethod
c
anotherMethod
EJava
someMethod
EJava
d
Compilation error
Q3-6. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruPassPrim {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int ejg = 10;
anotherMethod(ejg);
System.out.println(ejg);
someMethod(ejg);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
static void someMethod(int val) {
++val;
System.out.println(val);
}
static void anotherMethod(int val) {
val = 20;
System.out.println(val);
}
}
a
20
10
11
11
b
20
20
11
10
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c
20
10
11
10
d
Compilation error
Methods and encapsulation
Q3-7. Given the following signature of method eJava, choose the options that correctly overload this method:
public String eJava(int age, String name, double duration)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
private String eJava(int val, String firstName, double dur)
public void eJava(int val1, String val2, double val3)
String eJava(String name, int age, double duration)
float eJava(double name, String age, byte duration)
ArrayList eJava()
char[] eJava(double numbers)
String eJava()
Q3-8. Given the following code,
class Course {
void enroll(long duration) {
System.out.println("long");
}
void enroll(int duration) {
System.out.println("int");
}
void enroll(String s) {
System.out.println("String");
}
void enroll(Object o) {
System.out.println("Object");
}
}
what is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course course = new Course();
char c = 10;
course.enroll(c);
course.enroll("Object");
}
}
a
b
Compilation error
Runtime exception
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c
int
String
d
long
Object
211
Q3-9. Examine the following code and select the correct options:
class EJava {
public EJava() {
this(7);
System.out.println("public");
}
private EJava(int val) {
this("Sunday");
System.out.println("private");
}
protected EJava(String val) {
System.out.println("protected");
}
}
class TestEJava {
public static void main(String[] args) {
EJava eJava = new EJava();
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class EJava defines three overloaded constructors.
The class EJava defines two overloaded constructors. The private constructor
isn’t counted as an overloaded constructor.
Constructors with different access modifiers can’t call each other.
The code prints the following:
protected
private
public
e
The code prints the following:
public
private
protected
Q3-10. Select the incorrect options:
a
b
c
d
If a user defines a private constructor for a public class, Java creates a public
default constructor for the class.
A class that gets a default constructor doesn’t have overloaded constructors.
A user can overload the default constructor of a class.
The following class is eligible for a default constructor:
class EJava {}
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The following class is also eligible for a default constructor:
class EJava {
void EJava() {}
}
3.12 Answers to sample exam questions
Q3-1. Which option defines a well-encapsulated class?
a
class Template {
public String font;
}
b
class Template2 {
public String font;
public void setFont(String font) {
this.font = font;
}
public String getFont() {
return font;
}
}
c
class Template3 {
private String font;
public String author;
public void setFont(String font) {
this.font = font;
}
public String getFont() {
return font;
}
public void setAuthor(String author) {
this.author = author;
}
public String getAuthor() {
return author;
}
}
d
None of the above
Answer: d
Explanation: Options (a), (b), and (c) are incorrect because they all define a public
instance variable. A well-encapsulated class should be like a capsule, hiding its instance
variables from the outside world. The only way you should access and modify instance
variables is through the public methods of a class to ensure that the outside world
can access only the variables the class allows it to. By defining methods to assign values to its instance variables, a class can control the range of values that can be assigned
to them.
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Q3-2. Examine the following code and select the correct option(s):
public class Person {
public int height;
public void setHeight(int newHeight) {
if (newHeight <= 300)
height = newHeight;
}
}
a
b
c
d
The height of a Person can never be set to more than 300.
The preceding code is an example of a well-encapsulated class.
The class would be better encapsulated if the height validation weren’t set
to 300.
Even though the class isn’t well encapsulated, it can be inherited by other classes.
Answer: d
Explanation: This class isn’t well encapsulated because its instance variable height is
defined as a public member. Because the instance variable can be directly accessed
by other classes, the variable doesn’t always use the method setHeight to set its
height. The class Person can’t control the values that can be assigned to its public
variable height.
Q3-3. Which of the following methods correctly accepts three integers as method
arguments and returns their sum as a floating-point number?
a
public void addNumbers(byte arg1, int arg2, int arg3) {
double sum = arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
}
b
public double subtractNumbers(byte arg1, int arg2, int arg3) {
double sum = arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
return sum;
}
c
public double numbers(long arg1, byte arg2, double arg3) {
return arg1 + arg2 + arg3;
}
d
public float wakaWakaAfrica(long a1, long a2, short a977) {
double sum = a1 + a2 + a977;
return (float)sum;
}
Answer: b, d
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. The question specifies the method should return a
decimal number (type double or float), but this method doesn’t return any value.
Option (b) is correct. This method accepts three integer values that can be automatically converted to an integer: byte, int, and int. It computes the sum of these
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integer values and returns it as a decimal number (data type double). Note that the
name of the method is subtractNumbers, which doesn’t make it an invalid option.
Practically, you wouldn’t name a method subtractNumbers if it’s adding them. But
syntactically and technically, this option meets the question’s requirements and is a
correct option.
Option (c) is incorrect. This method doesn’t accept integers as the method arguments. The type of the method argument arg3 is double, which isn’t an integer.
Option (d) is correct. Even though the name of the method seems weird, it
accepts the correct argument list (all integers) and returns the result in the correct
data type (float).
Q3-4. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
c
If the return type of a method is int, the method can return a value of type
byte.
A method may or may not return a value.
If the return type of a method is void, it can define a return statement without
a value, as follows:
return;
d
e
f
A method may or may not accept any method arguments.
A method should accept at least one method argument or define its return type.
A method whose return type is String can’t return null.
Answer: a, b, c, d
Explanation: Option (e) is incorrect. There’s no constraint on the number of arguments that can be passed to a method, regardless of whether the method returns a
value.
Option (f) is incorrect. You can’t return the value null for methods that return
primitive data types. You can return null for methods that return objects (String is a
class and not a primitive data type).
Q3-5. Given the following definition of class Person,
class Person {
public String name;
public int height;
}
what is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruPassObjects1 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Person p = new Person();
p.name = "EJava";
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anotherMethod(p);
System.out.println(p.name);
someMethod(p);
System.out.println(p.name);
}
static void someMethod(Person p) {
p.name = "someMethod";
System.out.println(p.name);
}
static void anotherMethod(Person p) {
p = new Person();
p.name = "anotherMethod";
System.out.println(p.name);
}
}
a
anotherMethod
anotherMethod
someMethod
someMethod
b
anotherMethod
EJava
someMethod
someMethod
c
anotherMethod
EJava
someMethod
EJava
d
Compilation error
Answer: b
Explanation: The class EJavaGuruPassObject1 defines two methods, someMethod and
anotherMethod. The method someMethod modifies the value of the object parameter
passed to it. Hence, the changes are visible within this method and in the calling
method (method main). But the method anotherMethod reassigns the reference variable passed to it. Changes to any of the values of this object are limited to this method.
They aren’t reflected in the calling method (the main method).
Q3-6. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruPassPrim {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int ejg = 10;
anotherMethod(ejg);
System.out.println(ejg);
someMethod(ejg);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
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static void someMethod(int val) {
++val;
System.out.println(val);
}
static void anotherMethod(int val) {
val = 20;
System.out.println(val);
}
}
a
20
10
11
11
b
20
20
11
10
c
20
10
11
10
d
Compilation error
Answer: c
Explanation: When primitive data types are passed to a method, the values of the variables in the calling method remain the same. This behavior doesn’t depend on
whether the primitive values are reassigned other values or modified by addition, subtraction, or multiplication—or any other operation.
Q3-7. Given the following signature of method eJava, choose the options that correctly overload this method:
public String eJava(int age, String name, double duration)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
private String eJava(int val, String firstName, double dur)
public void eJava(int val1, String val2, double val3)
String eJava(String name, int age, double duration)
float eJava(double name, String age, byte duration)
ArrayList eJava()
char[] eJava(double numbers)
String eJava()
Answer: c, d, e, f, g
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. Overloaded methods can change the access modifiers, but changing the access modifier alone won’t make it an overloaded method. This
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option also changes the names of the method parameters, but that doesn’t make any
difference to a method signature.
Option (b) is incorrect. Overloaded methods can change the return type of the
method, but changing the return type won’t make it an overloaded method.
Option (c) is correct. Changing the placement of the types of the method parameters overloads it.
Option (d) is correct. Changing the return type of a method and the placement of
the types of the method parameters overloads it.
Option (e) is correct. Changing the return type of a method and making a change
in the parameter list overloads it.
Option (f) is correct. Changing the return type of a method and making a change
in the parameter list overloads it.
Option (g) is correct. Changing the parameter list also overloads a method.
Q3-8. Given the following code,
class Course {
void enroll(long duration) {
System.out.println("long");
}
void enroll(int duration) {
System.out.println("int");
}
void enroll(String s) {
System.out.println("String");
}
void enroll(Object o) {
System.out.println("Object");
}
}
what is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course course = new Course();
char c = 10;
course.enroll(c);
course.enroll("Object");
}
}
a
b
Compilation error
Runtime exception
c
int
String
d
long
Object
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Answer: c
Explanation: No compilation issues exist with the code. You can overload methods by
changing the type of the method arguments in the list. Using method arguments with
data types having a base-derived class relationship (Object and String classes) is
acceptable. Using method arguments with data types for which one can be automatically converted to the other (int and long) is also acceptable.
When the code executes course.enroll(c), char can be passed to two overloaded
enroll methods that accept int and long. The char gets expanded to its nearest
type—int—so course.enroll(c) calls the overloaded method that accepts int, printing int. The code course.enroll("Object") is passed a String value. Although
String is also an Object, this method calls the specific (not general) type of the argument passed to it. So course.enroll("Object") calls the overloaded method that
accepts String, printing String.
Q3-9. Examine the following code and select the correct options:
class EJava {
public EJava() {
this(7);
System.out.println("public");
}
private EJava(int val) {
this("Sunday");
System.out.println("private");
}
protected EJava(String val) {
System.out.println("protected");
}
}
class TestEJava {
public static void main(String[] args) {
EJava eJava = new EJava();
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class EJava defines three overloaded constructors.
The class EJava defines two overloaded constructors. The private constructor
isn’t counted as an overloaded constructor.
Constructors with different access modifiers can’t call each other.
The code prints the following:
protected
private
public
e
The code prints the following:
public
private
protected
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219
Answer: a, d
Explanation: You can define overloaded constructors with different access modifiers
in the same way that you define overloaded methods with different access modifiers.
But a change in only the access modifier can’t be used to define overloaded methods
or constructors. private methods and constructors are also counted as overloaded
methods.
The following line of code calls EJava’s constructor, which doesn’t accept any
method argument:
EJava eJava = new EJava();
The no-argument constructor of this class calls the constructor that accepts an int
argument, which in turn calls the constructor with the String argument. Because the
constructor with the String constructor doesn’t call any other methods, it prints
protected and returns control to the constructor that accepts an int argument.
This constructor prints private and returns control to the constructor that doesn’t
accept any method argument. This constructor prints public and returns control to
the main method.
Q 3-10. Select the incorrect options:
a
b
c
d
If a user defines a private constructor for a public class, Java creates a public
default constructor for the class.
A class that gets a default constructor doesn’t have overloaded constructors.
A user can overload the default constructor of a class.
The following class is eligible for default constructor:
class EJava {}
e
The following class is also eligible for a default constructor:
class EJava {
void EJava() {}
}
Answer: a, c
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. If a user defines a constructor for a class with
any access modifier, it’s no longer an eligible candidate to be provided with a default
constructor.
Option (b) is correct. A class gets a default constructor only when it doesn’t have any
constructor. A default or an automatic constructor can’t exist with other constructors.
Option (c) is incorrect. A default constructor can’t coexist with other constructors.
A default constructor is automatically created by the Java compiler if the user doesn’t
define any constructor in a class. If the user reopens the source code file and adds a
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constructor to the class, upon recompilation no default constructor will be created for
the class.
Option (d) is correct. Because this class doesn’t have a constructor, Java will create
a default constructor for it.
Option (e) is also correct. This class also doesn’t have a constructor, so it’s eligible
for the creation of a default constructor. The following isn’t a constructor because the
return type of a constructor isn’t void:
void EJava() {}
It’s a regular and valid method, with the same name as its class.
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Selected classes from
the Java API and arrays
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[9.2] Creating and manipulating Strings
How to initialize String variables using = (assignment) and new operators. Use of the operators =,
+=, !=, and == with String objects. Pooling of
string literal values. Literal value for class String.
Use of methods from class String. Immutable
String values. All the String methods manipulate and return a new String object.
[3.2] Test equality between Strings and
other objects using == and equals().
How to determine the equality of two String
objects.
Differences between using operator == and method
equals() to determine equality of String
objects.
[9.1] Manipulate data using the
StringBuilder class and its methods.
How to create StringBuilder classes and how
to use their commonly used methods.
Difference between StringBuilder and
String classes. Difference between methods with
similar names defined in both of these classes.
[4.1] Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a
one-dimensional array.
How to declare, instantiate, and initialize onedimensional arrays using single and multiple steps.
The do’s and don’ts of each of these steps.
[4.2] Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a
multidimensional array.
How to declare, instantiate, and initialize multidimensional arrays using single and multiple steps,
with do’s and don’ts for each of these steps.
Accessing elements in asymmetric multidimensional arrays.
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Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[9.4] Declare and use an ArrayList of a given
type.
How to declare, create, and use an ArrayList.
Advantages of using an ArrayList over arrays.
Use of methods that add, modify, and delete elements of an ArrayList.
[9.3] Create and manipulate calendar data using
classes from java.time.LocalDateTime,
java.time.LocalDate,
java.time.LocalTime,
How to store dates and times using classes
LocalDate, LocalTime, and
LocalDateTime.
Identify the factory methods to instantiate date
and time objects. Use instance methods of date
and time classes.
Use Period to add or subtract duration (days,
months, or years) to and from date objects.
Use DateTimeFormatter to format or parse
date and time objects.
java.time.format.DateTimeFormatter,
java.time.Period.
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’ll be asked many questions about how
to create, modify, and delete String objects, StringBuilder objects, arrays, ArrayList objects, and date/time objects. To prepare you for such questions, in this chapter I’ll provide insight into the variables you’ll use to store these objects’ values, along
with definitions for some of their methods. This information should help you apply all
the methods correctly.
In this chapter, we’ll cover the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Creating and manipulating String and StringBuilder objects
Using common methods from classes String and StringBuilder
Creating and using one-dimensional and multidimensional arrays in single and
multiple steps
Accessing elements in asymmetric multidimensional arrays
Declaring, creating, and using an ArrayList and understanding the advantages
of an ArrayList over arrays
Using methods that add, modify, and delete elements of an ArrayList
Creating date and time objects using the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, and
LocalDateTime
■
■
Manipulating date objects using the class Period
Formatting and parsing date and time objects using DateTimeFormatter
Let’s get started with the class String.
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Welcome to the world of the String class
4.1
Welcome to the world of the String class
[9.2] Create and manipulate strings
[3.2] Test equality between Strings and other objects using == and equals()
In this section, we’ll cover the class String defined in the Java API in the java.lang
package. The String class represents character strings. We’ll create objects of the
class String and work with its commonly used methods, including indexOf(), substring(), replace(), charAt(), and others. You’ll also learn how to determine the
equality of two String objects.
The String class is perhaps the most-used class in the Java API. You’ll find
instances of this class being used by every other class in the Java API. How many times
do you think you’ve used the class String? Don’t answer that question—it’s like trying
to count your hair.
Although many developers find the String class to be one of the simplest to work
with, this perception can be deceptive. For example, in the String value "Shreya", at
which index do you think r is stored—second or third? The correct answer is second
because the first letter of a String is stored at index 0 and not index 1. You’ll learn
many other facts about the String class in this section.
Let’s start by creating new objects of this class.
4.1.1
Creating String objects
You can create objects of the class String by using the new operator or by using String
literal values (values within double quotes). You can assign a String literal value to a
String reference variable by using the assignment operator (=). But you may have
noticed a big difference in how these objects are stored and referred to by Java.
Let’s create two String objects with the value "Paul" using the operator new:
Create two String objects by
using the operator new
String str1 = new String("Paul");
String str2 = new String("Paul");
System.out.println(str1 == str2);
Comparing the objects
referred to by the
variables str1 and
str2 prints false.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the previous code.
str1
Paul
str2
Paul
Separate
objects
Figure 4.1 String objects created using the operator
new always refer to separate objects, even if they store
the same sequence of characters.
In the previous code, a comparison of the String reference variables str1 and str2
prints false. The operator == compares the addresses of the objects referred to by the
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variables str1 and str2. Even though these String objects store the same sequence of
characters, they refer to separate objects stored at separate locations.
Let’s initialize two String variables with the value "Harry" using the assignment
operator (=). Figure 4.2 illustrates the variables str3 and str4 and the objects referred
to by these variables.
String str3 = "Harry";
String str4 = "Harry";
System.out.println(str3 == str4);
Initialize two String
variables by using
assignment operator =
Prints true because
str3 and str4 refer
to the same object
Hi
str3
str4
Harry
Bye
String pool
Figure 4.2 String objects created using the assignment
operator (=) may refer to the same object if they store the
same sequence of characters.
In the preceding example, the variables str1 and str2 referred to different String
objects, even if they were created using the same sequence of characters. In the case of
variables str3 and str4, the objects are created and stored in a pool of String objects.
Before creating a new object in the pool, Java searches for an object with similar contents. When the following line of code executes, no String object with the value
"Harry" is found in the pool of String objects:
String str3 = "Harry";
As a result, Java creates a String object with the value "Harry" in the pool of String
objects referred to by the variable str3. This action is depicted in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 The sequence of steps that executes when Java is unable to locate a String in a pool of
String objects
When the following line of code executes, Java is able to find a String object with the
value "Harry" in the pool of String objects:
String str4 = "Harry";
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Welcome to the world of the String class
Java doesn’t create a new String object in this case, and the variable str4 refers to the
existing String object "Harry". As shown in figure 4.4, both variables str3 and str4
refer to the same String object in the pool of String objects.
Figure 4.4
objects
The sequence of actions that executes when Java locates a String in the pool of String
You can also create a String object by enclosing a value within double quotes ("):
System.out.println("Morning");
Creates a new String object with value
Morning in the String constant pool
These values are reused from the String constant pool if a matching value is found. If
a matching value isn’t found, the JVM creates a String object with the specified value
and places it in the String constant pool:
String morning1 = "Morning";
System.out.println("Morning" == morning1);
Compare the preceding example with the following example, which creates a String
object using the operator new and (only) double quotes and then compares their
references:
String morning2 = new String("Morning");
System.out.println("Morning" == morning2);
This String object is not placed
in the String constant pool.
The preceding code shows that object references of String objects that exist in the
String constant pool and object references of String objects that don’t exist in
the String constant pool don’t refer to the same String object, even if they define
the same String value.
The terms String constant pool and String pool are used interchangeably and refer to the same pool of String objects. Because String objects are
immutable, the pool of String objects is also called the String constant pool.
You may see either of these terms on the exam.
NOTE
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You can also invoke other overloaded constructors of the class String to create its
objects by using the operator new:
String girl = new String("Shreya");
char[] name = new char[]{'P','a','u','l'};
String boy = new String(name);
String constructor
that accepts a String
String constructor that
accepts a char array
You can also create objects of String using the classes StringBuilder and StringBuffer:
StringBuilder sd1 = new StringBuilder("String Builder");
String str5 = new String(sd1);
StringBuffer sb2 = new StringBuffer("String Buffer");
String str6 = new String(sb2);
String constructor
that accepts object
of StringBuilder
String constructor that
accepts object of StringBuffer
Because String is a class, you can assign null to it, as shown in the next example:
String empName = null;
EXAM TIP
null is a literal
value for objects.
The default value for String is null.
COUNTING STRING OBJECTS
To test your understanding of the various ways in which a String object can be created, the exam may question you on the total number of String objects created in
a given piece of code. Count the total number of String objects created in the following code, assuming that the String constant pool doesn’t define any matching
String values:
class ContString {
public static void main(String... args) {
String summer = new String("Summer");
String summer2 = "Summer";
System.out.println("Summer");
System.out.println("autumn");
System.out.println("autumn" == "summer");
String autumn = new String("Summer");
}
}
b
c
d
e
f
g
I’ll walk through the code with you step by step to calculate the total number of
String objects created:
■
■
The code at B creates a new String object with the value "Summer". This object
is not placed in the String constant pool.
The code at c creates a new String object with the value "Summer" and places
it in the String constant pool.
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Welcome to the world of the String class
■
■
■
■
227
The code at d doesn’t need to create any new String object. It reuses the
String object with the value "Summer" that already existed in the String constant pool.
The code at e creates a new String object with the value "autumn" and places
it in the String constant pool.
The code at f reuses the String value "autumn" from the String constant
pool. It creates a String object with the value "summer" in the String constant pool (note the difference in the case of letters—Java is case-sensitive and
"Summer" is not the same as "summer").
The code at g creates a new String object with the value "Summer".
The previous code creates a total of five String objects.
If a String object is created using the keyword new, it always results
in the creation of a new String object. String objects created this way are
never pooled. When a variable is assigned a String literal using the assignment operator, a new String object is created only if a String object with the
same value isn’t found in the String constant pool.
EXAM TIP
4.1.2
The class String is immutable
The concept that the class String is immutable is an important point to remember.
Once created, the contents of an object of the class String can never be modified.
The immutability of String objects helps the JVM reuse String objects, reducing
memory overhead and increasing performance.
As shown previously in figure 4.4, the JVM creates a pool of String objects that
can be referenced by multiple variables across the JVM. The JVM can make this optimization only because String is immutable. String objects can be shared across
multiple reference variables without any fear of changes in their values. If the reference variables str1 and str2 refer to the same String object value "Java", str1
need not worry for its lifetime that the value "Java" might be changed through the
variable str2.
Let’s take a quick look at how the immutability of the class String is implemented
by the authors of this class:
■
■
■
The class String stores its values in a private variable of the type char array
(char value[]). Arrays are fixed in size and don’t grow once initialized.
This value variable is marked as final in the class String. Note that final is a
nonaccess modifier, and a final variable can be initialized only once.
None of the methods defined in the class String manipulate the individual elements of the array value.
I’ll discuss each of these points in detail in the following sections.
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Code from Java API classes
To give you a better understanding of how the classes String, StringBuilder, and
ArrayList work, I’ll explain the variables used to store these objects’ values, along
with definitions for some of their methods. My purpose is not to overwhelm you but
to prepare you. The exam won’t question you on this subject, but these details will
help you retain relevant information for the exam and implement similar requirements
in code for practical projects.
The source code of the classes defined in the Java API is shipped with the Java Development Kit (JDK). You can access it by unzipping the src.zip archive from your JDK’s
installation folder.
The rest of this section discusses how the authors of the Java API have implemented
immutability in the class String.
STRING USES A CHAR ARRAY TO STORE ITS VALUE
Here’s a partial definition of the class String from the Java source code file (String.java)
that includes the array used to store the characters of a String value (the relevant
code is in bold):
public final class String
implements java.io.Serializable, Comparable, CharSequence
{
private final char value[];
The rest of the code
of the class String
The value array is used
for character storage.
}
The arrays are fixed in size—they can’t grow once they’re initialized.
Let’s create a variable name of type String and see how it’s stored internally:
String name = "Selvan";
Figure 4.5 shows a UML representation (class diagram on the left and object diagram
on the right) of the class String and its object name, with only one relevant variable,
value, which is an array of the type char and is used to store the sequence of characters assigned to a String.
name : String
String
: char[ ] value = {'S', 'e', 'l', 'v', 'a', 'n'}
...
...
– value
Figure 4.5 UML representations
of the class String and a
String object with String’s
instance attribute value
As you can see in figure 4.5, the String value Selvan is stored in an array of type char.
In this chapter, I’ll cover arrays in detail, as well as how an array stores its first value at
position 0.
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Welcome to the world of the String class
Characters of String
S
e
l
v
a
n
Position at which each char is stored
0
1
2
3
4
5
229
Figure 4.6 Mapping characters stored by a String with the
positions at which they’re stored
Figure 4.6 shows how Selvan is stored as a char array.
What do you think you’ll get when you request that this String return the character at position 4? If you said a and not v, you got the right answer (as in figure 4.6).
STRING USES FINAL VARIABLE TO STORE ITS VALUE
The variable value, which is used to store the value of a String object, is marked as
final. Review the following code snippet from the class String.java:
private final char value[];
value is used for
character storage.
The basic characteristic of a final variable is that it can initialize a value only once. By
marking the variable value as final, the class String makes sure that it can’t be reassigned a value.
METHODS OF STRING DON’T MODIFY THE CHAR ARRAY
Although we can’t reassign a value to a final char array (as mentioned in the previ-
ous section), we can reassign its individual characters. Wow—does this mean that the
statement “Strings are immutable” isn’t completely true?
No, that statement is still true. The char array used by the class String is marked
private, which means that it isn’t accessible outside the class for modification. The
class String itself doesn’t modify the value of this variable either.
All the methods defined in the class String, such as substring, concat, toLowerCase, toUpperCase, trim, and so on, which seem to modify the contents of the String
object on which they’re called, create and return a new String object rather than modify
the existing value. Figure 4.7 illustrates the partial definition of String’s replace method.
public String replace(char oldChar, char newChar) {
if (oldChar != newChar) {
// code to create a new char array and
// replace the desired char with the new char
return new String(0, len, buf);
}
replace creates and
returns a new String
object. It doesn’t modify
the existing array value.
return this;
}
Figure 4.7 The partial definition of the method replace from the class String
shows that this method creates and returns a new String object rather than
modifies the value of the String object on which it’s called.
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I reiterate that the previous code from the class String will help you relate the theory
to the code and understand how and why a particular concept works. If you understand a particular concept well in terms of how and why it works, you’ll be able to
retain that information longer.
EXAM TIP Strings are immutable. Once initialized, a String value can’t be
modified. All the String methods that return a modified String value return
a new String object with the modified value. The original String value
always remains the same.
4.1.3
Methods of the class String
Figure 4.8 categorizes the methods that are on the exam into groups: ones that query
the positions of characters, ones that seem to modify String, and others.
String methods
Query position of chars
charAt
indexOf
Seem to modify String
substring
trim
Others
replace
length
startsWith
endsWith
Figure 4.8 Categorization of the String methods
Categorizing the methods in this way will help you better understand these methods.
For example, the methods charAt(), indexOf(), and substring() query the position
of individual characters in a String. The methods substring(), trim(), and replace()
seem to be modifying the value of a String.
CHARAT()
You can use the method charAt(int index) to retrieve a character at a specified
index of a String:
String name = new String("Paul");
System.out.println(name.charAt(0));
System.out.println(name.charAt(2));
Prints P
Prints u
Figure 4.9 illustrates the previous string, Paul.
P
a
u
l
Char at position 2
0
1
2
3
Char at position 0
Figure 4.9 The sequence of characters of "Paul" stored
by String and the corresponding array index positions
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Because the last character is placed at index 3, the following code will throw an exception at runtime:
System.out.println(name.charAt(4));
As a quick introduction, a runtime exception is a programming error
determined by the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) during the execution of
code. These errors occur because of the inappropriate use of another piece
of code (exceptions are covered in detail in chapter 7). The previous code
tries to access a nonexistent index position, so it causes an exception.
NOTE
INDEXOF()
You can search a String for the occurrence of a char or a String. If the specified
char or String is found in the target String, this method returns the first matching
position; otherwise, it returns -1:
Prints 1
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.indexOf('B'));
System.out.println(letters.indexOf("S"));
System.out.println(letters.indexOf("CA"));
Prints –1
Prints 2
Figure 4.10 illustrates the previous string ABCAB.
A
B
C
A
B
Start position of CA
0
1
2
3
4
Start position of B
Figure 4.10 The characters "ABCAB"
stored by String
By default, the indexOf() method starts its search from the first char of the target
String. If you wish, you can also set the starting position, as in the following example:
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.indexOf('B', 2));
Prints 4
SUBSTRING()
The substring() method is shipped in two flavors. The first returns a substring of a
String from the position you specify to the end of the String, as in the following
example:
String exam = "Oracle";
String sub = exam.substring(2);
System.out.println(sub);
Prints acle
Figure 4.11 illustrates the previous example.
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O
r
a
c
l
e
0
1
2
3
4
5
substring(2) = acle
Figure 4.11
The String "Oracle"
You can also specify the end position with this method:
String exam = "Oracle";
String result = exam.substring(2, 4);
System.out.println(result);
Prints ac
Figure 4.12 illustrates the String value "Oracle", including both a start point and an
end point for the method substring.
O
r
a
c
l
e
0
1
2
3
4
5
substring(2,4) = ac
Char at position 4
not included
Figure 4.12 How the method substring
looks for the specified characters from the
start until the end position
An interesting point is that the substring method doesn’t include the character at
the end position. In the previous example, result is assigned the value ac (characters
at positions 2 and 3), not the value acl (characters at positions 2, 3, and 4). Here’s a
simple way to remember this rule:
Length of String returned by substring() = end - start
The substring method doesn’t include the character at the end
position in its return value.
EXAM TIP
TRIM()
The trim() method returns a new String by removing all the leading and trailing
white space in a String. White spaces are blanks (new lines, spaces, or tabs).
Let’s define and print a String with leading and trailing white space. (The colons
printed before and after the String determine the start and end of the String.)
String varWithSpaces = " AB CB
System.out.print(":");
System.out.print(varWithSpaces);
System.out.print(":");
String with
white space
";
Prints : AB CB
:
Here’s another example that trims the leading and trailing white space:
System.out.print(":");
System.out.print(varWithSpaces.trim());
System.out.print(":");
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Prints :AB CB:
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Welcome to the world of the String class
Note that this method doesn’t remove the space within a String.
REPLACE()
This method will return a new String by replacing all the occurrences of a char with
another char. Instead of specifying a char to be replaced by another char, you can
also specify a sequence of characters—a String to be replaced by another String:
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.replace('B', 'b'));
System.out.println(letters.replace("CA", "12"));
Prints AbCAb
Prints AB12B
Notice the type of the method parameters passed on this method: either char or
String. You can’t mix these parameter types, as the following code shows:
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.replace('B', "b"));
System.out.println(letters.replace("B", 'b'));
Won’t compile
Again, notice that this method doesn’t—or can’t—change the value of the variable
letters. Examine the following line of code and its output:
System.out.println(letters);
Prints ABCAB because previous replace() method
calls don’t affect the char[] array within letters
LENGTH()
You can use the length() method to retrieve the length of a String. Here’s an example showing its use:
System.out.println("Shreya".length());
Prints 6
The length of a String is one number greater than the position
that stores its last character. The length of String "Shreya" is 6, but its last
character, a, is stored at position 5 because the positions start at 0, not 1.
EXAM TIP
STARTSWITH() AND ENDSWITH()
The method startsWith() determines whether a String starts with a specified prefix,
specified as a String. You can also specify whether you wish to search from the start of
a String or from a particular position. This method returns true if a match is found
and false otherwise:
Prints true
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.startsWith("AB"));
System.out.println(letters.startsWith("a"));
System.out.println(letters.startsWith("A", 3));
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Prints false
Prints true
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
The method endsWith() tests whether a String ends with a particular suffix. It returns
true for a matching value and false otherwise:
Prints true
System.out.println(letters.endsWith("CAB"));
System.out.println(letters.endsWith("B"));
System.out.println(letters.endsWith("b"));
Prints true
Prints false
METHOD CHAINING
It’s common practice to use multiple String methods in a single line of code, as follows:
String result = "Sunday ".replace(' ', 'Z').trim().concat("M n");
System.out.println(result);
Prints SundayZZM n
The methods are evaluated from left to right. The first method to execute in this
example is replace, not concat.
Method chaining is one of the favorite topics of the exam authors. You’re sure to
encounter a question on method chaining in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam.
EXAM TIP
When chained, the methods are evaluated from left to right.
Note that there’s a difference between calling a chain of methods on a String object
versus doing the same and then reassigning the return value to the same variable:
Prints
Zday
String day = "SunDday";
day.replace('D', 'Z').substring(3);
System.out.println(day);
day = day.replace('D', 'Z').substring(3);
System.out.println(day);
Calls methods
replace and
substring on day
String is immutable—
no change in the value
variable day; prints
SunDday
Calls methods replace and
substring on day, and assigns
the result back to variable day
Because String objects are immutable, their values won’t change if you execute methods on them. You can, of course, reassign a value to a reference variable of type
String. Watch out for related questions in the exam.
Although the next Twist in the Tale exercise may seem simple, with only two lines
of code, appearances can be deceptive (answers in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 4.1
Let’s modify some of the code used in the previous section. Execute this code on your
system. Which answer correctly shows its output?
String letters = "ABCAB";
System.out.println(letters.substring(0, 2).startsWith('A'));
a
b
true
false
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Welcome to the world of the String class
d
AB
ABC
e
Compilation error
c
4.1.4
235
String objects and operators
Of all the operators that are on this exam, you can use just a handful with the String
objects:
■
■
Concatenation: + and +=
Equality: == and !=
In this section, we’ll cover the concatenation operators. We’ll cover the equality operators in the next section (4.1.5).
Concatenation operators (+ and +=) have a special meaning for Strings. The Java
language has additional functionality defined for these operators for String. You can
use the operators + and += to concatenate two String values. Behind the scenes,
string concatenation is implemented by using the StringBuilder (covered in the
next section) or StringBuffer (similar to StringBuilder) classes.
But remember that a String is immutable. You can’t modify the value of any existing object of String. The + operator enables you to create a new object of the class
String with a value equal to the concatenated values of multiple Strings. Examine
the following code:
String aString = "OCJA"+"Cert"+"Exam";
aString contains
OCJACertExam
Here’s another example:
int num = 10;
int val = 12;
String aStr = "OCJA";
String anotherStr = num + val + aStr;
System.out.println(anotherStr);
Prints 22OCJA
Why do you think the value of the variable anotherStr is 22OCJA and not 1012OCJA?
The + operator can be used with the primitive values, and the expression num + val +
aStr is evaluated from left to right. Here’s the sequence of steps executed by Java to
evaluate the expression:
■
■
Add operands num and val to get 22.
Concatenate 22 with OCJA to get 22OCJA.
If you wish to treat the numbers stored in variables num and val as String values, modify the expression as follows:
anotherStr = "" + num + val + aStr;
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Evaluates to
1012OCJA
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
A practical tip on String concatenation
During my preparation for my Java Programmer certification, I learned how the output
changes in String concatenation when the order of values being concatenated is
changed. At work, it helped me to quickly debug a Java application that was logging
incorrect values to a log file. It didn’t take me long to discover that the offending line
of code was logToFile("Shipped:" + numReceived() + inTransit());. The
methods were returning correct values individually, but the return values of these
methods were not being added. They were being concatenated as String values,
resulting in the unexpected output.
One solution is to enclose the int addition within parentheses, as in logToFile("Shipped:"+ (numReceived() + inTransit()));. This code will log the text
"Shipped" with the sum of the numeric values returned by the methods numReceived() and inTransit().
When you use += to concatenate String values, ensure that the variable you’re using
has been initialized (and doesn’t contain null). Look at the following code:
String lang = "Java";
lang += " is everywhere!";
String initializedToNull = null;
initializedToNull += "Java";
System.out.println(initializedToNull);
4.1.5
lang is assigned
“Java is everywhere”
Prints nullJava
Determining equality of Strings
The correct way to compare two String values for equality is to use the equals
method defined in the String class. This method returns a true value if the object
being compared to it isn’t null, is a String object, and represents the same sequence
of characters as the object to which it’s being compared.
EQUALS METHOD
The following listing shows the method definitions of the equals method defined in
class String in the Java API.
Listing 4.1 Method definition of the equals method from the class String
c
Executes
public boolean equals(Object anObject) {
Returns true if
statements in
if (this == anObject) {
the object being
if construct if
return true;
compared to is
anObject is of
}
the same object
type String
if (anObject instanceof String) {
String anotherString = (String)anObject;
int n = count;
if (n == anotherString.count) {
Continues comparison if
char v1[] = value;
the length of String values
char v2[] = anotherString.value;
being compared is equal
int i = offset;
int j = anotherString.offset;
b
d
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while (n-- != 0) {
if (v1[i++] != v2[j++])
return false;
}
return true;
}
f
}
return false;
}
g
e
237
Compares individual String characters;
returns false if there’s a mismatch with
any individual String character
Returns true if all characters of String anObject
successfully matched with this object
Returns false if the object being compared
to is not of type String or the lengths of
the compared Strings don’t match
In listing 4.1, the equals method accepts a method parameter of type Object and
returns a boolean value. Let’s walk through the equals method defined by the class
String:
■
■
■
■
B compares the object reference variables. If the reference variables are the
same, they refer to the same object.
c compares the type of the method parameter to this object. If the method
parameter passed to this method is not of type String, g returns false.
d checks whether the lengths of the String values being compared are equal.
e compares the individual characters of the String values. It returns false if a
mismatch is found at any position. If no mismatch is found, f returns true.
COMPARING REFERENCE VARIABLES TO INSTANCE VALUES
Examine the following code:
String var1 = new String("Java");
String var2 = new String("Java");
System.out.println(var1.equals(var2));
System.out.println(var1 == var2);
Prints true
Prints false
The operator == compares the reference variables, that is, whether the variables refer
to the same object. Hence, var1 == var2 in the previous code prints false. Now examine the following code:
String var3 = "code";
String var4 = "code";
System.out.println(var3.equals(var4));
System.out.println(var3 == var4);
Prints true
Prints true
Even though comparing var3 and var4 using the operator == prints true, you should
never use this operator for comparing String values. The variables var3 and var4
refer to the same String object created and shared in the pool of String objects. (We
discussed the pool of String objects in section 4.1.1 earlier in this chapter.) The ==
operator won’t always return the value true, even if the two objects store the same
String values.
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
The operator == compares whether the reference variables refer to
the same objects, and the method equals compares the String values for
equality. Always use the equals method to compare two Strings for equality.
Never use the == operator for this purpose.
EXAM TIP
You can use the operator != to compare the inequality of objects referred to by String
variables. It’s the inverse of the operator ==. Let’s compare the usage of the operator
!= with the operator == and the method equals():
String var1 = new String("Java");
String var2 = new String("Java");
System.out.println(var1.equals(var2));
System.out.println(var1 == var2);
System.out.println(var1 != var2);
Prints true
Prints false
Prints true
The following example uses the operators != and == and the method equals to compare String variables that refer to the same object in the String constant pool:
String var3 = "code";
String var4 = "code";
System.out.println(var3.equals(var4));
System.out.println(var3 == var4);
System.out.println(var3 != var4);
Prints true
Prints true
Prints false
As you can see, in both of the previous examples the operator != returns the inverse
of the value returned by the operator ==.
EQUALITY OF VALUES RETURNED BY STRING METHODS
Do you think the String values returned by methods are stored in the String pool?
Will they return true when their variable references are compared using the == oper-
ator? Let’s find out:
String lang1 = "Java";
String lang2 = "JaScala";
String returnValue1 = lang1.substring(0,1);
String returnValue2 = lang2.substring(0,1);
System.out.println(returnValue1 == returnValue2);
System.out.println(returnValue1.equals(returnValue2));
Outputs false
Outputs true
In the preceding code, the call to lang1.substring() and lang2.subtring() will
return "Ja". But these string values aren’t stored in the String pool. This is because
these substrings are created using the new operator in String’s method substring
(and other String methods). This is confirmed by comparing their reference variables using the == operator, which returns false.
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239
Watch out for the exam questions that test you on using the ==
operator with String values returned by methods of the class String. Because
these values are created using the new operator, they aren’t placed in the
String pool.
EXAM TIP
Because Strings are immutable, we also need a mutable sequence of characters that
can be manipulated. Let’s work with the other type of string on the OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I exam: StringBuilder.
4.2
Mutable strings: StringBuilder
[9.1] Manipulate data using the StringBuilder class and its methods
The class StringBuilder is defined in the package java.lang, and it has a mutable
sequence of characters. You should use the class StringBuilder when you’re dealing with larger strings or modifying the contents of a string often. Doing so will
improve the performance of your code. Unlike StringBuilder, the String class has
an immutable sequence of characters. Every time you modify a string that’s represented by the String class, your code creates new String objects instead of modifying the existing one.
EXAM TIP You can expect questions on the need for the StringBuilder class
and its comparison with the String class.
Let’s work with the methods of the class StringBuilder. Because StringBuilder represents a mutable sequence of characters, the main operations on StringBuilder are
related to the modification of its value by adding another value at the end or at a particular position, deleting characters, or changing characters at a particular position.
4.2.1
The StringBuilder class is mutable
In contrast to the class String, the class StringBuilder uses a non–final char array
to store its value. Following is a partial definition of the class AbstractStringBuilder
(the superclass of the class StringBuilder). It includes the declaration of the variables value and count, which are used to store the value of StringBuilder and its
length, respectively (the relevant code is in bold):
abstract class AbstractStringBuilder implements Appendable, CharSequence {
/**
* The value is used for character storage.
*/
char value[];
/**
* The count is the number of characters used.
*/
int count;
//.. rest of the code
}
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
This information will come in handy when we discuss the methods of class StringBuilder in the following sections.
4.2.2
Creating StringBuilder objects
You can create objects of the class StringBuilder using multiple overloaded constructors, as follows:
b
No-argument
constructor
class CreateStringBuilderObjects {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Constructor that accepts
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder();
a StringBuilder object
StringBuilder sb2 = new StringBuilder(sb1);
StringBuilder sb3 = new StringBuilder(50);
StringBuilder sb4 = new StringBuilder("Shreya Gupta");
}
Constructor that accepts an int
}
c
Constructor
that accepts
a String
e
value specifying initial capacity
of StringBuilder object
d
B constructs a StringBuilder object with no characters in it and an initial capacity of
16 characters. c constructs a StringBuilder object that contains the same set of characters as contained by the StringBuilder object passed to it. d constructs a StringBuilder object with no characters and an initial capacity of 50 characters. e
constructs a StringBuilder object with an initial value as contained by the String
object. Figure 4.13 illustrates StringBuilder object sb4 with the value Shreya Gupta.
Characters of
StringBuilder
Position at which
each character is
stored
S
h
r
e
y
a
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
G
u
p
t
a
7
8
9
10 11
Figure 4.13 The
StringBuilder object
with character values and
their corresponding
storage positions
When you create a StringBuilder object using its default constructor, the following
code executes behind the scenes to initialize the array value defined in the class
StringBuilder itself:
StringBuilder() {
value = new char[16];
}
Creates an array
of length 16
When you create a StringBuilder object by passing it a String, the following code
executes behind the scenes to initialize the array value:
public StringBuilder(String str) {
value = new char[str.length() + 16];
append(str);
}
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Creates an array of
length 16+ str.length
241
Mutable strings: StringBuilder
The creation of objects for the class StringBuilder is the basis for the next Twist in
the Tale exercise. Your task in this exercise is to look up the Java API documentation
or the Java source code to answer the question. You can access the Java API documentation in a couple of ways:
■
■
View it online at http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/.
Download it to your system from http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/
javase/documentation/jdk8-doc-downloads-2133158.html. Accept the license
agreement and click the link for jdk-8u66-docs-all.zip to download it. (These
links may change eventually as Oracle updates its website.)
The answer to the following Twist in the Tale exercise is given in the appendix.
Twist in the Tale 4.2
Take a look at the Java API documentation or the Java source code files and answer
the following question:
Which of the following options (there’s just one correct answer) correctly creates
an object of the class StringBuilder with a default capacity of 16 characters?
c
StringBuilder name = StringBuilder.getInstance();
StringBuilder name = StringBuilder.createInstance();
StringBuilder name = StringBuilder.buildInstance();
d
None of the above
a
b
4.2.3
Methods of class StringBuilder
You’ll be pleased to learn that many of the methods defined in the class StringBuilder work exactly like the versions in the class String—for example, methods
such as charAt, indexOf, substring, and length. We won’t discuss these again for the
class StringBuilder. In this section, we’ll discuss the other main methods of the class
StringBuilder: append, insert, and delete.
Figure 4.14 shows the categorization of this class’s methods.
StringBuilder methods
Query position of chars
charAt
indexOf
Figure 4.14
Modify StringBuilder
substring
append
insert
delete
Categorization of StringBuilder methods
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length
trimToSize
setLength
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
APPEND()
The append method adds the specified value at the end of the existing value of a
StringBuilder object. Because you may want to add data from multiple data types to
a StringBuilder object, this method has been overloaded so that it can accept data of
any type.
This method accepts all the primitives, String, char array, and Object, as method
parameters, as shown in the following example:
class AppendStringBuilder {
Appends boolean
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder();
Appends int
sb1.append(true);
sb1.append(10);
Appends char
sb1.append('a');
sb1.append(20.99);
Appends double
sb1.append("Hi");
Appends String
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints
}
true10a20.99Hi
}
You can append a complete char array, StringBuilder, or String or its subset as follows:
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder();
char[] name = {'J', 'a', 'v', 'a', '8'};
sb1.append(name, 1, 3);
System.out.println(sb1);
Starting with position 1
append 3 characters,
position 1 inclusive
Prints ava
Because the method append also accepts a method parameter of type Object, you can
pass it any object from the Java API or your own user-defined object:
class AppendStringBuilder2 {
Append String
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder();
Append object
sb1.append("Java");
of class Person
sb1.append(new Person("Oracle"));
System.out.println(sb1);
Doesn’t print
}
JavaOracle
}
class Person {
String name;
Person(String str) { name = str; }
}
The output of the previous code is
JavaPerson@126b249
In this output, the hex value (126b249) that follows the @ sign may differ on your system.
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Mutable strings: StringBuilder
When you append an object’s value to a StringBuilder, the method append calls
the static String.valueOf() method. The version taking an Object parameter returns
the four-letter string “null” if the parameter is null; otherwise, it calls its toString
method. If the toString method has been overridden by the class, then the method
append adds the String value returned by it to the target StringBuilder object. In
the absence of the overridden toString method, the toString method defined in the
class Object executes. For your information, the default implementation of the method
toString in the class Object returns the name of the class followed by the @ char and
unsigned hexadecimal representation of the hash code of the object (the value
returned by the object’s hashCode method).
For classes that haven’t overridden the toString method, the
append method results in appending the output from the default implementation of method toString defined in the class Object (if the parameter isn’t null).
EXAM TIP
It’s interesting to take a quick look at how the append method works for the class
StringBuilder. Following is a partial code listing of the method append that accepts a
boolean parameter (as explained in the comments):
b
Adds 4 (length of "true")
to count, which holds the
public AbstractStringBuilder append(boolean b) {
number of characters in
if (b) {
the StringBuilder
int newCount = count + 4;
if (newCount > value.length)
Checks if value array is long
expandCapacity(newCount);
enough and expands if required
value[count++] = 't';
value[count++] = 'r';
value[count++] = 'u';
Adds the text "true",
letter by letter
value[count++] = 'e';
} else {
...
Code to
}
append false
return this;
}
c
d
B and c determine whether the array value can accommodate four additional characters corresponding to the boolean literal value true. At c, the call to expandCapacity() increases the capacity of the array value (used to store the characters of a
StringBuilder object) if it isn’t big enough. d adds individual characters of the
boolean value true to the array value.
INSERT()
The insert method is as powerful as the append method. It also exists in multiple flavors (read: overloaded methods) that accept any data type. The main difference
between the append and insert methods is that the insert method enables you to
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
insert the requested data at a particular position, but the append method allows you to
add the requested data only at the end of the StringBuilder object:
class InsertStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("Bon");
sb1.insert(2, 'r');
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints Born
}
}
Inserts r at
position 2
Figure 4.15 illustrates the previous code.
insert(2, 'r')
B
o
n
B
o
r
n
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
Insert 'r' at
position 2
Figure 4.15 Inserting a char using the
method insert in StringBuilder
As with String objects, the first character of StringBuilder is stored at position 0.
Hence, the previous code inserts the letter r at position 2, which is occupied by the
letter n. You can also insert a complete char array, StringBuffer, or String or its subset, as follows:
Insert at sb1 position 1,
values ava from String name
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("123");
char[] name = {'J', 'a', 'v', 'a'};
sb1.insert(1, name, 1, 3);
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints 1ava23
Figure 4.16 illustrates the previous code.
J
a
v
a
0
1
2
3
insert(1,
sb1
)
1
2
3
1
a
v
a
2
3
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
Insert 'a', 'v', 'a' at
position 1
Figure 4.16
Inserting a substring of String in StringBuilder
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Mutable strings: StringBuilder
Take note of the start and end positions when inserting a value in
a StringBuilder. Multiple flavors of the insert method defined in StringBuilder may confuse you because they can be used to insert either single or
multiple characters.
EXAM TIP
DELETE() AND DELETECHARAT()
The method delete removes the characters in a substring of the specified StringBuilder. The method deleteCharAt removes the char at the specified position.
Here’s an example showing the method delete:
class DeleteStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("0123456");
sb1.delete(2, 4);
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints 01456
}
}
b
Removes characters
at positions starting
from 2 to 4,
excluding 4
B removes characters at positions 2 and 3. The delete method doesn’t remove the
letter at position 4. Figure 4.17 illustrates the previous code.
delete(2, 4)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
Does not delete
character at
position 4
Figure 4.17 The method delete(2,4) doesn’t delete the character
at position 4.
The method deleteCharAt is simple. It removes a single character, as follows:
class DeleteStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("0123456");
sb1.deleteCharAt(2);
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints 013456
}
}
Deletes character
at position 2
EXAM TIP Combinations of the deleteCharAt and insert methods can be
quite confusing.
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
TRIM()
Unlike the class String, the class StringBuilder doesn’t define the method trim. An
attempt to use it with this class will prevent your code from compiling. The only reason I’m describing a nonexistent method here is to ward off any confusion.
REVERSE()
As the name suggests, the reverse method reverses the sequence of characters of a
StringBuilder:
class ReverseStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("0123456");
sb1.reverse();
Prints
System.out.println(sb1);
6543210
}
}
EXAM TIP
You can’t use the method reverse to reverse a substring of String-
Builder.
REPLACE()
Unlike the replace method defined in the class String, the replace method in the
class StringBuilder replaces a sequence of characters, identified by their positions,
with another String, as in the following example:
class ReplaceStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("0123456");
sb1.replace(2, 4, "ABCD");
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints
}
01ABCD456
}
Figure 4.18 shows a comparison of the replace methods defined in the classes String
and StringBuilder.
replace("CI", "AA")
replace(3, 5, "AA")
P
E
N
C
I
L
P
E
N
A
A
L
P
E
N
C
I
L
P
E
N
A
A
L
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Search string "CI"
and replace with "AA"
Replace characters at
position 3,4 with "AA"
Figure 4.18 Comparing the replace methods in String (left) and StringBuilder (right). The
method replace in String accepts the characters to be replaced. The method replace in
StringBuilder accepts a position to be replaced.
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SUBSEQUENCE()
Apart from using the method substring, you can also use the method subSequence
to retrieve a subsequence of a StringBuilder object. This method returns objects of
type CharSequence:
class SubSequenceStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Prints 23
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("0123456");
System.out.println(sb1.subSequence(2, 4));
System.out.println(sb1);
Prints 0123456
}
}
The method subsequence doesn’t modify the existing value of a StringBuilder object.
4.2.4
A quick note on the class StringBuffer
Although the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam objectives don’t mention the class
StringBuffer, you may see it in the list of (incorrect) answers in the OCA exam.
The classes StringBuffer and StringBuilder offer the same functionality, with
one difference: the methods of the class StringBuffer are synchronized where necessary, whereas the methods of the class StringBuilder aren’t. What does this mean?
When you work with the class StringBuffer, only one thread out of multiple threads
can execute your method. This arrangement prevents any inconsistencies in the values of the instance variables that are modified by these (synchronized) methods. But
it introduces additional overhead, so working with synchronized methods and the
StringBuffer class affects the performance of your code.
The class StringBuilder offers the same functionality as offered by StringBuffer,
minus the additional feature of synchronized methods. Often your code won’t be
accessed by multiple threads, so it won’t need the overhead of thread synchronization.
If you need to access your code from multiple threads, use StringBuffer; otherwise
use StringBuilder.
4.3
Arrays
[4.1] Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a one-dimensional array
[4.2] Declare, instantiate, initialize, and use a multidimensional array
In this section, I’ll cover declaration, allocation, and initialization of one-dimensional
and multidimensional arrays. You’ll learn about the differences between arrays of
primitive data types and arrays of objects.
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What is an array?
An array is an object that stores a collection of values. The fact that an array itself is an
object is often overlooked. I’ll reiterate: an array is an object itself; it stores references
to the data it stores. Arrays can store two types of data:
■
■
A collection of primitive data types
A collection of objects
An array of primitives stores a collection of values that constitute the primitive values
themselves. (With primitives, there are no objects to reference.) An array of objects
stores a collection of values, which are in fact heap-memory addresses or pointers.
The addresses point to (reference) the object instances that your array is said to store,
which means that object arrays store references (to objects) and primitive arrays store
primitive values.
The members of an array are defined in contiguous (continuous) memory locations and hence offer improved access speed. (You should be able to quickly access all
the students of a class if they all can be found next to each other.)
The following code creates an array of primitive data and an array of objects:
class CreateArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int intArray[] = new int[] {4, 8, 107};
String objArray[] = new String[] {"Harry", "Shreya",
"Paul", "Selvan"};
}
}
Array of
primitive data
Array of
objects
I’ll discuss the details of creating arrays shortly. The previous example shows one of
the ways to create arrays. Figure 4.19 illustrates the arrays intArray and objArray.
Unlike intArray, objArray stores references to String objects.
Harry
4
intArray
8
107
objArray
Shreya
Paul
String
objects
Selvan
Array of primitive data
Array of objects
Figure 4.19 An array of int
primitive data type and another
of String objects
Arrays are objects and refer to a collection of primitive data types or
other objects.
NOTE
In Java, you can define one-dimensional and multidimensional arrays. A one-dimensional array is an object that refers to a collection of scalar values. A two-dimensional
(or more) array is referred to as a multidimensional array. A two-dimensional array
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refers to a collection of objects in which each of the objects is a one-dimensional array.
Similarly, a three-dimensional array refers to a collection of two-dimensional arrays,
and so on. Figure 4.20 depicts a one-dimensional array and multidimensional arrays
(two-dimensional and three-dimensional).
Array element
Array element
Array element
One-dimensional array
Figure 4.20
Two-dimensional array
Three-dimensional array
One-dimensional and multidimensional (two- and three-dimensional) arrays
Note that multidimensional arrays may or may not contain the same number of elements in each row or column, as shown in the two-dimensional array in figure 4.20.
Creating an array involves three steps, as follows:
■
■
■
Declaring the array
Allocating the array
Initializing the array elements
You can create an array by executing the previous steps using separate lines of code or
you can combine these steps on the same line of code. Let’s start with the first
approach: completing each step on a separate line of code.
4.3.2
Array declaration
An array declaration includes the array type and array variable, as shown in figure 4.21.
The type of objects that an array can store depends on its type. An array type is followed by one or more empty pairs of square brackets [].
int[] anArray;
Type of array
Variable name
Square brackets
Figure 4.21 Array declaration includes the array type
and array variable
To declare an array, specify its type, followed by the name of the array variable. Here’s
an example of declaring arrays of int and String values:
int intArray[];
String[] strArray;
int[] multiArray[];
One-dimensional
array
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
The number of bracket pairs indicates the depth of array nesting. Java doesn’t impose
any theoretical limit on the level of array nesting. The square brackets can follow the
array type or its name, as shown in figure 4.22.
int[] multiArr[];
int[] anArr;
int[][] multiArr;
int anArr[];
Is same as
Is same as
is same as
int multiArr[][];
Figure 4.22 Square brackets can follow either the variable name or its type. In the case of
multidimensional arrays, it can follow both of them.
In an array declaration, placing the square brackets next to the type
(as in int[] or int[][]) is preferred because it makes the code easier to read
by showing the array types in use.
NOTE
The array declaration only creates a variable that refers to null, as shown in figure 4.23.
null
anArray
Figure 4.23 Array declaration creates a variable
that refers to null.
Because no elements of an array are created when it’s declared, it’s invalid to define
the size of an array with its declaration. The following code won’t compile:
int intArray[2];
String[5] strArray;
int[2] multiArray[3];
Array size can’t be defined with the array
declaration. This code won’t compile.
An array type can be any of the following:
■
■
■
■
Primitive data type
Interface
Abstract class
Concrete class
We declared an array of an int primitive type and a concrete class String previously. I’ll
discuss some complex examples with abstract classes and interfaces in section 4.3.7.
NOTE
4.3.3
Arrays can be of any data type other than null.
Array allocation
As the name suggests, array allocation will allocate memory for the elements of an
array. When you allocate memory for an array, you should specify its dimensions, such
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as the number of elements the array should store. Note that the size of an array can’t
expand or reduce once it is allocated. Here are a few examples:
int intArray[];
String[] strArray;
int[] multiArr[];
intArray = new int[2];
strArray = new String[4];
multiArr = new int[2][3];
Array
declaration
Note use of keyword new
to allocate an array
Because an array is an object, it’s allocated using the keyword new, followed by the type
of value that it stores, and then its size. The code won’t compile if you don’t specify
the size of the array or if you place the array size on the left of the = sign, as follows:
Won’t compile; array
size missing
intArray = new int[];
intArray[2] = new int;
Won’t compile; array
size placed incorrectly
The size of the array must evaluate to an int value. You can’t create an array with its
size specified as a floating-point number. The following line of code won’t compile:
Won’t compile; can’t define size of
an array as a floating-point number
intArray = new int[2.4];
Java accepts an expression to specify the size of an array, as long as it evaluates to an
int value. The following are valid array allocations:
strArray = new String[2*5];
int x = 10, y = 4;
strArray = new String[x*y];
strArray = new String[Math.max(2, 3)];
2*5 evaluates to
an integer value.
This is acceptable; expression x*y
evaluates to an integer value.
This is acceptable; Math.max(2,3)
returns an int value.
Let’s allocate the multidimensional array multiArr, as follows:
int[] multiArr[];
multiArr = new int[2][3];
Array declaration
OK to define size in
both square brackets
You can also allocate the multidimensional array multiArr by defining size in only the
first square brackets:
multiArr = new int[2][];
OK to define the size in only
the first square bracket
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It’s interesting to note the difference between what happens when the multidimensional array multiArr is allocated by defining sizes for a single dimension or for both
of its dimensions. This difference is shown in figure 4.24.
null
null
multiArr
multiArr
multiArr = new int[2][3]
multiArr = new int[2][]
Figure 4.24 The difference in array allocation of a two-dimensional
array when it’s allocated using values for only one of its dimensions
and for both of its dimensions
You can’t allocate a multidimensional array as follows:
Multidimensional
array declaration
int[] multiArr[];
multiArr = new int[];
multiArr = new int[][3];
c
b
Size in first square
bracket missing
Nonmatching
square brackets
B won’t compile because there’s a mismatch in the number of square brackets on
both sides of the assignment operator (=). The compiler required [][] on the right
side of the assignment operator, but it finds only []. c won’t compile because you
can’t allocate a multidimensional array without including a size in the first square
bracket and defining a size in the second square bracket.
Once allocated, the array elements store their default values. For arrays that store
objects, all the allocated array elements store null. For arrays that store primitive values, the default values depend on the exact data types stored by them.
Once allocated, all the array elements store their default values.
Elements in an array that store objects default to null. Elements of an array
that store primitive data types store 0 for integer types (byte, short, int,
long); 0.0 for decimal types (float and double); false for boolean; or
\u0000 for char data.
EXAM TIP
4.3.4
Array initialization
You can initialize an array as follows:
Array declaration
int intArray[];
intArray = new int[2];
for (int i=0; i String multiStrArr[][] = new String[][]{
Line2>
{"A", "B"},
Line3>
null,
Line4>
{"Jan", "Feb", null},
Line5>
};
Which of the following individual options are true for the previous code?
a
b
c
d
4.3.7
Code on line 4 is the same as {"Jan", "Feb", null, null},.
No value is stored at multiStrArr[2][2].
No value is stored at multiStrArr[1][1].
Array multiStrArr is asymmetric.
Arrays of type interface, abstract class, and class Object
In the section on array declaration, I mentioned that the type of an array can also be
an interface or an abstract class. What values do elements of these arrays store? Let’s
look at some examples.
INTERFACE TYPE
If the type of an array is an interface, its elements are either null or objects that
implement the relevant interface type. For example, for the interface MyInterface,
the array interfaceArray can store references to objects of either the class MyClass1
or MyClass2:
interface MyInterface {}
class MyClass1 implements MyInterface {}
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class MyClass2 implements MyInterface {}
class Test {
MyInterface[] interfaceArray = new MyInterface[]
{
new MyClass1(),
null,
new MyClass2()
};
}
ABSTRACT CLASS TYPE
If the type of an array is an abstract class, its elements are either null or objects of
concrete classes that extend the relevant abstract class:
abstract class Vehicle{}
class Car extends Vehicle {}
class Bus extends Vehicle {}
class Test {
Vehicle[] vehicleArray = { new Car(),
new Bus(),
null};
}
null is a valid
element.
Next, I’ll discuss a special case in which the type of an array is Object.
OBJECT
Because all classes extend the class java.lang.Object, elements of an array whose
type is java.lang.Object can refer to any object. Here’s an example:
interface MyInterface {}
class MyClass1 implements MyInterface {}
abstract class Vehicle{}
class Car extends Vehicle {}
class Test {
Object[] objArray = new Object[] {
new MyClass1(),
null,
new Car(),
new java.util.Date(),
new String("name"),
new Integer [7]
};
}
null is a valid
element.
b
Array element of type Object
can refer to another array
B is valid code. Because an array is an object, the element of the array of java.lang
.Object can refer to another array. Figure 4.26 illustrates the previously created array,
objArray.
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Object of Class1
0
objArray
1
null
Object of Car
2
3
4
5
4.3.8
2050-5-10
John
Object of Date
Object of String
null An array of Integer
null
null
null
null
null
null
Figure 4.26 An array of class Object
Members of an array
Array objects have the following public members:
■
■
■
length—The public variable length stores the number of elements of the array.
clone()—This method overrides the method clone defined in the class Object
but doesn’t throw checked exceptions. The return type of this method is the
same as the array’s type. For example, for an array of type Type[], this method
returns Type[].
Inherited methods—Methods inherited from the class Object, except the method
clone.
As mentioned in the earlier section on the String class, a String uses the method
length() to retrieve its length. With an array, you can use the array’s variable length
to determine the number of the array’s elements. In the exam, you may be tricked by
code that tries to access the length of a String using the variable length. Note the correct combination of class and member used to access its length:
■
■
String—Retrieve length using the method length()
Array—Determine element count using the variable length
I have an interesting way to remember this rule. As opposed to an array, you’ll invoke
a lot of methods on String objects. So you use the method length() to retrieve the
length of String and the variable length to retrieve the length of an array.
4.4
ArrayList
[9.4] Declare and use an ArrayList of a given type
In this section, I’ll cover how to use ArrayList, its commonly used methods, and the
advantages it offers over an array.
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam covers only one class from the Java Collection API: ArrayList. The rest of the classes from the Java Collection API are covered
in the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam (exam number 1Z0-809). One of the reasons
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to include this class in the Java Associate exam could be how frequently this class is
used by all Java programmers.
ArrayList is one of the most widely used classes from the Collections framework.
It offers the best combination of features offered by an array and the List data structure. The most commonly used operations with a list are add items to a list, modify items
in a list, delete items from a list, and iterate over the items.
One frequently asked question by Java developers is, “Why should I bother with an
ArrayList when I can already store objects of the same type in an array?” The answer
lies in the ease of use of an ArrayList. This is an important question, and this exam
contains explicit questions on the practical reasons for using an ArrayList.
You can compare an ArrayList with a resizable array. As you know, once it’s created,
you can’t increase or decrease the size of an array. On the other hand, an ArrayList
automatically increases and decreases in size as elements are added to or removed from
it. Also, unlike arrays, you don’t need to specify an initial size to create an ArrayList.
Let’s compare an ArrayList and an array with real-world objects. Just as a balloon
can increase and decrease in size when it’s inflated or deflated, an ArrayList can
increase or decrease in size as values are added to it or removed from it. One comparison is a cricket ball, because it has a predefined size. Once created, like an array, it
can’t increase or decrease in size.
Here are a few more important properties of an ArrayList:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
4.4.1
It implements the interface List.
It allows null values to be added to it.
It implements all list operations (add, modify, and delete values).
It allows duplicate values to be added to it.
It maintains its insertion order.
You can use either Iterator or ListIterator to iterate over the items of an
ArrayList.
It supports generics, making it type safe. (You have to declare the type of the
elements that should be added to an ArrayList with its declaration.)
Creating an ArrayList
The following example shows you how to create an ArrayList:
b
Import
java.util.ArrayList
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class CreateArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
}
Declare an
}
ArrayList object
c
Package java.util isn’t implicitly imported into your class, which means that B
imports the class ArrayList in the class CreateArrayList defined previously. To create
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an ArrayList, you need to inform Java about the type of the objects that you want to
store in this collection of objects. c declares an ArrayList called myArrList, which
can store String objects specified by the name of the class String between the angle
brackets (<>). Note that the name String appears twice in the code at c, once on the
left side of the equal sign and once on the right. Do you think the second one seems
redundant? Congratulations, Oracle agrees with you. Starting with Java version 7,
you can omit the object type on the right side of the equal sign and create an ArrayList as follows:
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList<>();
Missing object type on
right of = works in Java
version 7 and above
Many developers still work with Java SE versions prior to version 7, so you’re likely to
see some developers still using the older way of creating an ArrayList.
Take a look at what happens behind the scenes (in the Java source code) when you
execute the previous statement to create an ArrayList. Because you didn’t pass any
arguments to the constructor of class ArrayList, its no-argument constructor will execute. Examine the definition of the following no-argument constructor defined in the
class ArrayList.java:
/**
* Constructs an empty list with an initial capacity of ten.
*/
public ArrayList() {
this(10);
}
Because you can use an ArrayList to store any type of Object, ArrayList defines an
instance variable elementData of type Object[] to store all its individual elements.
Following is a partial code listing from class ArrayList:
/**
* The array buffer into which the elements of the ArrayList are stored.
* The capacity of the ArrayList is the length of this array buffer.
*/
private transient Object[] elementData;
Figure 4.27 illustrates the variable elementData shown within an object of ArrayList.
Object of ArrayList
I am an array and I store
data for ArrayList
Object[] elementData;
Figure 4.27 Variable elementData shown
within an object of ArrayList
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Here’s the definition of the constructor from the class ArrayList (ArrayList.java),
which initializes the previously defined instance variable, elementData:
/**
* Constructs an empty list with the specified initial capacity.
*
* @param
initialCapacity
the initial capacity of the list
* @exception IllegalArgumentException if the specified initial capacity
*
is negative
*/
public ArrayList(int initialCapacity) {
super();
if (initialCapacity < 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Illegal Capacity: "+
initialCapacity);
this.elementData = new Object[initialCapacity];
}
Wait a minute. Did you notice that an ArrayList uses an array to store its individual
elements? Does that make you wonder why on earth you would need another class if it
uses a type (array, to be precise) that you already know how to work with? The simple
answer is that you wouldn’t want to reinvent the wheel.
For an example, answer this question: to decode an image, which of the following
options would you prefer?
■
■
Creating your own class using characters to decode the image
Using an existing class that offers the same functionality
Obviously, it makes sense to go with the second option. If you use an existing class that
offers the same functionality, you get more benefits with less work. The same logic
applies to ArrayList. It offers you all the benefits of using an array with none of the
disadvantages. It looks and behaves like an expandable array that’s modifiable.
An ArrayList uses an array to store its elements. It provides you with
the functionality of a dynamic array.
NOTE
I’ll cover how to add, modify, delete, and access the elements of an ArrayList in the
following sections. Let’s start with adding elements to an ArrayList.
4.4.2
Adding elements to an ArrayList
Let’s begin by adding String objects to an ArrayList, as follows:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class AddToArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList list = new ArrayList<>();
list.add("one");
list.add("two");
list.add("four");
list.add(2, "three");
Add element at
}
specified position
}
c
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You can add a value to an ArrayList either at its end or at a specified position. B
adds elements at the end of list. c adds an element to list at position 2. Please
note that the first element of an ArrayList is stored at position 0. Hence, at c the
String literal value "three" will be inserted at position 2, which was occupied by the
literal value "four". When a value is added to a place that’s already occupied by
another element, the values shift by a place to accommodate the newly added value.
In this case, the literal value "four" shifted to position 3 to make way for the literal
value "three" (see figure 4.28).
list.add("one");
elementData
one
0
list
elementData
list.add("two");
one
0
list
two
1
elementData
list.add("four");
one
0
list
two
1
four
2
elementData
list.add(2, "three");
list
one
0
two
1
three
2
four
"three" is not added to end of
ArrayList. It is added to
position 2.
3
Figure 4.28
Code that adds elements to the end of an ArrayList and at a specified position
Let’s see what happens behind the scenes in an ArrayList when you add an element
to it. Here’s the definition of the method add from the class ArrayList:
/**
* Appends the specified element to the end of this list.
*
* @param e element to be appended to this list
* @return true (as specified by {@link Collection#add})
*/
public boolean add(E e) {
ensureCapacity(size + 1);
// Create another array with
// the increased capacity
// and copy existing elements to it.
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elementData[size++] = e;
// Store the newly added variable
// reference at the
// end of the list.
return true;
}
When you add an element to the end of the list, the ArrayList first checks whether
its instance variable elementData has an empty slot at the end. If there’s an empty
slot at its end, it stores the element at the first available empty slot. If no empty slots
exist, the method ensureCapacity creates another array with a higher capacity and
copies the existing values to this newly created array. It then copies the newly added
value at the first available empty slot in the array.
When you add an element at a particular position, an ArrayList creates a new
array (only if there’s not enough room left) and inserts all its elements at positions
other than the position you specified. If there are any subsequent elements to the
right of the position that you specified, it shifts them by one position. Then it adds
the new element at the requested position.
Understanding how and why a class works in a particular
manner will take you a long way in regard to both the certification exam and
your career. This understanding should help you retain the information for a
longer time and help you answer questions in the certification exam that are
designed to verify your practical knowledge of using this class. Finally, the
internal workings of a class will enable you to make informed decisions on
using a particular class at your workplace and writing efficient code.
PRACTICAL TIP
4.4.3
Accessing elements of an ArrayList
Before we modify or delete the elements of an ArrayList, let’s see how to access
them. To access the elements of an ArrayList, you can use get(), an enhanced for
loop, Iterator, or ListIterator.
The following code accesses and prints all the elements of an ArrayList using the
enhanced for loop (code to access elements is in bold):
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class AccessArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList<>();
myArrList.add("One");
myArrList.add("Two");
myArrList.add("Four");
myArrList.add(2, "Three");
for (String element : myArrList) {
Code to access
System.out.println(element);
ArrayList elements
}
}
}
b
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The output of the previous code is as follows:
One
Two
Three
Four
B defines the enhanced for loop to access all the elements of the myArrList.
Let’s look at how to use a ListIterator to loop through all the values of an
ArrayList:
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.ListIterator;
public class AccessArrayListUsingListIterator {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
myArrList.add("One");
myArrList.add("Two");
myArrList.add("Four");
myArrList.add(2, "Three");
ListIterator iterator = myArrList.listIterator();
while (iterator.hasNext()) {
System.out.println(iterator.next());
Call next() to get
}
the next item
}
from iterator
}
d
b
c
Get the
iterator
Use hasNext()
to check
whether more
elements exist
B gets the iterator associated with ArrayList myArrList. c calls the method hasNext on iterator to check whether more elements of myArrList exist. The method
hasNext returns a boolean true value if more of its elements exist and false otherwise. d calls the method next on iterator to get the next item from myArrList.
The previous code prints out the same results as the code that preceded it, the
code that used an enhanced for loop to access ArrayList’s elements. A ListIterator
doesn’t contain any reference to the current element of an ArrayList. ListIterator
provides you with a method (hasNext) to check whether more elements exist for an
ArrayList. If true, you can extract its next element using the method next().
Note that an ArrayList preserves the insertion order of its elements. ListIterator and the enhanced for loop will return to you the elements in the order in which
you added them.
An ArrayList preserves the order of insertion of its elements.
Iterator, ListIterator, and the enhanced for loop will return the elements in the order in which they were added to the ArrayList. An iterator
(Iterator or ListIterator) lets you remove elements as you iterate an
ArrayList. It’s not possible to remove elements from an ArrayList while
iterating it using a for loop.
EXAM TIP
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4.4.4
Modifying the elements of an ArrayList
You can modify an ArrayList by either replacing an existing element in the ArrayList or modifying all of its existing values. The following code uses the set method to
replace an element in an ArrayList:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class ReplaceElementInArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
myArrList.add("One");
myArrList.add("Two");
myArrList.add("Three");
Replace ArrayList element
myArrList.set(1, "One and Half");
at position 1 ("Two") with
for (String element:myArrList)
"One and Half"
System.out.println(element);
}
}
The output of the previous code is as follows:
One
One and Half
Three
You can also modify the existing values of an ArrayList by accessing its individual
elements. Because Strings are immutable, let’s try this with StringBuilder. Here’s
the code:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class ModifyArrayListWithStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList =
new ArrayList();
myArrList.add(new StringBuilder("One"));
myArrList.add(new StringBuilder("Two"));
myArrList.add(new StringBuilder("Three"));
for (StringBuilder element : myArrList)
Access ArrayList elements
and modify them
element.append(element.length());
for (StringBuilder element : myArrList)
System.out.println(element);
}
}
b
The output of this code is as follows:
One3
Two3
Three5
B accesses all the elements of myArrList and modifies the element value by appending
its length to it. The modified value is printed by accessing myArrList elements again.
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
Deleting the elements of an ArrayList
ArrayList defines two methods to remove its elements, as follows:
■
remove(int index)—This method removes the element at the specified posi-
tion in this list.
■
remove(Object o)—This method removes the first occurrence of the specified
element from this list, if it’s present.
Let’s take a look at some code that uses these removal methods:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class DeleteElementsFromArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList<>();
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("One");
StringBuilder sb2 = new StringBuilder("Two");
StringBuilder sb3 = new StringBuilder("Three");
StringBuilder sb4 = new StringBuilder("Four");
myArrList.add(sb1);
myArrList.add(sb2);
myArrList.add(sb3);
Removes element
myArrList.add(sb4);
at position 1
myArrList.remove(1);
for (StringBuilder element:myArrList)
Prints One,
Doesn’t
System.out.println(element);
Three, and Four
remove
myArrList.remove(sb3);
Removes
Four
myArrList.remove(new StringBuilder("Four"));
Three from list
System.out.println();
for (StringBuilder element : myArrList)
Prints One
System.out.println(element);
and Four
}
}
b
The output of the previous code is as follows:
One
Three
Four
One
Four
B
tries to remove the StringBuilder with the value "Four" from myArrList. The
removal of the specified element fails because of the manner in which the object
references are compared for equality. Objects are compared for equality using
their equals() method, which isn’t overridden by the class StringBuilder. So two
StringBuilder objects are equal if their object references (the variables that store
them) point to the same object. You can always override the equals method in your
own class to change this default behavior. The following is an example using the class
MyPerson:
import java.util.ArrayList;
class MyPerson {
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ArrayList
String name;
MyPerson(String name) { this.name = name; }
Method
@Override
equals
public boolean equals(Object obj) {
if (obj instanceof MyPerson) {
MyPerson p = (MyPerson)obj;
boolean isEqual = p.name.equals(this.name);
return isEqual;
}
else
return false;
}
b
Cast obj to
MyPerson
null and objects of
type other than
MyPerson can’t be
equal to this object.
Compare name of
method parameter
to that of this
object’s name
}
public class DeleteElementsFromArrayList2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
MyPerson p1 = new MyPerson("Shreya");
MyPerson p2 = new MyPerson("Paul");
MyPerson p3 = new MyPerson("Harry");
myArrList.add(p1);
myArrList.add(p2);
Removes
myArrList.add(p3);
Paul
myArrList.remove(new MyPerson("Paul"));
for (MyPerson element:myArrList)
System.out.println(element.name);
Prints Shreya
}
and Harry
}
c
At B, the method equals in the class MyPerson overrides the method equals in the
class Object. It returns false if a null value is passed to this method. It returns
true if an object of MyPerson is passed to it with a matching value for its instance
variable name.
At C, the method remove removes the element with the name Paul from myArrList. As mentioned earlier, the method remove compares the objects for equality
before removing it from ArrayList by calling the method equals.
When elements of an ArrayList are removed, the remaining elements are rearranged at their correct positions. This change is required to retrieve all the remaining
elements at their correct new positions.
4.4.6
Other methods of ArrayList
Let’s briefly discuss the other important methods defined in ArrayList.
ADDING MULTIPLE ELEMENTS TO AN ARRAYLIST
You can add multiple elements to an ArrayList from another ArrayList or any other
class that’s a subclass of Collection by using the following overloaded versions of
method addAll:
■
■
addAll(Collection c)
addAll(int index, Collection c)
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The method addAll(Collection c) appends all the elements in the
specified collection to the end of this list in the order in which they’re returned by
the specified collection’s Iterator. If you aren’t familiar with generics, and the parameters of this method look scary to you, don’t worry—other classes from the Collection
API aren’t on this exam.
Method addAll(int index, Collection c) inserts all the elements
in the specified collection into this list, starting at the specified position.
In the following code example, all elements of ArrayList yourArrList are
inserted into ArrayList myArrList, starting at position 1:
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
myArrList.add("One");
myArrList.add("Two");
ArrayList yourArrList = new ArrayList();
yourArrList.add("Three");
yourArrList.add("Four");
Add elements of
myArrList.addAll(1, yourArrList);
yourArrList to
myArrList
for (String val : myArrList)
System.out.println(val);
The output of the previous code is as follows:
One
Three
Four
Two
The elements of yourArrList aren’t removed from it. The objects that are stored in
yourArrList can now be referred to from myArrList.
What happens if you modify the common object references in these lists, myArrList
and yourArrList? We have two cases here: in the first one, you reassign the object reference using either of the lists. In this case, the value in the second list will remain
unchanged. In the second case, you modify the internals of any of the common list elements—in this case, the change will be reflected in both of the lists.
This is also one of the favorite topics of the exam authors. In the
exam, you’re likely to encounter a question that adds the same object reference to multiple lists and then tests you on your understanding of the state of
the same object and reference variable in all the lists. If you have any questions
on this issue, please refer to the section on reference variables (section 2.3).
EXAM TIP
It’s time for our next Twist in the Tale exercise. Let’s modify some of the code that
we’ve used in our previous examples and see how it affects the output (answers in the
appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 4.4
What is the output of the following code?
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
String one = "One";
String two = new String("Two");
myArrList.add(one);
myArrList.add(two);
ArrayList yourArrList = myArrList;
one.replace("O", "B");
for (String val : myArrList)
System.out.print(val + ":");
for (String val : yourArrList)
System.out.print(val + ":");
a
b
c
d
One:Two:One:Two:
Bne:Two:Bne:Two:
One:Two:Bne:Two:
Bne:Two:One:Two:
CLEARING ARRAYLIST ELEMENTS
You can remove all the ArrayList elements by calling clear on it. Here’s an example:
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
myArrList.add("One");
myArrList.add("Two");
myArrList.clear();
for (String val:myArrList)
System.out.println(val);
The previous code won’t print out anything because there are no more elements in
myArrList.
ACCESSING INDIVIDUAL ARRAYLIST ELEMENTS
In this section, we’ll cover the following methods for accessing elements of an
ArrayList:
■
■
■
■
■
get(int index)—This method returns the element at the specified position in
this list.
size()—This method returns the number of elements in this list.
contains(Object o)—This method returns true if this list contains the specified element.
indexOf(Object o)—This method returns the index of the first occurrence of
the specified element in this list, or –1 if this list doesn’t contain the element.
lastIndexOf(Object o)—This method returns the index of the last occurrence
of the specified element in this list, or –1 if this list doesn’t contain the element.
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You can retrieve an object at a particular position in ArrayList and determine its size
as follows:
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
myArrList.add("One");
Prints Two—element
myArrList.add("Two");
at position 1
String valFromList = myArrList.get(1);
System.out.println(valFromList);
Prints 2
System.out.println(myArrList.size());
Behind the scenes, the method get will check whether the requested position exists in
the ArrayList by comparing it with the array’s size. If the requested element isn’t
within the range, the get method throws a java.lang.IndexOutOfBoundsException
error at runtime.
All the remaining three methods—contains, indexOf, and lastIndexOf—require
you to have an unambiguous and strong understanding of how to determine the
equality of objects. ArrayList stores objects, and these three methods will compare
the values that you pass to these methods with all the elements of the ArrayList.
By default, objects are considered equal if they are referred to by the same variable (the String class is an exception with its pool of String objects). If you want to
compare objects by their state (values of the instance variable), override the equals
method in that class. I’ve already demonstrated the difference in how equality of
objects of a class is determined, when the class overrides its equals method and
when it doesn’t, in section 4.4.5 with an overridden equals method in the class
MyPerson.
Let’s see the usage of all these methods:
public class MiscMethodsArrayList3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Adds sb1 to
ArrayList myArrList =
the ArrayList
new ArrayList();
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("Jan");
Adds sb2
Adds sb2
StringBuilder sb2 = new StringBuilder("Feb");
to the
to the
myArrList.add(sb1);
ArrayList
ArrayList
myArrList.add(sb2);
again
myArrList.add(sb2);
System.out.println(myArrList.contains(new StringBuilder("Jan")));
Prints
Prints
System.out.println(myArrList.contains(sb1));
false
true
System.out.println(myArrList.indexOf(new StringBuilder("Feb")));
System.out.println(myArrList.indexOf(sb2));
Prints –1
Prints 1
System.out.println(myArrList.lastIndexOf(
new StringBuilder("Feb")));
Prints –1
System.out.println(myArrList.lastIndexOf(sb2));
Prints 2
}
}
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The output of the previous code is as follows:
false
true
-1
1
-1
2
Take a look at the output of the same code using a list of MyPerson objects that has
overridden the equals method. First, here’s the definition of the class MyPerson:
class MyPerson {
String name;
MyPerson(String name) { this.name = name; }
@Override
public boolean equals(Object obj) {
if (obj instanceof MyPerson) {
MyPerson p = (MyPerson)obj;
boolean isEqual = p.name.equals(this.name);
return isEqual;
}
else
return false;
}
}
Overridden equals
method in class
MyPerson; it returns
true for same String
values for instance
variable name
The definition of the class MiscMethodsArrayList4 follows:
Prints
true
Prints 1
Prints 2
public class MiscMethodsArrayList4 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
MyPerson p1 = new MyPerson("Shreya");
Adds p1 to
MyPerson p2 = new MyPerson("Paul");
ArrayList
Adds p2 to
myArrList.add(p1);
ArrayList
Adds p2 to
myArrList.add(p2);
ArrayList again
myArrList.add(p2);
System.out.println(myArrList.contains(new MyPerson("Shreya")));
System.out.println(myArrList.contains(p1));
Prints true
System.out.println(myArrList.indexOf(new MyPerson("Paul")));
System.out.println(myArrList.indexOf(p2));
Prints 1
System.out.println(myArrList.lastIndexOf(new MyPerson("Paul")));
System.out.println(myArrList.lastIndexOf(p2));
Prints 2
}
}
As you can see from the output of the preceding code, equality of the objects of the
class MyPerson is determined by the rules defined in its equals method. Two objects
of the class MyPerson with the same value for its instance variable name are considered
to be equal. myArrList stores objects of the class MyPerson. To find a target object,
myArrList will rely on the output given by the equals method of the class MyPerson; it
won’t compare the object references of the stored and target objects.
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EXAM TIP
An ArrayList can store duplicate object values.
CLONING AN ARRAYLIST
The method clone defined in the class ArrayList returns a shallow copy of this ArrayList instance. “Shallow copy” means that this method creates a new instance of the
ArrayList object to be cloned. Its element references are copied, but the objects
themselves are not.
Here’s an example:
public class MiscMethodsArrayList5 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList myArrList = new ArrayList();
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("Jan");
StringBuilder sb2 = new StringBuilder("Feb");
Assigns object
myArrList.add(sb1);
referred to by
myArrList.add(sb2);
myArrList to
myArrList.add(sb2);
assignedArrList
ArrayList assignedArrList = myArrList;
ArrayList clonedArrList =
Clones myArrList
(ArrayList)myArrList.clone();
and assigns it to
System.out.println(myArrList == assignedArrList);
clonedArrList
System.out.println(myArrList == clonedArrList);
StringBuilder myArrVal = myArrList.get(0);
All of these
reference
StringBuilder assignedArrVal = assignedArrList.get(0);
variables refer to
StringBuilder clonedArrVal = clonedArrList.get(0);
the same object.
System.out.println(myArrVal == assignedArrVal);
System.out.println(myArrVal == clonedArrVal);
}
Prints true
}
b
Prints
true
Prints
false
Prints
true
d
c
e
f
g
h
Let’s go through the previous code:
■
■
■
■
■
■
B assigns the object referred to by myArrList to assignedArrList. The variables myArrList and assignedArrList now refer to the same object.
C assigns a copy of the object referred to by myArrList to clonedArrList. The
variables myArrList and clonedArrList refer to different objects. Because the
method clone returns a value of the type Object, it’s cast to ArrayList to assign it to clonedArrList (don’t worry if you can’t follow this
line—casting is covered in chapter 6).
D prints true because myArrList and assignedArrList refer to the same object.
E prints false because myArrList and clonedArrList refer to separate objects,
because the method clone creates and returns a new object of ArrayList (but
with the same list members).
F proves that the method clone didn’t copy the elements of myArrList. All the
variable references myArrVal, AssignedArrVal, and clonedArrVal refer to the
same objects.
Hence, both G and H print true.
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CREATING AN ARRAY FROM AN ARRAYLIST
You can use the method toArray to return an array containing all the elements in an
ArrayList in sequence from the first to the last element. As mentioned earlier in this
chapter (refer to figure 4.27 in section 4.4.1), an ArrayList uses a private variable,
elementData (an array), to store its own values. Method toArray doesn’t return a reference to this array. It creates a new array, copies the elements of the ArrayList to it,
and then returns it.
Now comes the tricky part. No references to the returned array, which is itself an
object, are maintained by the ArrayList. But the references to the individual ArrayList
elements are copied to the returned array and are still referred to by the ArrayList.
This implies that if you modify the returned array by, say, swapping the position of
its elements or by assigning new objects to its elements, the elements of ArrayList
won’t be affected. But if you modify the state of (mutable) elements of the returned
array, then the modified state of elements will be reflected in the ArrayList.
4.5
Comparing objects for equality
[3.2] Test equality between Strings and other objects using == and equals()
In section 4.1, you saw how the class String defined a set of rules to determine
whether two String values are equal and how these rules were coded in the method
equals. Similarly, any Java class can define a set of rules to determine whether its two
objects should be considered equal. This comparison is accomplished using the
method equals, which is described in the next section.
4.5.1
The method equals in the class java.lang.Object
The method equals is defined in class java.lang.Object. All the Java classes directly
or indirectly inherit this class. Listing 4.2 contains the default implementation of the
method equals from the class java.lang.Object.
Listing 4.2 Implementation of equals method from class java.lang.Object
public boolean equals(Object obj) {
return (this == obj);
}
As you can see, the default implementation of the equals method only compares
whether two object variables refer to the same object. Because instance variables are
used to store the state of an object, it’s common to compare the values of the instance
variables to determine whether two objects should be considered equal.
4.5.2
Comparing objects of a user-defined class
Let’s work with an example of the class BankAccount, which defines two instance
variables: acctNumber of type String, and acctType of type int. The equals method
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compares the values of these instance variables to determine the equality of two objects
of the class BankAccount.
Here’s the relevant code:
class BankAccount {
String acctNumber;
int acctType;
public boolean equals(Object anObject) {
if (anObject instanceof BankAccount) {
BankAccount b = (BankAccount)anObject;
return (acctNumber.equals(b.acctNumber) &&
acctType == b.acctType);
}
else
return false;
}
}
Check whether you’re
comparing the same
type of objects
Two bank objects are
considered equal if
they have the same
values, for instance
variables acctNumber
and acctType.
Let’s verify the working of this equals method in the following code:
class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
BankAccount b1 = new BankAccount();
b1.acctNumber = "0023490";
b1.acctType = 4;
BankAccount b2 = new BankAccount();
b2.acctNumber = "11223344";
b2.acctType = 3;
BankAccount b3 = new BankAccount();
b3.acctNumber = "11223344";
b3.acctType = 3;
System.out.println(b1.equals(b2));
System.out.println(b2.equals(b3));
System.out.println(b1.equals(new String("abc")));
}
}
b
Prints false
c
d
Prints true
Prints false
B prints false because the value of the reference variables b1 and b2 don’t match. C
prints true because the values of the reference variables b2 and b3 match each other.
D passes an object of type String to the method equals defined in the class BankAccount. This method returns false if the method parameter passed to it is not of
type BankAccount. Hence, D prints false.
Even though the following implementation is unacceptable for classes used in the
real world, it’s still correct syntactically:
class BankAccount {
String acctNumber;
int acctType;
public boolean equals(Object anObject) {
return true;
}
}
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Comparing objects for equality
The previous definition of the equals method will return true for any object that’s
compared to an object of the class BankAccount because it doesn’t compare any values. Let’s see what happens when you compare an object of the class String with an
object of class BankAccount and vice versa using equals():
class TestBank {
public static void main(String args[]) {
BankAccount acct = new BankAccount();
String str = "Bank";
System.out.println(acct.equals(str));
System.out.println(str.equals(acct));
}
}
b
Prints true
c
Prints false
In the preceding code, B prints true, but C prints false. The equals method in the
class String returns true only if the object that’s being compared to is a String with
the same sequence of characters.
In the exam, watch out for questions about the correct implementation of the equals method (refer to section 4.5.4) to compare two objects
versus questions about the equals methods that simply compile correctly. If
you’d been asked whether equals() in the previous example code would
compile correctly, the correct answer would be yes.
EXAM TIP
4.5.3
Incorrect method signature of the equals method
It’s a common mistake to write an equals method that accepts an instance of the class
itself. In the following code, the class BankAccount doesn’t override equals(); it overloads it:
class BankAccount {
String acctNumber;
Type of method parameter
int acctType;
is BankAccount, not Object
public boolean equals(BankAccount obj) {
if (obj != null) {
return (acctNumber.equals(obj.acctNumber) &&
acctType == obj.acctType);
}
else
return false;
}
}
Although the previous definition of equals() may seem to be flawless, what happens
when you try to add and retrieve an object of the class BankAccount (as shown in the
preceding code) from an ArrayList? The method contains defined in the class
ArrayList compares two objects by calling the object’s equals method. It does not
compare object references.
In the following code, see what happens when you add an object of the class BankAccount to an ArrayList and then try to verify whether the list contains a BankAccount
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object with the same instance variable’s values for acctNumber and acctType as the
object being searched for:
class TestMethodEquals {
public static void main(String args[]) {
BankAccount b1 = new BankAccount();
Object b1
b1.acctNumber = "0023490"; b1.acctType = 4;
ArrayList list = new ArrayList();
list.add(b1);
BankAccount b2 = new BankAccount();
Creates b2 with
same state as b1
b2.acctNumber = "0023490"; b2.acctType = 4;
System.out.println(list.contains(b2));
}
Prints false
}
b
Adds
object
b1 to
list
c
d
e
B and D define objects b1 and b2 of the class BankAccount with the same state. C
adds b1 to the list. E compares the object b2 with the objects added to the list.
An ArrayList uses the method equals to compare two objects. Because the class
BankAccount didn’t follow the rules for correctly defining (overriding) the method
equals, ArrayList uses the method equals from the base class Object, which compares object references. Because the code didn’t add b2 to list, it prints false.
What do you think will be the output of the previous code if you change the definition of the method equals in the class BankAccount so that it accepts a method
parameter of type Object? Try it for yourself!
EXAM TIP The method equals defines a method parameter of type Object,
and its return type is boolean. Don’t change the name of the method, its
return type, or the type of method parameter when you define (override) this
method in your class to compare two objects.
4.5.4
Contract of the equals method
The Java API defines a contract for the equals method, which should be taken care of
when you implement it in any of your classes. I’ve pulled the following contract explanation directly from the Java API documentation:1
The equals method implements an equivalence relation on non-null object references:
■
■
■
1
It is reflexive: for any non-null reference value x, x.equals(x) should return true.
It is symmetric: for any non-null reference values x and y, x.equals(y) should return
true if and only if y.equals(x) returns true.
It is transitive: for any non-null reference values x, y, and z, if x.equals(y) returns
true and y.equals(z) returns true, then x.equals(z) should return true.
The Java API documentation for equals can be found on the Oracle site: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/
docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#equals(java.lang.Object).
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■
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It is consistent: for any non-null reference values x and y, multiple invocations of
x.equals(y) consistently return true or consistently return false, provided no information used in equals() comparisons on the objects is modified.
For any non-null reference value x, x.equals(null) should return false.
As per the contract, the definition of the equals method that we defined for the class
BankAccount in an earlier example violates the contract for the equals method. Take
a look at the definition again:
public boolean equals(Object anObject) {
return true;
}
This code returns true, even for null values passed to this method. According to
the contract of the method equals, if a null value is passed to the equals method, the
method should return false.
EXAM TIP
You may get to answer explicit questions on the contract of the
equals method. An equals method that returns true for a null object passed
to it will violate the contract. Also, if the equals method modifies the value of
any of the instance variables of the method parameter passed to it, or of the
object on which it is called, it will violate the equals contract.
The hashCode() method
A lot of programmers are confused about the role of the method hashCode in determining the equality of objects. The method hashCode is not called by the equals method
to determine the equality of two objects. Because the hashCode method is not on the
exam, I’ll discuss it quickly here to ward off any confusion about this method.
The method hashCode is used by the collection classes (such as HashMap) that store
key-value pairs, where a key is an object. These collection classes use the hashCode
of a key to search efficiently for the corresponding value. The hashCode of the key
(an object) is used to specify a bucket number, which should store its corresponding
value. The hashCode values of two distinct objects can be the same. When these collection classes find the right bucket, they call the equals method to select the correct value object (that shares the same key values). The equals method is called
even if a bucket contains only one object. After all, it might be the same hash but a
different equals, and there is no match to get!
According to the Java documentation, when you override the equals method in your
class, you should also override the hashCode method. If you don’t, objects of your
classes won’t behave as required if they’re used as keys by collection classes that
store key-value pairs. This method is not discussed in detail in this chapter because
it isn’t on the exam. But don’t forget to override it with the method equals in your
real-world projects.
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
Working with calendar data
[9.3] Create and manipulate calendar data using classes from
java.time.LocalDateTime, java.time.LocalDate, java.time.LocalTime,
java.time.format.DateTimeFormatter, java.time.Period
The new Date and Time API in Java 8 simplifies working with date and time objects. It
includes classes and interfaces with simple and informative method names. As you
work with the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, LocalDateTime, Period, and DateTimeFormatter in this section, you’ll notice that these classes define methods with similar
names (which have similar purposes). Table 4.1 lists the method prefix, its type, and
its use (from Oracle Java documentation).
Table 4.1 Method prefixes, types, and their uses in the Date and Time API in Java 8
Prefix
Method type
Use
of
static
Creates an instance where the factory is primarily validating the input
parameters, not converting them.
from
static
Converts the input parameters to an instance of the target class, which
may involve losing information from the input.
parse
static
Parses the input string to produce an instance of the target class.
format
instance
Uses the specified formatter to format the values in the temporal object
to produce a string.
get
instance
Returns a part of the state of the target object.
is
instance
Queries the state of the target object.
with
instance
Returns a copy of the target object with one element changed; this is
the immutable equivalent to a set method on a JavaBean.
plus
instance
Returns a copy of the target object with an amount of time added.
minus
instance
Returns a copy of the target object with an amount of time subtracted.
to
instance
Converts this object to another type.
at
instance
Combines this object with another.
The preceding table might not seem to add a lot of value at this point.
But as you go through the following sections, you’ll realize the similarity in
the names of the methods that are defined in the date and time classes.
NOTE
Let’s get started with the class LocalDate.
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Working with calendar data
4.6.1
LocalDate
To store dates like a birthday or anniversary, visiting a place, or starting a job, school,
or college, you don’t need to store the time. LocalDate will work perfectly in this case.
LocalDate can be used to store dates like 2015-12-27 without time or time zones.
LocalDate instances are immutable and hence safe to be used in a multithreaded
environment.
CREATING LOCALDATE
The LocalDate constructor is marked private, so you must use one of the factory methods to instantiate it. The static method of() accepts year, month, and day of month:
LocalDate date1 =
LocalDate date2 =
LocalDate.of(2015, 12, 27);
LocalDate.of(2015, Month.DECEMBER, 27);
Accept month
as int value
Accept month as
enum constant
In the new Date and Time API, introduced with Java 8, January is represented by int value 1 and not 0. The old Calendar-based API hasn’t changed
in Java 8 and still uses 0-based month numbering.
NOTE
To get the current date from the system clock, use the static method now():
LocalDate date3 =
LocalDate.now();
You can also parse a string in the format 2016-02-27 to instantiate LocalDate. Here’s
an example:
LocalDate date2 = LocalDate.parse("2025-08-09");
If you pass invalid values to parse() or of(), you’ll get DateTimeParseException. The format of the string passed to parse() must be
EXAM TIP
exactly of the format 9999-99-99. The month and date values passed to
parse() must be of two digits; a single digit is considered an invalid value. For
days and months with values 1–9, pass 01–09.
QUERYING LOCALDATE
You can use instance methods like getXX() to query LocalDate on its year, month,
and date values. The date can be queried as day-of-month, day-of-week, and day-ofyear. The month value can be retrieved as the enum constant Month or as an int value:
LocalDate date = LocalDate.parse("2020-08-30");
System.out.println(date.getDayOfMonth());
System.out.println(date.getDayOfWeek());
System.out.println(date.getDayOfYear());
System.out.println(date.getMonth());
System.out.println(date.getMonthValue());
System.out.println(date.getYear());
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The output of the preceding code looks like this:
30
SUNDAY
243
AUGUST
8
2020
You can use the instance methods isAfter() or isBefore() to determine whether a
date is chronologically before or after another date:
LocalDate shreyaBday = LocalDate.parse("2002-08-30");
LocalDate paulBday = LocalDate.parse("2002-07-29");
System.out.println(shreyaBday.isAfter(paulBday));
System.out.println(shreyaBday.isBefore(paulBday));
System.out.println(shreyaBday.isBefore(shreyaBday));
Outputs true
Outputs false
MANIPULATING LOCALDATE
The LocalDate class defines methods with the names minusXX(), plusXX(), and
withXX() to manipulate the date values. The API architects have used the names that
make their purpose explicit. Because LocalDate is an immutable class, all the methods create and return a copy. The minusXX() methods return a copy of the date with
the specified days, months, or years subtracted from it:
LocalDate bday = LocalDate.of(2052,03,10);
System.out.println(bday.minusDays(10));
System.out.println(bday.minusMonths(2));
System.out.println(bday.minusWeeks(30));
System.out.println(bday.minusYears(1));
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
2052-02-29
2052-01-10
2051-08-13
2051-03-10
EXAM TIP LocalDate is immutable. All the methods that seem to manipulate
its value return a copy of the LocalDate instance on which it’s called.
The plusXX() methods return a copy of the date instance after adding the specified
days, months, or years to it:
LocalDate launchCompany = LocalDate.of(2016,02,29);
System.out.println(launchCompany.plusDays(1));
System.out.println(launchCompany.plusMonths(1));
System.out.println(launchCompany.plusWeeks(7));
System.out.println(launchCompany.plusYears(1));
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Here’s the output of the preceding code:
2016-03-01
2016-03-29
2016-04-18
2017-02-28
EXAM TIP
All additions, subtractions, or replacements to LocalDate consider
leap years.
The withXX() methods return a copy of the date instance replacing the specified day,
month, or year in it:
LocalDate firstSex = LocalDate.of(2036,02,28);
System.out.println(firstSex.withDayOfMonth(1));
System.out.println(firstSex.withDayOfYear(1));
System.out.println(firstSex.withMonth(7));
System.out.println(firstSex.withYear(1));
The output of the preceding code looks like this:
2036-02-01
2036-01-01
2036-07-28
0001-02-28
CONVERTING TO ANOTHER TYPE
The LocalDate class defines methods to convert it to LocalDateTime and long (repre-
senting the epoch date).
The LocalDate class defines overloaded atTime() instance methods. These methods combine LocalDate with time to create and return LocalDateTime, which stores
both the date and time (the LocalDateTime class is covered in the next section):
LocalDate interviewDate = LocalDate.of(2016,02,28);
System.out.println(interviewDate.atTime(16, 30));
System.out.println(interviewDate.atTime(16, 30, 20));
System.out.println(interviewDate.atTime(16, 30, 20, 300));
System.out.println(interviewDate.atTime(LocalTime.of(16, 30)));
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
2016-02-28T16:30
2016-02-28T16:30:20
2016-02-28T16:30:20.000000300
2016-02-28T16:30
If you pass any invalid hours, minutes, or seconds value to the
method atTime, it will throw a DateTimeException at runtime.
EXAM TIP
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You can use the method toEpochDay() to convert LocalDate to the epoch date—the
count of days from January 1, 1970:
LocalDate launchBook = LocalDate.of(2016,2,8);
LocalDate aDate = LocalDate.of(1970,1,8);
System.out.println(launchBook.toEpochDay());
System.out.println(aDate.toEpochDay());
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
16839
7
In standard date and time, the epoch date refers to January 1, 1970,
00:00:00 GMT.
NOTE
4.6.2
LocalTime
To store times like breakfast, conference talk start time, or in-store sale end time, you
can use LocalTime. It stores time in the format hours-minutes-seconds (without a time
zone) and to nanosecond precision. So you’re sure to see methods that accept nanoseconds as method arguments or methods that return this value. Like LocalDate, LocalTime is also immutable and hence safe to be used in a multithreaded environment.
CREATING LOCALTIME
The LocalTime constructor is private, so you must use one of the factory methods to
instantiate it. The static method of() accepts hours, minutes, seconds, and nanoseconds:
Hours and
minutes
Hours,
minutes, and
seconds
LocalTime timeHrsMin = LocalTime.of(12, 12);
LocalTime timeHrsMinSec = LocalTime.of(0, 12, 6);
LocalTime timeHrsMinSecNano = LocalTime.of(14, 7, 10, 998654578);
Hours, minutes, seconds,
and nanoseconds
The of() method uses a 24-hour clock to specify the hour value. What happens if you
pass out-of-range values for hours, minutes, or seconds to of()? In this case, you’ll get
a runtime exception, DateTimeException. You’ll get a compiler error if the range of
values passed to a method doesn’t comply with the method’s argument type. Here’s
an example:
LocalTime timeHrsMin = LocalTime.of(120, 12);
LocalTime timeHrsMin2 = LocalTime.of(9986545781, 12);
Runtime
exception
Compilation
error
EXAM TIP LocalTime doesn’t define a method to pass a.m. or p.m. Use values
0–23 to define hours. If you pass out-of-range values to either hours, minutes,
or seconds, you’ll get a runtime exception.
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To get the current time from the system clock, use the static method now():
LocalDate date3 =
LocalTime.now();
You can parse a string to instantiate LocalTime by using its static method parse(). You
can either pass a string in the format 15:08:23 (hours:minutes:seconds) or parse any
text using DateTimeFormatter (covered in the next section):
LocalTime time = LocalTime.parse("15:08:23");
If you pass invalid string values to parse(), the code will compile
but will throw a runtime exception. If you don’t pass a DateTimeFormatter,
the format of the string passed to parse() must be exactly of the format
99:99:99. The hours and minutes values passed to parse() must be two digits;
a single digit is considered an invalid value. For hours and minutes with the
value 0–9, pass 00–09.
EXAM TIP
USING LOCALTIME CONSTANTS
You can use constants from the LocalTime class to work with predefined times:
■
■
■
■
LocalTime.MIN—Minimum supported time, that is, 00:00
LocalTime.MAX—Maximum supported time, that is, 23:59:59.999999999
LocalTime.MIDNIGHT—Time when the day starts, that is, 00:00
LocalTime.NOON—Noontime, that is, 12:00
Does that make you wonder whether the minimum and midnight times are equal? See
for yourself; the following code outputs true:
System.out.println(LocalTime.MIN.equals(LocalTime.MIDNIGHT));
Outputs true
QUERYING LOCALTIME
You can use instance methods like getXX() to query LocalTime on its hour, minutes,
seconds, and nanoseconds. All these methods return an int value:
LocalTime time = LocalTime.of(16, 20, 12, 98547);
System.out.println(time.getHour());
System.out.println(time.getMinute());
System.out.println(time.getSecond());
System.out.println(time.getNano());
Here’s the output:
16
20
12
98547
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EXAM TIP The correct method names for querying LocalTime are getHour(), getMinute(), getSecond(), and getNano(). Watch out for exam ques-
tions that use invalid method names like getHours(), getMinutes(), getSeconds(),
or getNanoSeconds().
You can use the instance methods isAfter() and isBefore() to check whether a
time is after or before the specified time. The following code outputs true:
LocalTime shreyaFinishTime = LocalTime.parse("17:09:04");
LocalTime paulFinishTime = LocalTime.parse("17:09:12");
if(shreyaFinishTime.isBefore(paulFinishTime))
System.out.println("Shreya wins");
Outputs
else
Shreya wins
System.out.println("Paul wins");
MANIPULATING LOCALTIME
You can use the instance methods minusHours(), minusMinutes(), minusSeconds(),
and minusNanos() to create and return a copy of LocalTime instances with the specified period subtracted. The method names are self-explanatory. For example, minusHours(int) returns a copy of a LocalTime instance with the specified period in hours
subtracted. The following example calculates and outputs the time when Shreya
should leave from her office to watch a movie, given that the movie starts at 21:00
hours and it takes 35 minutes to commute to the movie theater:
LocalTime movieStartTime = LocalTime.parse("21:00:00");
int commuteMin = 35;
LocalTime shreyaStartTime = movieStartTime.minusMinutes(commuteMin);
System.out.println("Start by " + shreyaStartTime + " from office");
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
Start by 20:25 from office
Unlike the getXXX() methods, minusXXX() methods use the plural
form: getHour() versus minusHours(), getMinute() versus minusMinutes(),
getSecond() versus minusSeconds(), and getNano() versus minusNanos().
EXAM TIP
The plusHours(), plusMinutes(), plusSeconds(), and plusNanos() methods accept
long values and add the specified hours, minutes, seconds, or nanoseconds to time,
returning its copy as LocalTime. The following example uses the addSeconds() and
isAfter() methods to add seconds to a time and compares it with another time:
int worldRecord = 10;
LocalTime raceStartTime = LocalTime.of(8, 10, 55);
LocalTime raceEndTime = LocalTime.of(8, 11, 11);
if (raceStartTime.plusSeconds(worldRecord).isAfter(raceEndTime))
System.out.println("New world record");
else
System.out.println("Try harder");
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The output of the preceding code looks like this:
Try harder
EXAM TIP
LocalTime is immutable. Calling any method on its instance won’t
modify its value.
The withHour(), withMinute(), withSecond(), and withNano() methods accept an
int value and return a copy of LocalTime with the specified value altered. In the following example, a new LocalTime instance with the minute value 00 is created:
LocalTime startTime = LocalTime.of(5, 7, 9);
if (startTime.getMinute() < 30)
startTime = startTime.withMinute(0);
System.out.println(startTime);
Here’s the output:
05:00:09
COMBINING WITH ANOTHER TYPE
The LocalTime class defines the atDate() method to combine a LocalDate with itself
to create LocalDateTime:
LocalTime time = LocalTime.of(14, 10, 0);
LocalDate date = LocalDate.of(2016,02,28);
LocalDateTime dateTime = time.atDate(date);
System.out.println(dateTime);
Here’s the output:
2016-02-28T14:10
EXAM TIP The class LocalTime defines the method atDate(), which can be
passed a LocalDate instance to create a LocalDateTime instance.
4.6.3
LocalDateTime
If you want to store both date and time (without the time zone), use the class LocalDateTime. It stores a value like 2050-06-18T14:20:30:908765 (year-month-dayThours
:minutes:seconds:nanoseconds).
NOTE The LocalDateTime class uses the letter T to separate date and time
values in its printed value.
You can consider this class to offer the functionality of both the LocalDate and LocalTime classes. This class defines similar methods as those defined by the LocalDate and
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LocalTime classes. So instead of discussing individual methods of this class, here’s an
example that covers the important methods of this class:
Parse String to
LocalDateTime
LocalDateTime prizeCeremony = LocalDateTime.parse("2050-06-05T14:00:00");
LocalDateTime dateTimeNow = LocalDateTime.now();
if (prizeCeremony.getMonthValue() == 6)
System.out.println("Can't invite president");
else
System.out.println("President invited");
Get current
date and time
Retrieve month
as integer value
LocalDateTime chiefGuestDeparture =
LocalDateTime.parse("2050-06-05T14:30:00");
if (prizeCeremony.plusHours(2).isAfter(chiefGuestDeparture))
System.out.println("Chief Guest will leave before ceremony completes");
LocalDateTime eventMgrArrival = LocalDateTime.of(2050, 6, 5, 14, 30, 0);
if (eventMgrArrival.isAfter(prizeCeremony.minusHours(3)))
System.out.println("Manager is supposed to arrive 3 hrs earlier");
Instantiate LocalDateTime
using separate int values
Check whether a LocalDateTime instance
is before another LocalDateTime instance
In the next section, you’ll discover how you can perform calculations with date and
time using the Period class.
4.6.4
Period
People often talk about periods of years, months, or days. With the Java 8 Date API,
you can use the Period class to do so. The Period class represents a date-based
amount in years, months, and days, like 2 years, 5 months, and 10 days. To work with a
time-based amount in seconds and nanoseconds, you can use the Duration class.
The Duration class can be used to store amounts of time like 1 hour,
36 minutes, or 29.4 seconds. But this class isn’t explicitly covered in this exam
(and this book). It’s covered in the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam.
NOTE
You can add or subtract Period instances from the LocalDate and LocalDateTime
classes. Period is also an immutable class and hence safe to use in a multithreaded
environment. Let’s get started by instantiating Period.
INSTANTIATING PERIOD
With a private constructor, the Period class defines multiple factory methods to create
its instances. The static methods of(), ofYears(), ofMonths(), ofWeeks(), and ofDays()
accept int values to create periods of years, months, weeks, or days:
Period period1 = Period.of(1, 2, 7);
Period period2 = Period.ofYears(2);
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and 7 days
2 years
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Working with calendar data
Period period3 = Period.ofMonths(5);
Period period4 = Period.ofWeeks(10);
Period period5 = Period.ofDays(15);
5 months
10 weeks
15 days
EXAM TIP A period of 35 days is not stored as 1 month and 5 days. Its individual elements, that is, days, months, and years, are stored the way it is initialized.
You can also define negative periods by passing negative integer values to all the preceding methods. Here’s a quick example:
Period period6 = Period.ofDays(-15);
Period of -15 days
You can define positive or negative periods of time. For example,
you can define Period instances representing 15 or -15 days.
EXAM TIP
You can also parse a string to instantiate Period by using its static method parse. This
method parses string values of the format PnYnMnD or PnW, where n represents a
number and the letters (P, Y, M, D, and W) represent parse, year, month, day, and
week. These letters can exist in lower- or uppercase. Each string must start with the
letter p or P and must include at least one of the four sections, that is, year, month,
week, or day. For the string format PnW, the count of weeks is multiplied by 7 to get
the number of days. You can also define negative periods using parse(). If you precede the complete string value passed to parse() with a negative sign (-), it’s applied
to all values. If you place a negative sign just before an individual number, it applies
only to that section. Here are some examples to instantiate a period of five years (notice
the use of uppercase and lowercase letters and + and – signs):
Period p5Yrs1 = Period.parse("P5y");
Period p5Yrs2 = Period.parse("p5y");
Period p5Yrs3 = Period.parse("P5Y");
Period p5Yrs4 = Period.parse("+P5Y");
Period p5Yrs5 = Period.parse("P+5Y");
Period p5Yrs6 = Period.parse("-P-5Y");
System.out.println(p5Yrs1 + ":" + p5Yrs2);
Period of
5 years
Outputs P5Y:P5Y
The following examples define periods of separate durations:
Period
Period
Period
Period
p5Yrs7 = Period.parse("P5y1m2d");
p5Yrs8 = Period.parse("p9m");
p5Yrs9 = Period.parse("P60d");
p5Yrs10 = Period.parse("-P5W");
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When passed to System.out.println(), the variables in the preceding code will result
in the following output:
P5Y1M2D
P9M
P60D
P-35D
If you pass invalid string values to parse(), the code will compile
but will throw a runtime exception.
EXAM TIP
You can also use the static method between(LocalDate dateInclusive, LocalDate
dateExclusive) to instantiate Period:
LocalDate carnivalStart = LocalDate.of(2050, 12, 31);
LocalDate carnivalEnd = LocalDate.of(2051, 1, 2);
Period periodBetween = Period.between(carnivalStart, carnivalEnd);
System.out.println(periodBetween);
Outputs P2D
EXAM TIP The static method between accepts two LocalDate instances and
returns a Period instance representing the number of years, days, and
months between the two dates. The first date is included, but the second date
is excluded in the returned Period. Here’s a quick way to remember it: period
= end date – start date.
MANIPULATING LOCALDATE AND LOCALDATETIME USING PERIOD
In everyday life, it’s common to add or subtract periods of days, months, or years from
a date. The Period class implements the interface TemporalAmount, so it can be used
with the methods plus() and minus() defined in the classes LocalDateTime and
LocalDate. The following example adds a period of a day to a LocalDate instance:
LocalDate date = LocalDate.of(2052, 01, 31);
System.out.println(date.plus(Period.ofDays(1)));
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
2052-02-01
What happens when you add a period of a month to January 31 of any year? Do you
get the last day of February or the first day of March? The following example adds a
period of a month to a LocalDateTime instance:
LocalDateTime dateTime = LocalDateTime.parse("2052-01-31T14:18:36");
System.out.println(dateTime.plus(Period.ofMonths(1)));
The output of the preceding code looks like this:
2052-02-29T14:18:36
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Because Period instances can represent positive or negative periods (like 15 days or -15 days), you can subtract days from a LocalDate or
LocalDateTime by calling the method plus.
EXAM TIP
Similarly, you can use the method minus() with the classes LocalDate and LocalDateTime to subtract a period of years, months, weeks, or days:
LocalDateTime dateTime = LocalDateTime.parse("2020-01-31T14:18:36");
System.out.println(dateTime.minus(Period.ofYears(2)));
LocalDate date = LocalDate.of(2052, 01, 31);
System.out.println(date.minus(Period.ofWeeks(4)));
Here’s the output:
2018-01-31T14:18:36
2052-01-03
QUERYING PERIOD INSTANCES
You can use the instance methods getYears(), getMonths(), and getDays() to query a
Period instance on its years, months, and days. All these methods return an int value:
Period period = Period.of(2,4,40);
System.out.println(period.getYears());
System.out.println(period.getMonths());
System.out.println(period.getDays());
The preceding code outputs the following:
2
4
40
EXAM TIP When you initialize a Period instance with days more than 31 or
months more than 12, it doesn’t recalculate its years, months, or days
components.
You can query whether any of three units of a Period is negative using the methods
isNegative and isZero. A Period instance is zero if all three units are zero. The
isNegative method returns true if at least one of its three components is strictly negative (<0):
Period days5 = Period.of(0,0,5);
System.out.println(days5.isZero());
Period daysMinus5 = Period.of(0,0,-5);
System.out.println(daysMinus5.isNegative());
Outputs false
Outputs true
MANIPULATING PERIOD
You can use the instance methods minus(TemporalAmount), minusDays(long), minusWeeks(long), minusMonths(long), minusYears(long), and multipliedBy(int) to create and return a copy of Period instances with the specified period subtracted or
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modified. The method names are self-explanatory. For an example, minusDays(long)
returns a copy of a Period instance with the specified days subtracted. You can use the
following example to send out reminders to your friends (limited to printing a message) for an event, say a birthday celebration, if it’s due in 10 days:
LocalDate bday = LocalDate.of(2020, 10, 29);
LocalDate today = LocalDate.now();
Period period10Days = Period.of(0, 0, 10);
if (bday.minus(period10Days).isBefore(today))
System.out.println("Time to send out reminders to friends");
In the class Period, both the getXXX() methods and minusXXX()
methods use the plural form: getYears(), minusHours().
EXAM TIP
What happens when you subtract a Period representing one month (P1M) from a
Period representing 10 days (P10D)? Would you get a Period representing 20 days or
a Period representing -1 month and 10 days? Let’s find out using the following code,
which also includes quick sample code on the usage of all the minusXXX methods:
Period period10Days = Period.of(0, 0, 10);
Period period1Month = Period.of(0, 1, 0);
System.out.println(period10Days.minus(period1Month));
System.out.println(period10Days.minusDays(5));
System.out.println(period10Days.minusMonths(5));
System.out.println(period10Days.minusYears(5));
Here’s the output:
P-1M10D
P5D
P-5M10D
P-5Y10D
EXAM TIP When you subtract Period instances using the minusXXX() methods, the individual elements are subtracted. Subtracting P10D from P1M
returns P1M-10D and not P20D.
The Period class defines multipliedBy(int), which multiplies each element in the
period by the integer value:
Period year1Month9Day20 = Period.of(1, 9, 20);
System.out.println(year1Month9Day20.multipliedBy(2));
System.out.println(year1Month9Day20.multipliedBy(-2));
Outputs
P2Y18M40D
Outputs
P-2Y-18M-40D
The method multipliedBy(int) in the class Period is used to
modify all elements of a Period instance. Period doesn’t define a “divideBy()”
method. Both the getXXX() methods and minusXXX() methods use the plural
form getYears(), minusHours().
EXAM TIP
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The plus(TemporalAmount), plusDays(long), plusWeeks(long), plusMonths(long),
and plusYears(long) methods add to Period instances and return the modified
value as a Period. Like the minusXXX() methods, all the plusXXX() methods add individual elements:
Period period5Month = Period.of(0, 5, 0);
Period period10Month = Period.of(0, 10, 0);
Period period10Days = Period.of(0, 0, 10);
System.out.println(period5Month.plus(period10Month));
System.out.println(period10Days.plusDays(35));
System.out.println(period10Days.plusMonths(5));
System.out.println(period10Days.plusYears(5));
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
P15M
P45D
P5M10D
P5Y10D
EXAM TIP Adding a Period of 10 months to a Period of 5 months gives 15
months, not 1 year and 3 months.
The withDays(), withMonths(), and withYears() methods accept an int value and
return a copy of Period with the specified value altered.
CONVERTING TO ANOTHER TYPE
The method toTotalMonths() returns the total number of months in the period by
multiplying the number of years by 12 and adding the number of months:
System.out.println(Period.of(10,5,40).toTotalMonths());
Outputs 125
A Period can be used as an argument to the LocalDate one-parameter plus() and
minus() methods. What happens when you want to add 3 months and 10 days to a
given date? The number of months per year is constant but the number of days per
month isn’t. A glimpse at the plus() and minus() methods in the LocalDate source
code shows that years are converted to months and months are always handled
before days.
In the next section, you’ll work with the class DateTimeFormatter.
4.6.5
DateTimeFormatter
Defined in the package java.time.format, the class DateTimeFormatter can be used
to format and parse date and time objects. In this section, you’ll use this class to format or parse date and time objects using predefined constants (like ISO_LOCAL_DATE),
using patterns (like yyyy-MM-dd) or localized styles like long or short.
The first step to format or parse a date or time object is to access a DateTimeFormatter and then call format or parse methods on either date or time objects or
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DateTimeFormatter. Let’s work in detail with these steps, starting with multiple ways
to instantiate or access a DateTimeFormatter object.
INSTANTIATE OR ACCESS DATETIMEFORMATTER
You can instantiate or access a DateTimeFormatter object in multiple ways:
■
■
■
By calling a static ofXXX method, passing it a FormatStyle value
By access public static fields of DateTimeFormatter
By using the static method ofPattern and passing it a string value
Starting with the first option, you can instantiate a DateTimeFormatter to work with
date, time, or date/time objects by calling its ofXXX static method and passing it a
FormatStyle value (FormatStyle.FULL, FormatStyle.LONG, FormatStyle.MEDIUM, or
FormatStyle.SHORT):
DateTimeFormatter formatter1 =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedDate(FormatStyle.MEDIUM);
DateTimeFormatter formatter2 =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedTime(FormatStyle.FULL);
DateTimeFormatter formatter3 =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedDateTime(FormatStyle.LONG);
DateTimeFormatter formatter4 =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedDateTime(FormatStyle.SHORT,
FormatStyle.SHORT);
The methods ofLocalizedDate, ofLocalizedTime, and ofLocalizedDateTime format date and time objects according to the locale (language,
NOTE
region, or country) of the system on which your code executes. So the output
might vary slightly across systems.
Table 4.2 shows how a date or time object will be formatted by using the different
FormatStyle values.
Table 4.2 Examples of how FormatStyle affects formatting of a date (say, August 11, 2057) or time
(say, 14 hours, 30 minutes, and 15 seconds) object
FormatStyle
Example
FormatStyle.FULL
Saturday, August 11, 2057
FormatStyle.LONG
August 11, 2057
FormatStyle.MEDIUM
Aug 11, 2057
FormatStyle.SHORT
8/11/57
FormatStyle.FULL
FormatStyle.LONG
FormatStyle.MEDIUM
2:30:15 PM
FormatStyle.SHORT
2:30 PM
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Working with calendar data
You can access a DateTimeFormatter object by using the public and static fields of
this class:
DateTimeFormatter formatter5 = DateTimeFormatter.ISO_DATE;
Table 4.3 lists a few predefined formatters that are relevant for this exam.
Table 4.3 Predefined formatters in the class DateTimeFormatter and an example of how they format
a date (say, August 11, 2057) or time (say, 14 hours 30 minutes, and 15 seconds) object
Predefined formatter
Example
BASIC_ISO_DATE
20570811
ISO_DATE/ISO_LOCAL_DATE
2057-08-11
ISO_TIME/ISO_LOCAL_TIME
14:30:15.312
ISO_DATE_TIME/ISO_LOCAL_DATE_TIME
2057-08-11T14:30:15.312
You can instantiate a DateTimeFormatter using a pattern (of letters and symbols) by
using the static method ofPattern and passing it a string value:
DateTimeFormatter formatter6= DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("yyyy MM dd");
You can use the preceding code to format a date, say August 11, 2057, as 2057 08 11.
Table 4.4 lists the letters that can be used to define such patterns.
Table 4.4 Letters used to define patterns for DateTimeFormatter and examples of how they would
format a date (say, August 11, 2057) or time (say, 14 hours, 30 minutes, and 15 seconds) object
Symbol
Meaning
Example
y, Y
year
2057; 57
M
month of year
8; 08; Aug; August
D
day of year
223
d
day of month
11
E
day of week
Sat
e
localized day of week
7; Sat
a
a.m. or p.m. of day
pm
h
clock hour of a.m./p.m.
03
H
hour of day
14
m
minute of hour
30
s
second of minute
15
‘
escape for text
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A DateTimeFormatter can define rules to format or parse a date
object, time object, or both.
EXAM TIP
FORMAT DATE OR TIME OBJECTS USING DATETIMEFORMATTER
To format a date or time object, you can use either the instance format method in
date/time objects or the instance format method in the DateTimeFormatter class.
Behind the scenes, the format method in date and time objects simply calls the format
method in DateTimeFormatter. Table 4.5 lists the available format methods.
TemporalAccessor is an interface, implemented by the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, and LocalDateTime. You won’t get explicit questions on this
NOTE
interface on the exam.
Table 4.5 format methods in the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, LocalDateTime, and DateTimeFormatter
Defined in
LocalDate
Return type
String
Method signature and description
format(DateTimeFormatter)
Formats this date object using the specified
DateTimeFormatter
LocalTime
String
format(DateTimeFormatter)
Formats this time object using the specified
DateTimeFormatter
LocalDateTime
String
format(DateTimeFormatter)
Formats this date/time object using the specified
DateTimeFormatter
DateTimeFormatter
String
format(TemporalAccessor)
Formats a date/time object using this formatter
EXAM TIP Watch out for the count and type of arguments passed to the
instance method format. When calling format on a LocalDate, LocalTime, or
LocalDateTime instance, pass a DateTimeFormatter instance as a method
parameter. When calling format on DateTimeFormatter, pass a LocalDate,
LocalTime, or LocalDateTime instance as a method argument.
The method format in DateTimeFormatter formats a date or time object to a String
using the rules of the formatter. The following example formats a LocalDate object
using the style FormatStyle (styles are listed in table 4.2):
DateTimeFormatter formatter =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedDate(FormatStyle.LONG);
LocalDate date = LocalDate.of(2057,8,11);
Outputs August 11,
System.out.println(formatter.format(date));
2057
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Working with calendar data
What happens if you pass a time object (LocalTime) instead of a date object (LocalDate) in the preceding code? Will it compile or execute successfully (changes are
shown in bold)?
DateTimeFormatter formatter =
DateTimeFormatter.ofLocalizedDate(FormatStyle.LONG);
LocalTime time = LocalTime.now();
Throws runtime
System.out.println(formatter.format(time));
exception
The preceding code will compile successfully but won’t execute. It will throw a runtime exception because the formatter defines rules to format a date object (created
using ofLocalizedDate()), but its format() is passed a time object.
EXAM TIP If you pass a date object to the method format on a DateTimeFormatter instance that defines rules to format a time object, it will throw a run-
time exception.
Formatting date and time objects using DateTimeFormatter, which are created using
string patterns, is interesting (and confusing). Take note of the case of the letters used
in the patterns. M and m or D and d are not the same. Also, using a pattern letter doesn’t
specify the count of digits or texts. For an example, using Y or YYYY to format a date
object returns the same results. Following are examples that use different patterns:
LocalDate date = LocalDate.of(2057,8,11);
LocalTime time = LocalTime.of(14,30,15);
DateTimeFormatter
DateTimeFormatter
DateTimeFormatter
DateTimeFormatter
d1
d2
d3
d4
=
=
=
=
DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("y");
DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("YYYY");
DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("Y M D");
DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("e");
DateTimeFormatter t1 = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("H h m s");
DateTimeFormatter t2 = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("'Time now:'HH mm a");
System.out.println(d1.format(date));
System.out.println(d2.format(date));
System.out.println(d3.format(date));
System.out.println(d4.format(date));
System.out.println(t1.format(time));
System.out.println(t2.format(time));
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
2057
2057
2057 8 223
7
14 2 30 15
Time now:14 30 PM
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EXAM TIP If you're confused between M, m, D, and d, remember that an uppercase letter represents a bigger duration period. So M is for month and m is for
minutes. Similarly, D represents day of year; d represents day of month.
You can also format date and time objects by calling the format method in date or
time objects and passing it a DateTimeFormatter instance.
If you access Java’s source code, you’ll notice that the format and
parse methods in date and time classes simply call the format and parse
methods on a DateTimeFormatter instance.
NOTE
PARSE DATE OR TIME OBJECTS USING DATETIMEFORMATTER
To parse a date or time object, you can use either the static parse method in date/
time objects or the instance parse method in the DateTimeFormatter class. Behind
the scenes, the parse method in date/time objects simply calls the parse method in
DateTimeFormatter. Table 4.6 lists the available parse methods.
EXAM TIP
The parse methods are defined as static methods in the classes
LocalDate, LocalTime, and LocalDateTime. The class DateTimeFormatter
defines the parse method as an instance method.
Table 4.6 parse methods in the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, LocalDateTime, and DateTimeFormatter
Defined in
LocalDate
Return type
LocalDate
Method signature and description
parse(CharSequence)
Creates a LocalDate instance using a text
string such as 2057-08-11, parsed using
DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_DATE
LocalDate
LocalDate
parse(CharSequence,
DateTimeFormatter)
Creates a LocalDate instance, parsing text
using the specified formatter
LocalTime
LocalTime
parse(CharSequence)
Creates a LocalTime instance using a text
string such as 14:40, parsed using DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_TIME
LocalTime
LocalTime
parse(CharSequence,
DateTimeFormatter)
Creates a LocalTime instance, parsing text
using the specified formatter
LocalDateTime
LocalDateTime
parse(CharSequence)
Creates a LocalDateTime instance using a
text string such as 2057-08-11T14:40, parsed
using DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL
_DATE_TIME
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Summary
Table 4.6 parse methods in the classes LocalDate, LocalTime, LocalDateTime, and DateTimeFormatter
Defined in
LocalDateTime
Return type
LocalDateTime
Method signature and description
parse(CharSequence,
DateTimeFormatter)
Creates a LocalDateTime instance, parsing text using the specified formatter
DateTimeFormatter
TemporalAccessor
parse(CharSequence)
Parses text using the rules of DateTimeFormatter, returning a temporal object
When calling parse on LocalDate, LocalTime, or LocalDateTime
instances, you might not specify a formatter. In this case DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_DATE, DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_TIME, and DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_DATE_TIME are used to parse text, respectively.
EXAM TIP
Let’s work with the method parse of LocalDate, LocalTime, or LocalDateTime to
parse a string value using a DateTimeFormatter, producing a date or time object:
DateTimeFormatter d1 = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("yyyy-MM-dd");
LocalDate date = LocalDate.parse("2057-01-29", d1 );
The following line throws a DateTimeParseException because this mechanism works
only if all components are present. For example, the pattern yyyy-MM-dd with “205701-29” works fine. The component order doesn’t matter; hence, using dd-yyyy-MM to
parse “29-2057-01” works too and yields January 29, 2057 as well:
DateTimeFormatter d1 = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("yyyy");
LocalDate date = LocalDate.parse("2057", d1);
Similarly, you can call the parse method to create instances of LocalTime and LocalDateTime.
4.7
Summary
In this chapter, you learned about the String class, its properties, and its methods.
Because this is one of the most frequently used classes in Java, I’ll reiterate that a good
understanding of this class in terms of why its methods behave in a particular manner
will go a long way toward helping you successfully complete the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam.
You learned how to initialize String variables using the operator new and the
assignment operator (=) with String literals. You also learned the differences between
how String objects are stored using these two approaches. If you use the assignment
operator to initialize your String variables, they’re stored in a common pool of
String objects (also known as the String constant pool) that can be used by others.
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This storage is possible because String objects are immutable—that is, their values
can’t be changed.
You learned how a char array is used to store the value of a String object. This
helps explain why the methods charAt(), indexOf(), and substring() search for the
first character of a String at position 0, not position 1. We also reviewed the methods
replace(), trim(), and substring(), which seem to modify the value of a String but
will never be able to do so because String objects are immutable. You also learned the
methods length(), startsWith(), and endsWith().
Because not all operators can be used with Strings, you learned about the ones
that can be used with String: +, +=, ==, and !=. You also learned that the equality of
Strings can be determined using the method equals. By using the operator ==, you
can only determine whether both of the variables are referring to the same object; it
doesn’t compare the values stored by Strings. As with all the other object types, you
can assign null to a String variable.
You worked with the class StringBuilder, which is defined in the package
java.lang and is used to store a mutable sequence of characters. The class StringBuilder is usually used to store a sequence of characters that needs to be modified
often—such as when you’re building a query for database applications. Like the String
class, StringBuilder also uses a char array to store its characters. Many of the methods defined in the class StringBuilder work exactly as defined by the class String,
such as the methods charAt, indexOf, substring, and length. The append method is
used to add characters to the end of a StringBuilder object. The insert method is
another important StringBuilder method that’s used to insert either single or multiple characters at a specified position in a StringBuilder object. The class StringBuilder offers the same functionality as offered by the class StringBuffer, minus the
additional feature of methods that are synchronized where needed.
An array is an object that stores a collection of values. An array can store a collection of primitive data types or a collection of objects. You can define one-dimensional
and multidimensional arrays. A one-dimensional array is an object that refers to a collection of scalar values. A two-dimensional (or more) array is referred to as a multidimensional array. A two-dimensional array refers to a collection of objects, where each
of the objects is a one-dimensional array. Similarly, a three-dimensional array refers to
a collection of two-dimensional arrays, and so on. Arrays can be declared, allocated,
and initialized in a single step or in multiple steps. A two-dimensional array doesn’t
need to be symmetrical, and each of its rows can define different numbers of members. You can define arrays of primitives, interfaces, abstract classes, and concrete
classes. All arrays are objects and can access the variable length and methods inherited from the class java.lang.Object.
ArrayList is a resizable array that offers the best combination of features offered
by an array and the List data structure. You can add objects to an ArrayList using the
method add. You can access the objects of an ArrayList by using an enhanced for
loop or by using the get() method or an iterator. An ArrayList preserves the order
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of insertion of its elements. ListIterator, Iterator, and the enhanced for loop will
return the elements in the order in which they were added to the ArrayList. You can
modify the elements of an ArrayList using the method set. You can remove the elements of an ArrayList by using the method remove, which accepts the element position or an object. You can also add multiple elements to an ArrayList by using the
method addAll. The method clone defined in the class ArrayList returns a shallow
copy of this ArrayList instance. Shallow copy means that the method creates a new
instance of the ArrayList to be cloned, but the ArrayList elements aren’t copied.
You can compare the objects of your class by overriding the equals method. The
equals method is defined in the class java.lang.Object, which is the base class of all
classes in Java. The default implementation of the method equals only compares the
object references for equality. Because instance variables are used to store the state of
an object, it’s common to compare the values of these variables to determine whether
two objects should be considered equal in the equals method. The Java API documentation defines a contract for the equals method. In the exam, for a given definition of the method equals, it is important to note the differences between an equals
method that compiles successfully, one that fails compilation, and one that doesn’t follow the contract.
The Date and Time API in Java 8 simplifies how you work with the date and time
classes. You worked with LocalDate, which is used to store only dates of the format
2016-08-14. LocalTime stores time in the format 14:09:65:23 (hours:minutes:seconds
:nanoseconds). The class LocalDateTime stores both date and time. The class Period
is used to work with a duration of, say, a period of 4 months or 4 days. The class DateTimeFormatter is used to format date and time using a predefined or custom format.
4.8
Review notes
This section lists the main points covered in this chapter.
The class String:
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The class String represents an immutable sequence of characters.
A String variable can be initialized by using the operator new or by using the
assignment operator with String literal values.
String objects created using a String literal without the new operator are
placed in a pool of String objects. Whenever the JRE receives a new request to
initialize a String variable using the assignment operator, it checks whether a
String object with the same value already exists in the pool. If one is found, it
returns the object reference for the existing String object from the pool.
String objects created using the operator new are never placed in the pool of
String objects.
The comparison operator (==) compares String references, whereas the equals
method compares the String values.
None of the methods defined in the class String can modify its value.
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The method charAt(int index) retrieves a character at a specified index of a
String.
The method indexOf can be used to search a String for the occurrence of a
char or a String, starting from the first position or a specified position.
The method substring can be used to retrieve a portion of a String object.
The substring method doesn’t include the character at the end position.
The trim method will return a new String by removing all the leading and
trailing white spaces from a String. This method doesn’t remove any white
space within a String.
You can use the method length to retrieve the length of a String.
The method startsWith determines whether a String starts with a specified
String.
The method endsWith determines whether a String ends with a specified
String.
It’s a common practice to use multiple String methods in a single line of code.
When chained, the methods are evaluated from left to right.
You can use the concatenation operators + and += and comparison operators !=
and == with String objects.
The Java language provides special support for concatenating String objects by
using the operators + and +=.
The right technique for comparing two String values for equality is to use the
method equals defined in the String class. This method returns a true value if
the object being compared isn’t null and is a String object that represents the
same sequence of characters as the object to which it’s being compared.
The comparison operator == determines whether both of the reference variables are referring to the same String objects. Hence, it’s not the right operator for comparing String values.
The class StringBuilder:
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The class StringBuilder is defined in the package java.lang and represents a
mutable sequence of characters.
The StringBuilder class is very efficient when a user needs to modify a
sequence of characters often. Because it’s mutable, the value of a StringBuilder object can be modified without the need to create a new StringBuilder object.
A StringBuilder object can be created using its constructors, which can accept
either a String object, another StringBuilder object, an int value to specify
the capacity of StringBuilder, or nothing.
The methods charAt, indexOf, substring, and length defined in the class
StringBuilder work in the same way as methods with the same names defined
in the class String.
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The append method adds the specified value at the end of the existing value of
a StringBuilder object.
The insert method enables you to insert characters at a specified position in a
StringBuilder object. The main difference between the append and insert
methods is that the insert method enables you to insert the requested data at a
particular position, whereas the append method allows you to add the requested
data only at the end of the StringBuilder object.
The method delete removes the characters in a substring of the specified
StringBuilder. The method deleteCharAt removes the char at the specified
position.
Unlike the class String, the class StringBuilder doesn’t define the method
trim.
The method reverse reverses the sequence of characters of a StringBuilder.
The replace method in the class StringBuilder replaces a sequence of characters, identified by their position, with another String.
In addition to using the method substring, you can also use the method subSequence to retrieve a subsequence of a StringBuilder object.
Arrays:
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An array is an object that stores a collection of values.
An array itself is an object.
An array can store two types of data—a collection of primitive data types and a
collection of objects.
You can define one-dimensional and multidimensional arrays.
A one-dimensional array is an object that refers to a collection of scalar values.
A two-dimensional (or more) array is referred to as a multidimensional array.
A two-dimensional array refers to a collection of objects, in which each of the
objects is a one-dimensional array.
Similarly, a three-dimensional array refers to a collection of two-dimensional
arrays, and so on.
Multidimensional arrays may or may not contain the same number of elements
in each row or column.
The creation of an array involves three steps: declaration of an array, allocation
of an array, and initialization of array elements.
An array declaration is composed of an array type, a variable name, and one or
more occurrences of [].
Square brackets can follow either the variable name or its type. In the case of
multidimensional arrays, it can follow both of them.
An array declaration creates a variable that refers to null.
Because no elements of an array are created when it’s declared, it’s invalid to
define the size of an array with its declaration.
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Array allocation allocates memory for the elements of an array. When you allocate memory for an array, you must specify its dimensions, such as the number
of elements the array should store.
Because an array is an object, it’s allocated using the keyword new, followed by
the type of value that it stores, and then its size.
Once allocated, all the array elements store their default values. Elements of an
array that store objects refer to null. Elements of an array that store primitive
data types store 0 for integer types (byte, short, int, long), 0.0 for decimal
types (float and double), false for boolean, or /u0000 for char data.
To access an element in a two-dimensional array, use two array position values.
You can combine all the steps of array declaration, allocation, and initialization
into a single step.
When you combine array declaration, allocation, and initialization in a single
step, you can’t specify the size of the array. The size of the array is calculated by
the number of values that are assigned to the array.
You can declare and allocate an array but choose not to initialize its elements
(for example, int[] a = new int[5];).
The Java compiler doesn’t check the range of the index positions at which you
try to access an array element. The code throws an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException exception if the requested index position doesn’t fall in the valid
range at runtime.
A multidimensional array can be asymmetrical; it may or may not define the
same number of columns for each of its rows.
The type of an array can also be an interface or abstract class. Such an array
can be used to store objects of classes that inherit from the interface type or
the abstract class type.
The type of an array can also be java.lang.Object. Because all classes extend
the java.lang.Object class, elements of this array can refer to any object.
All the arrays are objects and can access the variable length, which specifies the
number or components stored by the array.
Because all arrays are objects, they inherit and can access all methods from the
class Object.
ArrayList:
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ArrayList is one of the most widely used classes from the Collections frame-
work. It offers the best combination of features offered by an array and the List
data structure.
An ArrayList is like a resizable array.
Unlike arrays, you may not specify an initial size to create an ArrayList.
ArrayList implements the interface List and allows null values to be added to it.
ArrayList implements all list operations (add, modify, and delete values).
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ArrayList allows duplicate values to be added to it and maintains its inser-
tion order.
You can use either Iterator or ListIterator or an enhanced for loop to iterate over the items of an ArrayList.
ArrayList supports generics, making it type safe.
Internally, an array of type java.lang.Object is used to store the data in an
ArrayList.
You can add a value to an ArrayList either at its end or at a specified position
by using the method add.
An iterator (Iterator or ListIterator) lets you remove elements as you iterate through an ArrayList. It’s not possible to remove elements from an ArrayList while iterating through it using a for loop.
An ArrayList preserves the order of insertion of its elements. ListIterator
and the enhanced for loop will return the elements in the order in which they
were added to the ArrayList.
You can use the method set to modify an ArrayList by either replacing an
existing element in ArrayList or modifying its existing values.
remove(int) removes the element at the specified position in the list.
remove(Object o) removes the first occurrence of the specified element from
the list, if it’s present.
You can add multiple elements to an ArrayList from another ArrayList or any
other class that’s a subclass of Collection by using the method addAll.
You can remove all the ArrayList elements by calling the method clear on it.
get(int index) returns the element at the specified position in the list.
size() returns the number of elements in the list.
contains(Object o) returns true if the list contains the specified element.
indexOf(Object o) returns the index of the first occurrence of the specified
element in the list, or –1 if the list doesn’t contain the element.
lastIndexOf(Object o) returns the index of the last occurrence of the specified element in the list, or –1 if the list doesn’t contain the element.
The method clone defined in the class ArrayList returns a shallow copy of this
ArrayList instance. Shallow copy means that the method creates a new instance
of the ArrayList to be cloned, but the ArrayList elements aren’t copied.
You can use the method toArray to return an array containing all the elements
in ArrayList in sequence from the first to the last element.
Comparing objects for equality:
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Any Java class can define a set of rules to determine whether two objects should
be considered equal.
The method equals is defined in the class java.lang.Object. All the Java
classes directly or indirectly inherit this class.
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The default implementation of the equals method only checks whether two
object variables refer to the same object.
Because instance variables are used to store the state of an object, it’s common
to compare the values of the instance variables to determine whether two
objects should be considered equal.
When you override the equals method in your class, make sure that you use the
correct method signature for the equals method.
The Java API defines a contract for the equals method, which should be taken
care of when you implement the method in any of your classes.
According to the contract of the method equals, if a null value is passed to it,
the method equals should return false.
If the equals method modifies the value of any of the instance variables of the
method parameter passed to it, or of the object on which it is called, it will violate the contract.
LocalDate:
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LocalDate can be used to store dates like 2015-12-27 without time or time zones.
LocalDate instances are immutable.
The LocalDate constructor is marked private.
Use LocalDate’s overloaded static method of() to instantiate it:
– public static LocalDate of(int year, int month, int dayOfMonth)
– public static LocalDate of(int year, Month month, int dayOfMonth)
The of() methods will throw a DateTimeException when values passed to it are
out of range.
In date classes released with Java 8, the January month is represented by int
value 1 and not 0. The date classes defined with or prior to Java 7 represent January using 0.
LocalDate’s static method now() returns the current date from the system clock
as a LocalDate instance.
Use LocalDate’s static method parse() to parse a string in the format 2016-0227 to instantiate LocalDate.
If you pass invalid values to parse() or of(), you’ll get a DateTimeParseException. The format of the string passed to parse() must be exactly of the
format 9999-99-99. The month and date values passed to parse() must be of
two digits; a single digit is considered an invalid value. For days and months
with a value 1–9, pass 01–09.
You can use LocalDate’s instance methods like getXX() to query LocalDate on
its year, month, and date values:
– getDayOfMonth()
– getDayOfWeek()
– getDayOfYear()
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– getMonth()
– getMonthValue()
– getYear()
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LocalDate’s instance minusXX() methods return a copy of its value after subtracting the specified days, months, weeks, or years from it:
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minusDays()
minusMonths()
minusWeeks()
minusYears()
LocalDate is immutable. All the methods that seem to manipulate its value
return a copy of the LocalDate instance on which it’s called.
The plusXX() methods return a copy of LocalDate’s value after adding the speci-
fied days, months, or year to it:
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The withXX() methods return a copy of LocalDate’s value replacing the specified day, month, or year in it:
–
–
–
–
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plusDays()
plusMonths()
plusWeeks()
plusYears()
withDayOfMonth()
withDayOfYear()
withMonth()
withYear()
All additions, subtractions, or replacements to LocalDate consider leap years.
Despite the verbs used in the previous methods (add, subtract, replace), none of
them actually modifies an existing LocalDate—all of them return a new instance
with the requested changes applied.
The LocalDate class defines overloaded atTime() instance methods. These
methods combine LocalDate with time to create and return LocalDateTime,
which stores both the date and time.
Use the method toEpochDay() to convert LocalDate to the epoch date—the
count of days from January 1, 1970.
LocalTime:
■
■
■
■
■
It stores time in the format hours-minutes-seconds (without a time zone).
It stores time to nanosecond precision.
LocalTime is immutable.
You can instantiate LocalTime using LocalTime’s static method of() that accepts
hours, minutes, seconds, and nanoseconds.
The of() method uses a 24-hour clock to specify the hour value.
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The of() method will throw a runtime exception, DateTimeException, if you
pass an invalid range of values to it.
LocalTime doesn’t define a method to pass a.m. or p.m. Use values 0–23 to
define hours. If you pass out-of-range values to either hours, minutes, or seconds, you’ll get a runtime exception.
To get the current time from the system clock, use the static method now().
You can parse a string to instantiate LocalTime by using its static method
parse(). You can either pass a string in the format 15:08:23 (hours:minutes:seconds) or parse any text using DateTimeFormatter.
If you pass invalid string values to parse(), the code will compile but will throw
a runtime exception. If you don’t pass a DateTimeFormatter, the format of the
string passed to parse() must be exactly of the format 99:99:99. The hours and
minutes values passed to parse() must be of two digits; a single digit is considered an invalid value. For hours and minutes with a value 0–9, pass 00–09.
You can use constants from the LocalTime class to work with predefined times:
– LocalTime.MIN—Minimum supported time, that is, 00:00
– LocalTime.MAX—Maximum supported time, that is, 23:59:59.999999999
– LocalTime.MIDNIGHT—Time when day starts, that is, 00:00
– LocalTime.NOON—Noontime, that is, 12:00
You can use instance methods like getXX() to query LocalTime on its hour,
minutes, seconds, and nanoseconds. All these methods return an int value.
The correct method names to query LocalTime are getHour(), getMinute(), getSecond(), and getNano(). Watch out for exam questions that use invalid method
names like getHours(), getMinutes(), getSeconds(), or getNanoSeconds().
You can use the instance methods isAfter() and isBefore() to check whether
a time is after or before the specified time.
You can use the instance methods minusHours(), minusMinutes(), minusSeconds(), and minusNanos() to create and return a copy of LocalTime instances
with the specified period subtracted.
Unlike the getXXX() methods, the minusXXX() methods use the plural form:
getHour() versus minusHours(), getMinute() versus minusMinutes(), getSecond() versus minusSeconds(), and getNano() versus minusNanos().
The plusHours(), plusMinutes(), plusSeconds(), and plusNanos() methods
accept long values and add the specified hours, minutes, seconds, or nanoseconds to time, returning its copy as LocalTime.
LocalTime is immutable. Calling any method on an instance won’t modify
its value.
The withHour(), withMinute(), withSecond(), and withNano() methods accept
an int value and return a copy of LocalTime with the specified value altered.
The class LocalTime defines the method atDate(), which can be passed a LocalDate instance to create a LocalDateTime instance.
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Review notes
307
LocalDateTime:
■
■
■
LocalDateTime stores a value like 2050-06-18T14:20:30:908765 (year-month-
dayThours:minutes:seconds:nanoseconds).
The LocalDateTime class uses the letter T to separate date and time values in its
printed value.
You can consider this class to offer the functionality of both the LocalDate and
LocalTime classes. This class defines similar methods as those defined by the
LocalDate and LocalTime classes.
Period:
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■
■
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The Period class represents a date-based amount in years, months, and days,
like 2 years, 5 months, and 10 days. To work with time-based amounts in seconds and nanoseconds, you can use the Duration class.
You can add or subtract Period instances from LocalDate and LocalDateTime
classes.
Period is an immutable class.
The Period class defines multiple factory methods to create its instances. The
static methods of(), ofYears(), ofMonths(), ofWeeks(), and ofDays() accept
int values to create periods of years, months, weeks, or days.
A Period of 35 days is not stored as 1 month and 5 days. Its individual elements,
that is, days, months, and years, are stored the way it is initialized.
You can define positive or negative periods of time. You can define Period
instances representing 15 or -15 days.
You can also parse a string to instantiate Period by using its static method
parse. This method parses string values of the format PnYnMnD or PnW, where
n represents a number and the letters (P, Y, M, D, and W) represent parse, year,
month, day, and week. These letters can exist in lower- or uppercase. Each
string must start with the letter p or P and must include at least one of the four
sections, that is, year, month, week, or day.
If you pass invalid string values to parse(), the code will compile but will throw
a runtime exception.
You can also use the static method between(LocalDate dateInclusive, LocalDate dateExclusive) to instantiate Period.
The static method between accepts two LocalDate instances and returns a
Period instance representing number of years, days, and months between the
two dates. The first date is included, but the second date is excluded in the
returned Period.
The Period class implements the interface TemporalAmount, so it can be used
with the methods plus() and minus() defined in the classes LocalDateTime
and LocalDate.
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Because Period instances can represent positive or negative periods (like 15
days or -15 days), you can subtract days from a LocalDate or LocalDateTime by
calling the method plus.
Similarly, you can use the method minus() with classes LocalDate and LocalDateTime to subtract a period of years, months, weeks, or days.
You can use the instance methods getYears(), getMonths(), and getDays() to
query a Period instance on its years, months, and days. All these methods
return an int value.
When you initialize a Period instance with days more than 31 or months more
than 12, it doesn’t recalculate its years, months, or days components.
You can query whether any of three units of a Period is negative using the
methods isNegative and isZero. A Period instance is negative if all three of its
units are zero.
You can use instance methods minus(TemporalAmount), minusDays(long),
minusMonths(long), minusYears(long), and multipliedBy(int) to create and
return a copy of Period instances with the specified period subtracted or modified.
In the class Period, both the getXXX() methods and minusXXX() methods use
the plural form: getYears(), minusHours().
When you subtract a Period instance using the minusXXX() methods, its individual elements are subtracted. Subtracting P10D from P1M returns P1M-10D
and not P20D.
The method multipliedBy(int) in the class Period is used to modify all elements of a Period instance. Period doesn’t define divideBy.
Adding a Period of 10 months to a Period of 5 months gives 15 months, not 1
year and 3 months.
The method toTotalMonths() returns the total number of months in the period
by multiplying the number of years by 12 and adding the number of months.
DateTimeFormatter
■
■
■
Defined in the package java.time.format, the class DateTimeFormatter can
be used to format and parse date and time objects.
A DateTimeFormatter can define rules to format or parse a date object, time
object, or both.
You can instantiate or access a DateTimeFormatter object in multiple ways:
– By calling a static ofXXX method, passing it a FormatStyle value
– By accessing public static fields of DateTimeFormatter
– By using a static method ofPattern and passing it a string value
■
To instantiate a DateTimeFormatter using ofXXX methods, pass it a FormatStyle value (FormatStyle.FULL, FormatStyle.LONG, FormatStyle.MEDIUM, or
FormatStyle.SHORT).
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Sample exam questions
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4.9
You can access a DateTimeFormatter object by using the public and static fields
of this class: BASIC_ISO_DATE, ISO_DATE, ISO_TIME, and ISO_DATE_TIME.
The method format in DateTimeFormatter formats a date or time object to a
String using the rules of the formatter.
To parse a date or time object, you can use either the parse method in date/
time objects or the parse method in the DateTimeFormatter class.
Sample exam questions
Q4-1. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int[] arr = new int[5];
byte b = 4; char c = 'c'; long longVar = 10;
arr[0] = b;
arr[1] = c;
arr[3] = longVar;
System.out.println(arr[0] + arr[1] + arr[2] + arr[3]);
}
}
d
4c010
4c10
113
103
e
Compilation error
a
b
c
Q4-2. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruArray2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int[] arr1;
int[] arr2 = new int[3];
char[] arr3 = {'a', 'b'};
arr1 = arr2;
arr1 = arr3;
System.out.println(arr1[0] + ":" + arr1[1]);
}
}
d
0:0
a:b
0:b
a:0
e
Compilation error
a
b
c
309
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
Q4-3. Which of the following are valid lines of code to define a multidimensional
int array?
a
b
c
d
int[][]
int[][]
int[][]
int[][]
array1
array2
array3
array4
=
=
=
=
{{1, 2, 3}, {}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5}};
new array() {{1, 2, 3}, {}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5}};
{1, 2, 3}, {0}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5};
new int[2][];
Q4-4. Which of the following statements are correct?
a
The following code executes without an error or exception:
ArrayList lst = new ArrayList<>();
lst.add(10);
b
c
d
e
Because ArrayList stores only objects, you can’t pass an element of an ArrayList to a switch construct.
Calling clear() or remove() on an ArrayList will remove all its elements.
If you frequently add elements to an ArrayList, specifying a larger capacity will
improve the code efficiency.
Calling the method clone() on an ArrayList creates its shallow copy; that is, it
doesn’t clone the individual list elements.
Q4-5. Which of the following statements are correct?
a
b
c
d
e
An ArrayList offers a resizable array, which is easily managed using the methods it provides. You can add and remove elements from an ArrayList.
Values stored by an ArrayList can be modified.
You can iterate through elements of an ArrayList using a for loop, Iterator,
or ListIterator.
An ArrayList requires you to specify the total number of elements before you
can store any elements in it.
An ArrayList can store any type of object.
Q4-6. What is the output of the following code?
import java.util.*;
class EJavaGuruArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList ejg = new ArrayList<>();
ejg.add("One");
ejg.add("Two");
System.out.println(ejg.contains(new String("One")));
System.out.println(ejg.indexOf("Two"));
ejg.clear();
System.out.println(ejg);
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//
//
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//
//
//
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line
line
line
line
line
line
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line
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Sample exam questions
System.out.println(ejg.get(1));
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
// line 11
// line 12
// line 13
Line 7 prints true.
Line 7 prints false.
Line 8 prints -1.
Line 8 prints 1.
Line 9 removes all elements of the list ejg.
Line 9 sets the list ejg to null.
Line 10 prints null.
Line 10 prints [].
Line 10 prints a value similar to ArrayList@16356.
Line 11 throws an exception.
Line 11 prints null.
Q4-7. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg1 = new String("E Java");
String ejg2 = new String("E Java");
String ejg3 = "E Java";
String ejg4 = "E Java";
do
System.out.println(ejg1.equals(ejg2));
while (ejg3 == ejg4);
}
}
a
b
c
d
true printed once
false printed once
true printed in an infinite loop
false printed in an infinite loop
Q4-8. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg = "game".replace('a', 'Z').trim().concat("Aa");
ejg.substring(0, 2);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
a
b
gZmeAZ
gZmeAa
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
c
d
e
gZm
gZ
game
Q4-9. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg = "game";
ejg.replace('a', 'Z').trim().concat("Aa");
ejg.substring(0, 2);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
gZmeAZ
gZmeAa
gZm
gZ
game
Q4-10. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder ejg = new StringBuilder(10 + 2 + "SUN" + 4 + 5);
ejg.append(ejg.delete(3, 6));
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
c
12S512S5
12S12S
1025102S
d
Runtime exception
a
b
Q4-11. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruStringBuilder2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("123456");
sb1.subSequence(2, 4);
sb1.deleteCharAt(3);
sb1.reverse();
System.out.println(sb1);
}
}
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Answers to sample exam questions
a
521
b
Runtime exception
c
65321
65431
d
313
Q4-12. What is the output of the following code?
String printDate = LocalDate.parse("2057-08-11")
.format(DateTimeFormatter.ISO_DATE_TIME);
System.out.println(printDate);
a
b
c
d
e
August 11, 2057T00:00
Saturday Aug 11,2057T00:00
08-11-2057T00:00:00
Compilation error
Runtime exception
4.10 Answers to sample exam questions
Q4-1. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int[] arr = new int[5];
byte b = 4; char c = 'c'; long longVar = 10;
arr[0] = b;
arr[1] = c;
arr[3] = longVar;
System.out.println(arr[0] + arr[1] + arr[2] + arr[3]);
}
}
d
4c010
4c10
113
103
e
Compilation error
a
b
c
Answer: e
Explanation: The code in this question won’t compile due to
arr[3] = longVar;
The preceding line of code tries to assign a value of type long to a variable of type int.
Because Java doesn’t support implicit narrowing conversions (for example, long to
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
int in this case), the assignment fails. Also, this code tries to trick you regarding your
understanding of the following:
■
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■
■
Assigning a char value to an int array element (arr[1] = c)
Adding a byte value to an int array element (arr[0] = b)
Whether an unassigned int array element is assigned a default value (arr[2])
Whether arr[0] + arr[1] + arr[2] + arr[3] prints the sum of all these values
or a concatenated value
When answering questions in the OCA Java SE 8 Java Programmer I exam, be careful
about such tactics. If any of the answers lists a compilation error or a runtime exception as an option, look for obvious lines of code that could result in it. In this example,
arr[3] = longVar will result in a compilation error.
Q4-2. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruArray2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int[] arr1;
int[] arr2 = new int[3];
char[] arr3 = {'a', 'b'};
arr1 = arr2;
arr1 = arr3;
System.out.println(arr1[0] + ":" + arr1[1]);
}
}
d
0:0
a:b
0:b
a:0
e
Compilation error
a
b
c
Answer: e
Explanation: Because a char value can be assigned to an int value, you might assume
that a char array can be assigned to an int array. But we’re talking about arrays of int
and char primitives, which aren’t the same as a primitive int or char. Arrays themselves are reference variables, which refer to a collection of objects of similar type.
Q4-3. Which of the following are valid lines of code to define a multidimensional
int array?
a
b
c
d
int[][]
int[][]
int[][]
int[][]
array1
array2
array3
array4
=
=
=
=
{{1, 2, 3}, {}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5}};
new array() {{1, 2, 3}, {}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5}};
{1, 2, 3}, {0}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5};
new int[2][];
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Answers to sample exam questions
315
Answer: a, d
Explanation: Option (b) is incorrect. This line of code won’t compile because new
array() isn’t valid code. Unlike objects of other classes, an array isn’t initialized using
the keyword new followed by the word array. When the keyword new is used to initialize an array, it’s followed by the type of the array, not the word array.
Option (c) is incorrect. To initialize a two-dimensional array, all of these values must
be enclosed within another pair of curly braces, as shown in the code in option (a).
Q4-4. Which of the following statements are correct?
a
The following code executes without an error or exception:
ArrayList lst = new ArrayList<>();
lst.add(10);
b
c
d
e
Because ArrayList stores only objects, you can’t pass element of an ArrayList
to a switch construct.
Calling clear() or remove() on an ArrayList will remove all its elements.
If you frequently add elements to an ArrayList, specifying a larger capacity will
improve the code efficiency.
Calling the method clone() on an ArrayList creates its shallow copy; that is, it
doesn’t clone the individual list elements.
Answer: d, e
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. The default type of a non-floating numeric literal value is int. You can’t add an int to an ArrayList of type Long. You can pass values of type Long or long to its add method.
Option (b) is incorrect. Starting with Java 7, switch also accepts variables of type
String. Because a String can be stored in an ArrayList, you can use elements of an
ArrayList in a switch construct.
Option (c) is incorrect. Only clear() will remove all elements of an ArrayList.
Option (d) is correct. An ArrayList internally uses an array to store all its elements.
Whenever you add an element to an ArrayList, it checks whether the array can
accommodate the new value. If it can’t, ArrayList creates a larger array, copies all the
existing values to the new array, and then adds the new value at the end of the array. If
you frequently add elements to an ArrayList, it makes sense to create an ArrayList
with a bigger capacity because the previous process isn’t repeated for each ArrayList insertion.
Option (e) is correct. Calling clone() on an ArrayList will create a separate reference variable that stores the same number of elements as the ArrayList to be cloned.
But each individual ArrayList element will refer to the same object; that is, the individual ArrayList elements aren’t cloned.
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Q4-5. Which of the following statements are correct?
a
b
c
d
e
An ArrayList offers a resizable array, which is easily managed using the methods it provides. You can add and remove elements from an ArrayList.
Values stored by an ArrayList can be modified.
You can iterate through elements of an ArrayList using a for loop, Iterator,
or ListIterator.
An ArrayList requires you to specify the total elements before you can store
any elements in it.
An ArrayList can store any type of object.
Answer: a, b, c, e
Explanation: Option (a) is correct. A developer may prefer using an ArrayList over
an array because it offers all the benefits of an array and a list. For example, you can
easily add or remove elements from an ArrayList.
Option (b) is correct.
Option (c) is correct. An ArrayList can be easily searched, sorted, and have its values compared using the methods provided by the Collection framework classes.
Option (d) is incorrect. An array requires you to specify the total number of elements before you can add any element to it. But you don’t need to specify the total
number of elements that you may add to an ArrayList at any time in your code.
Option (e) is correct.
Q4-6. What is the output of the following code?
import java.util.*;
class EJavaGuruArrayList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList ejg = new ArrayList<>();
ejg.add("One");
ejg.add("Two");
System.out.println(ejg.contains(new String("One")));
System.out.println(ejg.indexOf("Two"));
ejg.clear();
System.out.println(ejg);
System.out.println(ejg.get(1));
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Line 7 prints true.
Line 7 prints false.
Line 8 prints -1.
Line 8 prints 1.
Line 9 removes all elements of the list ejg.
Line 9 sets ejg to null.
Line 10 prints null.
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line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Answers to sample exam questions
h
i
j
k
317
Line 10 prints [].
Line 10 prints a value similar to ArrayList@16356.
Line 11 throws an exception.
Line 11 prints null.
Answer: a, d, e, h, j
Explanation: Line 7: The method contains accepts an object and compares it with
the values stored in the list. It returns true if the method finds a match and false otherwise. This method uses the equals method defined by the object stored in the list.
In the example, the ArrayList stores objects of class String, which has overridden
the equals method. The equals method of the String class compares the values
stored by it. This is why line 7 returns the value true.
Line 8: indexOf returns the index position of an element if a match is found; otherwise, it returns -1. This method also uses the equals method behind the scenes to
compare the values in an ArrayList. Because the equals method in the class String
compares its values and not the reference variables, the indexOf method finds a
match in position 1.
Line 9: The clear method removes all the individual elements of an ArrayList
such that an attempt to access any of the earlier ArrayList elements will throw a runtime exception. It doesn’t set the ArrayList reference variable to null.
Line 10: ArrayList has overridden the toString method such that it returns a list
of all its elements enclosed within square brackets. To print each element, the
toString method is called to retrieve its String representation.
Line 11: The clear method removes all the elements of an ArrayList. An attempt
to access the (nonexistent) ArrayList element throws a runtime IndexOutOfBoundsException exception.
This question tests your understanding of ArrayList and determining the equality
of String objects.
Q4-7. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg1 = new String("E Java");
String ejg2 = new String("E Java");
String ejg3 = "E Java";
String ejg4 = "E Java";
do
System.out.println(ejg1.equals(ejg2));
while (ejg3 == ejg4);
}
}
a
b
true printed once
false printed once
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
c
d
true printed in an infinite loop
false printed in an infinite loop
Answer: c
Explanation: String objects that are created without using the new operator are placed
in a pool of Strings. Hence, the String object referred to by the variable ejg3 is
placed in a pool of Strings. The variable ejg4 is also defined without using the new
operator. Before Java creates another String object in the String pool for the variable ejg4, it looks for a String object with the same value in the pool. Because this value
already exists in the pool, it makes the variable ejg4 refer to the same String object.
This, in turn, makes the variables ejg3 and ejg4 refer to the same String objects.
Hence, both of the following comparisons will return true:
■
■
ejg3 == ejg4 (compare the object references)
ejg3.equals(ejg4) (compare the object values)
Even though the variables ejg1 and ejg2 refer to different String objects, they define
the same values. So ejg1.equals(ejg2) also returns true. Because the loop condition
(ejg3==ejg4) always returns true, the code prints true in an infinite loop.
Q4-8. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg = "game".replace('a', 'Z').trim().concat("Aa");
ejg.substring(0, 2);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
gZmeAZ
gZmeAa
gZm
gZ
game
Answer: b
Explanation: When chained, methods are evaluated from left to right. The first method
to execute is replace, not concat. Strings are immutable. Calling the method substring on the reference variable ejg doesn’t change the contents of the variable ejg.
It returns a String object that isn’t referred to by any other variable in the code. In
fact, none of the methods defined in the String class modify the object’s own value.
They all create and return new String objects.
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319
Q4-9. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruString2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String ejg = "game";
ejg.replace('a', 'Z').trim().concat("Aa");
ejg.substring(0, 2);
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
gZmeAZ
gZmeAa
gZm
gZ
game
Answer: e
Explanation: String objects are immutable. It doesn’t matter how many methods you
execute on a String object; its value won’t change. Variable ejg is initialized with the
String value "game". This value won’t change, and the code prints game.
Q4-10. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruStringBuilder {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder ejg = new StringBuilder(10 + 2 + "SUN" + 4 + 5);
ejg.append(ejg.delete(3, 6));
System.out.println(ejg);
}
}
c
12S512S5
12S12S
1025102S
d
Runtime exception
a
b
Answer: a
Explanation: This question tests your understanding of operators, String, and
StringBuilder. The following line of code returns 12SUN45:
10 + 2 + "SUN" + 4 + 5
The + operator adds two numbers but concatenates the last two numbers. When
the + operator encounters a String object, it treats all the remaining operands as
String objects.
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CHAPTER 4 Selected classes from the Java API and arrays
Unlike the String objects, StringBuilder objects are mutable. The append and
delete methods defined in this class change its value. ejg.delete(3, 6) modifies the
existing value of the StringBuilder to 12S5. It then appends the same value to itself
when calling ejg.append(), resulting in the value 12S512S5.
Q4-11. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuruStringBuilder2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("123456");
sb1.subSequence(2, 4);
sb1.deleteCharAt(3);
sb1.reverse();
System.out.println(sb1);
}
}
a
521
b
Runtime exception
c
65321
65431
d
Answer: c
Explanation: Like the method substring, the method subSequence doesn’t modify
the contents of a StringBuilder. Hence, the value of the variable sb1 remains
123456, even after the execution of the following line of code:
sb1.subSequence(2, 4);
The method deleteCharAt deletes a char value at position 3. Because the positions
are zero-based, the digit 4 is deleted from the value 123456, resulting in 12356. The
method reverse modifies the value of a StringBuilder by assigning to it the reverse
representation of its value. The reverse of 12356 is 65321.
Q4-12. What is the output of the following code?
String printDate = LocalDate.parse("2057-08-11")
.format(DateTimeFormatter.ISO_DATE_TIME);
System.out.println(printDate);
a
b
c
d
e
August 11, 2057T00:00
Saturday Aug 11,2057T00:00
08-11-2057T00:00:00
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Answer: e
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321
Explanation: The example code in this question calls LocalDate.parse(), passing it a
string value but no DateTimeFormatter instance. In this case, the text 2057-08-11 is
parsed using DateTimeFormatter.ISO_LOCAL_DATE. LocalDate.parse() returns a
LocalDate instance.
The example code then calls the format method on a LocalDate instance, using
DateTimeFormatter.ISO_DATE_TIME. The code compiles successfully because the
format method accepts a DateTimeFormatter instance. But format() throws an exception at runtime because it tries to format a LocalDate instance using a formatter
(ISO_DATE_TIME) that defines rules for a date/time object. When no matching time
values are found in a LocalDate object, an exception is thrown.
EXAM TIP The parse method is defined as a static method in classes LocalDate, LocalTime, and LocalDateTime. The class DateTimeFormatter defines
the method parse as an instance method. But format() is defined as an
instance method by all. The example code wouldn’t have compiled if the
order of calling parse() and format() was reversed:
String printDate = LocalDate.format(DateTimeFormatter.ISO_DATE_TIME)
.parse("2057-08-11");
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Flow control
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[3.3] Create if and if/else and ternary constructs.
How to use if, if-else, if-else-if-else, and
nested if constructs.
The differences between using these if constructs with
and without curly braces {}.
How to use a ternary construct. How it compares with
if and if-else constructs.
[3.4] Use a switch statement.
How to use a switch statement by passing the correct
type of arguments to the switch statement and case
and default labels.
The change in the code flow when break and return
statements are used in the switch statement.
[5.1] Create and use while loops.
How to use the while loop, including determining when
to apply the while loop.
[5.2] Create and use for loops including
the enhanced for loop.
How to use for and enhanced for loops. The advantages and disadvantages of the for loop and enhanced
for loop. Scenarios when you may not be able to use
the enhanced for loop.
[5.3] Create and use do/while loops.
Creation and use of do-while loops. Every do-while
loop executes at least once, even if its condition evaluates to false for the first iteration.
322
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Flow control
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
[5.4] Compare loop constructs.
What you need to know
The differences and similarities between for, enhanced
for, do-while, and while loops. Given a scenario or a
code snippet, knowing which is the most appropriate loop.
[5.5] Use break and continue.
The use of break and continue statements.
A break statement can be used within loops and
switch statements. A continue statement can be
used only within loops.
The difference in the code flow when a break or
continue statement is used. Identify the right scenarios
for using break and continue statements.
We all make multiple decisions on a daily basis, and we often have to choose from a
number of available options to make each decision. These decisions range from the
complex, such as selecting what subjects to study in school or which profession to
choose, to the simple, such as what food to eat or what clothes to wear. The option you
choose can potentially change the course of your life, in a small or big way. For example, if you choose to study medicine at a university, you may become a research scientist; if you choose fine arts, you may become a painter. But deciding whether to eat
pasta or pizza for dinner isn’t likely to have a huge impact on your life.
You may also repeat particular sets of actions. These actions can range from eating
an ice cream cone every day, to phoning a friend until you connect, to passing exams
at school or university in order to achieve a desired degree. These repetitions can also
change the course of your life: you might relish having ice cream every day or enjoy
the benefits that come from earning a higher degree.
In Java, the selection statements (if and switch) and looping statements (for,
enhanced for, while, and do-while) are used to define and choose among different
courses of action, as well as to repeat lines of code. You use these types of statements
to define the flow of control in code.
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’ll be asked how to define and control
the flow in your code. To prepare you, I’ll cover the following topics in this chapter:
■
■
■
■
■
Creating and using if, if-else, ternary, and switch constructs to execute statements selectively
Creating and using loops: while, do-while, for, and enhanced for
Creating nested constructs for selection and iteration statements
Comparing the do-while, while, for, and enhanced for loop constructs
Using break and continue statements
In Java, you can execute your code conditionally by using either the if or switch construct. Let’s start with the if construct.
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5.1
CHAPTER 5
Flow control
The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
[3.3] Create if and if/else and ternary constructs
In this section, we’ll cover if, if-else, and ternary constructs. We’ll examine what
happens when these constructs are used with and without curly braces {}. We’ll also
cover nested if, if-else, and ternary constructs.
5.1.1
The if construct and its flavors
An if construct enables you to execute a set of statements in your code based on the
result of a condition. This condition must always evaluate to a boolean or a Boolean
value. You can specify a set of statements to execute when this condition evaluates
to true or false. (In many Java books, the terms constructs and statements are used
interchangeably.)
Multiple flavors of the if statement are illustrated in figure 5.1:
■
■
■
if
if-else
if-else-if-else
In figure 5.1, condition1 and condition2 refer to a variable or an expression that must
evaluate to a boolean or a Boolean value; statement1, statement2, and statement3 refer to
either a single line of code or a code block.
if
if- else
condition1 = true?
condition1 = true?
Yes
statement1
Yes
statement1
if-else-if-else
No
statement2
condition1 = true?
Yes
statement1
No
condition2 = true?
Yes
No
statement2 statement3
Figure 5.1 Multiple flavors of the if statement: if, if-else, and if-else-if-else
EXAM TIP
In Java, then isn’t a keyword, so it must not be used with the if
statement.
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The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
Let’s look at the use of the if statement flavors by first defining a set of variables:
score, result, name, and file, as follows:
int score = 100;
String result = "";
String name = "Lion";
java.io.File file = new java.io.File("F");
Figure 5.2 shows the use of if, if-else, and if-else-if-else constructs and compares them by showing the code side by side.
if-else
if
if (name.equals("Lion"))
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
if-else-if-else
if (score == 100)
score = 200;
else
result = "A";
else if (score == 50)
score = 300;
result = "B";
else if (score == 10)
result = "C";
else
result = "F";
Figure 5.2 Multiple flavors of if statements implemented in code
Let’s quickly go through the code used in figure 5.2’s if, if-else, and if-else-if-else
statements. In the following example code, if the condition name.equals("Lion")
evaluates to true, a value of 200 is assigned to the variable score:
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
Example of
if construct
In the following example, if the condition name.equals("Lion") evaluates to true, a
value of 200 is assigned to the variable score. If this condition were to evaluate to
false, a value of 300 would be assigned to the variable score:
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
else
score = 300;
Example of if-else
construct
In the following example, if score is equal to 100, the variable result is assigned a
value of A. If score is equal to 50, the variable result is assigned a value of B. If score
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is equal to 10, the variable result is assigned a value of C. If score doesn’t match any
of 100, 50, or 10, a value of F is assigned to the variable result. An if-else-if-else
construct can use different conditions for all its if constructs:
Condition 1 ->
score == 100
if (score == 100)
result = "A";
else if (score == 50)
result = "B";
else if (score == 10)
result = "C";
else
result = "F";
Condition 2 ->
score == 50
Condition 3 ->
score == 10
If none of previous conditions evaluates
to true, execute else statement
Chapters in this book use the code style that you’re likely to see on the
exam. The exam code style often includes practices that aren’t recommended
on real projects, like poorly indented code or skipping usage of braces for
brevity. This book doesn’t encourage you to use such obscure coding practices. Please write code that’s easy to read, comprehend, and maintain.
NOTE
score == 100?
Yes
result = "A"
No
score == 50?
Yes
result = "B"
No
score == 10?
Yes
result = "C"
No
result = "F"
Figure 5.3 Execution of the
if-else-if-else code
Figure 5.3 illustrates the preceding code and makes several points clear:
■
■
The last else statement is part of the last if construct, not any of the if constructs before it.
The if-else-if-else is an if-else construct in which the else part defines
another if construct. A few other programming languages, such as Python and
Shell Script, use elif; Perl and Ruby use elsif; and VB uses ElseIf to define
if-else-if constructs. If you’ve programmed with any of these languages, note
the difference in Java. The following code is equal to the preceding code:
if (score == 100)
result = "A";
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327
else
if (score == 50)
result = "B";
else
if (score == 10)
result = "C";
else
result="F";
Again, note that none of the preceding if constructs use then to define the code to
execute if a condition evaluates to true. Unlike other programming languages, then
isn’t a keyword in Java and isn’t used with the if construct.
EXAM TIP The if-else-if-else is an if-else construct in which the else
part defines another if construct.
The boolean expression used as a condition for the if construct can also include an
assignment operation. The following Twist in the Tale exercise throws in a twist by
modifying the value of a variable that the if statement is comparing. Let’s see if you
can answer it correctly (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 5.1
Modify the code used in the preceding example as follows. What is the output of
this code?
String result = "1";
int score = 10;
if ((score = score+10) == 100)
result = "A";
else if ((score = score+29) == 50)
result = "B";
else if ((score = score+200) == 10)
result = "C";
else
result = "F";
System.out.println(result + ":" + score);
a
b
c
d
e
f
A:10
C:10
A:20
B:29
C:249
F:249
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5.1.2
CHAPTER 5
Flow control
Missing else blocks
What happens if you don’t define the else statement for an if construct? It’s acceptable
to define one course of action for an if construct as follows (omitting the else part):
boolean testValue = false;
if (testValue == true)
System.out.println("value is true");
But you can’t define the else part for an if construct, skipping the if code block.
The following code won’t compile:
boolean testValue = false;
if (testValue == true)
else
System.out.println("value is false");
Won’t
compile
But an empty code block that follows if works well:
boolean testValue = false;
if (testValue == true) {}
else
System.out.println("value is false");
Here’s another interesting and bizarre piece of code:
int score = 100;
if((score=score+10) > 110);
b
Missing then
or else part
B is a valid line of code, even if it doesn’t define either the then or else part of the if
statement. In this case, the if condition evaluates and that’s it. The if construct
doesn’t define any code that should execute based on the result of this condition.
Using if(testValue==true) is the same as using if(testValue). Similarly, if(testValue==false) is the same as using if(!testValue). This
book includes examples of both these approaches. Many programming
beginners find the latter approach (without the explicit ==) confusing.
NOTE
5.1.3
Implications of the presence and absence of {}
in if-else constructs
You can execute a single statement or a block of statements when an if condition
evaluates to true or false. An if block is marked by enclosing one or more statements within a pair of curly braces {}. An if block will execute a single line of code if
there are no braces but will execute an unlimited number of lines if they’re contained
within a block (defined using braces). The braces are optional if there’s only one line
in the if statement.
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329
The following code executes only one statement of assigning the value 200 to the
variable score if the expression used in the if statement evaluates to true:
String name = "Lion";
int score = 100;
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
What happens if you want to execute another line of code if the value of the variable
name is equal to Lion? Is the following code correct?
String name = "Lion";
int score = 100;
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
name = "Larry";
Set name
to Larry
The preceding code is a good example to suggest that you must use
braces in code on your real-world project to avoid errors.
NOTE
The statement score = 200; executes if the if condition is true. Although it looks like
the statement name = "Larry"; is part of the if statement, it isn’t. It will execute
regardless of the result of the if condition because of the lack of braces {}.
In the exam, watch out for code that uses misleading indentation
in if constructs. In the absence of a defined code block (marked with {}),
only the statement following the if construct will be considered part of it.
EXAM TIP
What happens to the same code if you define an else part for your if construct,
as follows?
String name = "Lion";
int score = 100;
if (name.equals("Lion"))
score = 200;
name = "Larry";
else
score = 129;
This statement isn’t
part of the if construct.
In this case, the code won’t compile. The compiler will report that the else part is
defined without an if statement. If this leaves you confused, examine the following
code, which is indented in order to emphasize the fact that the name = "Larry" line
isn’t part of the else construct:
String name = "Lion";
int score = 100;
if (name.equals ("Lion"))
score = 200;
name = "Larry";
else
score = 129;
This statement isn’t
part of the if construct.
The else statement seems
to be defined without a
preceding if construct.
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If you want to execute multiple statements for an if construct, define them within a
block of code. You can do so by defining all this code within curly braces {}. Here’s
an example:
Start of
String name = "Lion";
code block
int score = 100;
if (name.equals("Lion")) {
score = 200;
Statements to execute if
name = "Larry";
(name.equals("Lion")) evaluates to true
}
End of code
else
block
score = 129;
Similarly, you can define multiple lines of code for the else part. The following example does so incorrectly:
String name = "Lion";
if (name.equals("Lion"))
System.out.println("Lion");
else
System.out.println("Not a Lion");
System.out.println("Again, not a Lion");
b
Not part of the else
construct; will execute
regardless of value of
variable name
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Lion
Again, not a Lion
Although the code at B looks like it will execute only if the value of the variable name
matches the value Lion, this is not the case. It’s indented incorrectly to trick you into
believing that it’s a part of the else block. The preceding code is the same as the following code (with correct indentation):
String name = "Lion";
if (name.equals("Lion"))
System.out.println("Lion");
else
System.out.println("Not a Lion");
System.out.println("Again, not a Lion");
Not part of the else
construct; will execute
regardless of value of
variable name
If you wish to execute the last two statements in the preceding code only if the if condition evaluates to false, you can do so by using {}:
String name = "Lion";
if (name.equals("Lion"))
System.out.println("Lion");
else {
System.out.println("Not a Lion");
System.out.println("Again, not a Lion");
}
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Now part of the else
construct; will execute
only when if condition
evaluates to false
The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
331
You can define another statement, construct, or loop to execute for an if condition,
without using {}, as follows:
String name = "Lion";
if (name.equals("Lion"))
for (int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
System.out.println(i);
An if
condition
A for loop is a single construct that
will execute if name.equals("Lion")
evaluates to true.
This code is part of the for loop
defined on the previous line.
System.out.println(i) is part of the for loop, not an unrelated statement that follows the for loop. So this code is correct and gives the following output:
0
1
2
5.1.4
Appropriate versus inappropriate expressions passed as
arguments to an if statement
The result of a variable or an expression used in an if construct must evaluate to true
or false. Assume the following definitions of variables:
int score = 100;
boolean allow = false;
String name = "Lion";
Let’s look at a few examples of some of the valid variables and expressions that can be
passed to an if statement:
(score == 100)
(name == "Lio")
(score <= 100 || allow)
(allow)
Evaluates
to true
Evaluates
to false
Evaluates
to false
Evaluates
to true
Using == is simply wrong for comparing two String objects for equality. As mentioned
in chapter 4, the correct way for comparing two String objects is to use the equals
method from the String class. But comparing two String values using == is a valid
expression that returns a boolean value, and it may be used in the exam.
Now comes the tricky part of passing an assignment operation to an if construct.
What do you think is the output of the following code?
boolean allow = false;
if (allow = true)
System.out.println("value is true");
else
System.out.println("value is false");
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This is assignment,
not comparison.
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You may think that because the value of the boolean variable allow is set to false, the
preceding code output’s value is false. Revisit the code and notice that the assignment operation allow = true assigns the value true to the boolean variable allow.
Also, its result is also a boolean value, which makes it eligible to be passed on as an
argument to the if construct.
Although the preceding code has no syntactical errors, there’s a logical error—an
error in the program logic. The correct code to compare a boolean variable with a
boolean literal value is as follows:
boolean allow = false;
if (allow == true)
System.out.println("value is true");
else
System.out.println("value is false");
This is
comparison.
Watch out for code in the exam that uses the assignment operator
(=)to compare a boolean value in the if condition. It won’t compare the
boolean value; it’ll assign a value to it. The correct operator for comparing a
boolean value is the equality operator (==).
EXAM TIP
5.1.5
Nested if constructs
A nested if construct is an if construct defined within another if construct. Theoretically, there’s no limit on the number of levels of nested if and if-else constructs.
Whenever you come across nested if and if-else constructs, you need to be careful about determining the else part of an if statement. If the preceding statement
didn’t make a lot of sense, look at the following code and determine its output:
int score = 110;
if (score > 200)
if (score <400)
if (score > 300)
System.out.println(1);
else
System.out.println(2);
else
System.out.println(3);
b
if (score>200)
c
d
if (score<400)
To which if does
this else belong?
Based on the way the code is indented, you may believe that the else at d belongs to
the if defined at B. But it belongs to the if defined at c. Here’s the code with the
correct indentation:
int score = 110;
if (score > 200)
if (score <400)
if (score > 300)
System.out.println(1);
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333
else
System.out.println(2);
This else belongs to the if
with condition (score<400).
else
System.out.println(3);
Next, you need to understand how to do the following:
■
■
Define an else for an outer if other than the one that it’ll be assigned to by
default.
Determine to which if an else belongs in nested if constructs.
Both of these tasks are simple. Let’s start with the first one.
DEFINING AN ELSE FOR AN OUTER IF
The key point is to use curly braces, as follows:
int score = 110;
if (score > 200) {
if (score < 400)
if (score > 300)
System.out.println(1);
else
System.out.println(2);
}
else
System.out.println(3);
b
Start if construct
for score > 200
c
End if construct
for score > 200
d
else for score
> 200
Curly braces at B and c mark the start and end of the if condition (score > 200)
defined at B. Hence, the else at d that follows c belongs to the if defined at B.
DETERMINING TO WHICH IF AN ELSE BELONGS
If code uses curly braces to mark the start and end of the territory of an if or else
construct, it can be simple to determine which else goes with which if, as mentioned
in the previous section. When the if constructs don’t use curly braces, don’t be confused by the code indentation, which may or may not be correct.
Try to match the ifs with their corresponding elses in the following poorly
indented code:
if (score > 200)
if (score < 400)
if (score > 300)
System.out.println(1);
else
System.out.println(2);
else
System.out.println(3);
Start working from the inside out, with the innermost if-else statement, matching
each else with its nearest unmatched if statement. Figure 5.4 shows how to match
the if-else pairs for the preceding code, marked with B, c, and d.
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3
This if has no
corresponding else part.
if (score > 200)
if (score < 400)
Match
next inner
if-else pair
Match
inner1
most
2 if-else
pair
if (score > 300)
System.out.println(1);
else
System.out.println(2);
else
System.out.println(3);
Figure 5.4 How to match if-else pairs for poorly indented code
Figure 5.5 shows how easy it becomes to match if-else pairs if the code is correctly
indented (with or without using braces).
Correct code indentation
Correct code indentation (with braces)
if (score > 200)
if (score < 400)
if (score > 300)
System.out println(1);
else
System.out println(2);
else
System.out println(3);
if (score > 200) {
if (score < 400) {
if (score > 300) {
System.out println(1);
} else {
System.out println(2);
}
} else {
System.out println(3);
}
}
Figure 5.5 Correct code indentation (with or without braces) makes the code more
readable.
As a good programming practice, indent all your code properly. Also
use braces to improve readability.
NOTE
You can also use the ternary construct to evaluate an expression and assign a value
to a variable, depending on the result of a boolean expression, covered in the next
section.
5.1.6
Ternary construct
You can use a ternary operator, ?:, to define a ternary construct. A ternary construct
can be compared to a compact if-else construct, used to assign a value to a variable
depending on a boolean expression.
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The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
CORRECT USAGE
In the following example, the variable discount is assigned the value 15 if the expression (bill > 2000) evaluates to true but 10 otherwise:
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? 15 : 10;
System.out.println(discount);
Figure 5.6 compares a ternary construct
if-else construct.
Ternary construct
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? 15 : 10;
b
Uses ternary
operator
Outputs 10
B used in the preceding example with an
if-else construct
int bill = 2000;
int discount
if (bill > 2000)
discount = 15;
else
discount = 10;
Figure 5.6 Comparing a ternary construct with an if-else construct
The parentheses enclosing a boolean expression are optional and are used for better
readability. The code will work without them:
int bill = 2000;
int discount = bill > 2000? 15 : 10;
OK; boolean expression
not enclosed within ()
The variable discount might or might not be declared in the same statement that
includes the ternary operator:
int bill = 2000;
int discount;
discount = (bill > 2000)? 15 : 10;
OK; variable discount isn’t
declared in this statement
You can also assign an expression to the variable discount using a ternary operator.
Here’s the modified code:
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? bill-150 : bill - 100;
System.out.println(discount);
Assign expression to
variable discount
Outputs 1900
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A method that returns a value can also be used to initialize a variable in a ternary
construct:
class Ter{
public void ternaryConstruct() {
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? getSpecDisc(): getRegDisc();
System.out.println(discount);
}
Return value
int getRegDisc() {
using a method
return 11;
}
int getSpecDisc() {
return 15;
}
}
INCORRECT USAGE
If the expression used to evaluate a ternary operator doesn’t return a boolean or a
Boolean value, the code won’t compile:
int bill = 2000;
int qty = 10;
int discount = ++qty ? 10: 20;
Won’t compile; ++qty
isn’t a boolean type
All three parts of a ternary operator are mandatory:
■
■
■
The boolean expression
The value returned if the boolean expression evaluates to true
The value returned if the boolean expression evaluates to false
Unlike an if construct, a ternary can’t drop its else part. The following code won’t
compile:
int discount = (bill > 2000)? 15;
Won’t compile
In chapter 3, you created methods that return values. It’s not mandatory to assign values returned from these methods, but the same doesn’t apply to ternary constructs.
The value returned by a ternary operator must be assigned to a variable or the code
won’t compile:
(5000 > 2000)? 15 : 10;
Won’t compile; not a statement
Because a ternary operator must return values, which are assigned to a variable, it
can’t include code blocks. The following code won’t compile:
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? {bill-150} : {bill – 100};
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Won’t compile
337
The if, if-else, and ternary constructs
A method that doesn’t return a value can’t be used to initialize variables in a ternary
construct:
class TernaryConst{
public void invalidTernaryConstruct() {
int bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? 10 : getRegularDiscount();
System.out.println(discount);
}
Won’t compile; getRegDisc
void getRegularDiscount() {}
doesn’t return a value
}
INCORRECT ASSIGNMENTS
In the exam, watch out for compatibility of the value that’s returned by a ternary operator and the variable to which it’s assigned. The following code won’t compile because
it’s trying to assign a long value to an int variable:
long bill = 2000;
int discount = (bill > 2000)? bill-100 : bill - 50;
Won’t compile;
bill-100 is of type long
Also, look out for conversions between primitive and wrapper classes. The following
code won’t compile because Integer can’t be assigned to Long and vice versa:
Long discount = (5000 > 2000)? new Integer(10) : new Integer(15);
Won’t
compile
NESTED TERNARY CONSTRUCTS
In the following example, the if part of the ternary operator includes another ternary
operator. Watch out for nested ternary constructs on the exam:
int bill = 2000;
int qty = 10;
int discount = (bill > 1000)? (qty > 11)? 10 : 9 : 5;
System.out.println(discount);
Outputs 9
Here’s a simple but effective method to split and indent a ternary construct into its
components to determine which value belongs to which operator. Let’s first indent a
simple ternary construct in which its boolean expression, if and else values, are
placed on separate lines:
int discount = (bill > 1000)?
10
:9;
Now let’s apply this indentation technique to the example used in the beginning of
this section:
int bill = 2000;
int qty = 10;
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int discount = (bill > 1000)?
(qty > 11)?
Nested ternary
10
operator with
: 9
three components
: 5;
Flow control
b
The boolean
expression
ends with ?
c
d
The else part of the main
ternary construct
In the preceding code, B ends with ?, that is, the boolean expression. The code at c
includes all three components of the nested ternary operator. The code at c will execute if the boolean expression at B returns true. The code at d starts with : and
includes the else part of the ternary operator at B.
Let’s apply the preceding indentation technique to another example. Here’s the
code before the indentation:
int bill = 2000;
int qty = 10;
int days = 10;
int discount = (bill > 1000)? (qty > 11)? 10 : days > 9? 20 : 30 : 5;
System.out.println(discount);
Here’s the same code with the indentation:
int
int
int
int
bill = 2000;
qty = 10;
days = 10;
discount = (bill > 1000)?
(qty > 11)?
10
: days > 9 ? 20 : 30
: 5;
System.out.println(discount);
Outputs 20
You can also use the switch statement to execute code conditionally. Even though
both if-else constructs and switch statements are used to execute statements selectively, they differ in their usage, which you’ll notice as you work with the switch statement in the next section.
5.2
The switch statement
[3.4] Use a switch statement
In this section, you’ll learn how to use the switch statement and see how it compares
to nested if-else constructs. You’ll learn the right ingredients for defining values
that are passed to the switch labels and the correct use of the break statement in
these labels.
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The switch statement
5.2.1
Create and use a switch statement
You can use a switch statement to compare the value of a variable with multiple values. For each of these values, you can define a set of statements to execute.
The following example uses a switch statement to compare the value of the variable marks with the literal values 10, 20, and 30, defined using the case keyword:
Compare
Marks
the end
of a case
label
int marks = 20;
value of marks
switch (marks) {
case 10: System.out.println(10);
break;
Values that are
case 20: System.out.println(20);
compared to
variable marks
break;
case 30: System.out.println(30);
break;
default: System.out.println("default");
Default case to execute if
break;
no matching cases found
}
A switch statement can define multiple case labels within its switch block but only a
single default label. The default label executes when no matching value is found in
the case labels. A break statement is used to exit a switch statement, after the code
completes its execution for a matching case.
5.2.2
Comparing a switch statement with multiple if-else constructs
A switch statement can improve the readability of your code by replacing a set of
(rather complicated-looking) related if-else-if-else statements with a switch and
multiple case statements.
Examine the following code, which uses if-else-if-else statements to check the
value of a String variable day and display an appropriate message:
String day = "SUN";
if (day.equals("MON") || day.equals("TUE")||
day.equals("WED") || day.equals("THU"))
System.out.println("Time to work");
else if (day.equals("FRI"))
System.out.println("Nearing weekend");
else if (day.equals("SAT") || day.equals("SUN"))
System.out.println("Weekend!");
else
System.out.println("Invalid day?");
Multiple
comparisons
Now examine this implementation of the preceding code using the switch statement:
String day = "SUN";
switch (day) {
case "MON":
case "TUE":
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case "WED":
case "THU": System.out.println("Time to work");
break;
case "FRI": System.out.println("Nearing weekend");
break;
case "SAT":
case "SUN": System.out.println("Weekend!");
break;
default: System.out.println("Invalid day?");
}
The two preceding snippets of code perform the same function of comparing the
value of the variable day and printing an appropriate value. But the latter code, which
uses the switch statement, is simpler and easier to read and follow.
Note that the preceding switch statement doesn’t define code for all the case
values. What happens if the value of the variable day matches TUE? When control of
the code enters the label matching TUE in the switch construct, it’ll execute all the
code until it encounters a break statement or it reaches the end of the switch
statement.
Figure 5.7 depicts the execution of the multiple if-else-if-else statements used
in the example code in this section. You can compare it to a series of questions and
answers that continue until a match is found or all the conditions are evaluated.
Figure 5.7 The if-else-if-else construct is like a series of questions and answers.
As opposed to an if-else-if-else construct, you can compare a switch statement to
asking a single question and evaluating its answer to determine which code to execute. Figure 5.8 illustrates the switch statement and its case labels.
The if-else-if-else construct evaluates all the conditions until
it finds a match. A switch construct compares the argument passed to it with
its labels.
EXAM TIP
See if you can find the twist in the next exercise. Hint: It defines code to compare
String values (answer can be found in the appendix).
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The switch statement
Figure 5.8 A switch statement
is like asking a question and
acting on the answer.
Twist in the Tale 5.2
Modify the code used in the previous example as follows. What’s the output of this code?
String day = new String("SUN");
switch (day) {
case "MON":
case "TUE":
case "WED":
case "THU": System.out.println("Time to work");
break;
case "FRI": System.out.println("Nearing weekend");
break;
case "SAT":
case "SUN": System.out.println("Weekend!");
break;
default: System.out.println("Invalid day?");
}
a
b
c
d
5.2.3
Time to work
Nearing weekend
Weekend!
Invalid day?
Arguments passed to a switch statement
You can’t use the switch statement to compare all types of values, such as all types of
objects and primitives. There are limitations on the types of arguments that a switch
statement can accept.
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Flow control
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.9 shows the types of arguments that can be passed to a switch statement
and to an if construct.
switch
if
char
enum
byte
Character
short
boolean
Byte
int
Boolean
Short
String
Integer
Figure 5.9 Types of arguments that can be passed to a switch statement and an if
construct
A switch statement accepts arguments of types char, byte, short, int, and String
(starting in Java version 7). It also accepts arguments and expressions of types enum,
Character, Byte, Integer, and Short. Because enums aren’t on the OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I exam objectives, I won’t discuss them any further. The switch statement doesn’t accept arguments of type long, float, or double, or any object besides
String.
Apart from passing a variable to a switch statement, you can also pass an expression to the switch statement as long as it returns one of the allowed types. The following code is valid:
int score =10, num = 20;
switch (score+num) {
// ..code
}
Type of score+num is int and can
thus be passed as an argument
to the switch statement
The following code won’t compile because the type of history is double, which is a
type that isn’t accepted by the switch statement:
double history = 20;
switch (history) {
// ..code
}
double variable can’t be
passed as an argument to
a switch statement
Watch out for questions in the exam that try to pass a primitive
decimal type such as float or double to a switch statement. Code that tries
to do so will not compile.
EXAM TIP
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The switch statement
For nonprimitive types, that is, String and wrapper types, the switch argument must
not be null, which would cause a NullPointerException to be thrown:
Integer value = null;
switch (value) {
default: System.out.println("value is not 10");
break;
case 10: System.out.println("value is 10");
break;
}
Throws
NullPointerException
because value is null
In the preceding code, if the variable value is assigned the value 10, the code will output value is 10.
For nonprimitive types, that is, String and wrapper types, the
switch argument must not be null, which would cause a NullPointerException to be thrown.
EXAM TIP
5.2.4
Values passed to the label case of a switch statement
You’re constrained in a couple of ways when it comes to the value that can be passed
to the case label in a switch statement, as the following subsections explain.
CASE VALUES SHOULD BE COMPILE-TIME CONSTANTS
The value of a case label must be a compile-time constant value; that is, the value
should be known at the time of code compilation:
int a=10, b=20, c=30;
switch (a) {
case b+c: System.out.println(b+c); break;
case 10*7: System.out.println(10*7512+10); break;
}
b
Not allowed
c
Allowed
Note that b+c in the preceding code defined at B can’t be determined at the time of
compilation and isn’t allowed. But 10*7 defined at c is a valid case label value.
You can use variables in an expression if they’re marked final because the value
of final variables can’t change once they’re initialized:
final int a =
final int b =
final int c =
switch (a) {
case b+c:
}
10;
20;
30;
b
System.out.println(b+c); break;
Expression b+c is
compile-time constant
Because the variables b and c are final variables here, at B the value of b+c can be
known at compile time. This makes it a compile-time constant value, which can be used
in a case label.
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You may be surprised to learn that if you don’t assign a value to a final variable
with its declaration, it isn’t considered a compile-time constant:
b
final int a = 10;
final variable c is defined
final int b = 20;
but not initialized
final int c;
c = 30;
c is initialized
switch (a) {
case b+c: System.out.println(b+c); break;
}
c
d
Code doesn’t compile; b+c
isn’t considered a constant
expression because the
variable c wasn’t initialized
with its declaration.
This code defines a final variable c at line B but doesn’t initialize it. The final variable c is initialized at line c. Because the final variable c isn’t initialized with its declaration, at d the expression b+c isn’t considered a compile-time constant, so it can’t
be used as a case label.
CASE VALUES SHOULD BE ASSIGNABLE TO THE ARGUMENT PASSED TO THE SWITCH STATEMENT
Examine the following code, in which the type of argument passed to the switch statement is byte and the case label value is of the type float. Such code won’t compile:
byte myByte = 10;
switch (myByte) {
case 1.2: System.out.println(1); break;
}
Floating-point number can’t
be assigned to byte variable
NULL ISN’T ALLOWED AS A CASE LABEL
Code that tries to compare the variable passed to the switch statement with null
won’t compile, as demonstrated in the following code:
String name = "Paul";
switch (name) {
case "Paul": System.out.println(1);
break;
case null: System.out.println("null");
}
null isn’t allowed
as a case label.
ONE CODE BLOCK CAN BE DEFINED FOR MULTIPLE CASES
It’s acceptable to define a single code block for multiple case labels in a switch statement, as shown by the following code:
int score =10;
switch (score) {
case 100:
case 50 :
case 10 : System.out.println("Average score");
break;
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You can define
multiple cases, which
should execute the
same code block.
345
The switch statement
case 200: System.out.println("Good score");
}
This example code will output Average score if the value of the variable score matches
any of the values 100, 50, and 10.
5.2.5
Use of break statements within a switch statement
In the previous examples, note the use of break to exit the switch construct once a
matching case is found. In the absence of the break statement, control will fall through
the remaining code and execute the code corresponding to all the remaining cases
that follow that matching case.
Consider the examples shown in figure 5.10—one with a break statement and the
other without a break statement. Examine the flow of code (depicted using arrows) in
this figure when the value of the variable score is equal to 50.
score = 50;
switch (score) {
case 100: result
case 50 : result
case 10 : result
default : result
}
=
=
=
=
"A";
"B";
"C";
"F";
switch statement without
break statements
Figure 5.10
statements
score = 50;
switch (score) {
case 100: result
break;
case 50 : result
break;
case 10 : result
break;
default : result
}
= "A";
= "B";
= "C";
= "F";
switch statement with
break statements
Differences in code flow for a switch statement with and without break
Our (hypothetical) enthusiastic programmers, Harry and Selvan, who are also preparing for this exam, sent in some of their code. Can you choose the correct code for
them in the following Twist in the Tale exercise? (The answer is in the appendix.)
Twist in the Tale 5.3
Which of the following code submissions by our two hypothetical programmers, Harry
and Selvan, examines the value of the long variable dayCount and prints out the name
of any one month that matches the day count?
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a
Flow control
Submission by Harry:
long dayCount = 31;
if (dayCount == 28 || dayCount == 29)
System.out.println("Feb");
else if (dayCount == 30)
System.out.println("Apr");
else if (dayCount == 31)
System.out.println("Jan");
b
Submission by Selvan:
long dayCount = 31;
switch (dayCount) {
case 28:
case 29: System.out.println("Feb"); break;
case 30: System.out.println("Apr"); break;
case 31: System.out.println("Jan"); break;
}
In the next section, I’ll cover the iteration statements known as loop statements. Just
as you’d like to repeat the action of “eating an ice cream” every day, loops are used to
execute the same lines of code multiple times. You can use a for loop, an enhanced
for (for-each) loop, or the do-while and while loops to repeat a block of code. Let’s
start with the for loop.
5.3
The for loop
[5.2] Create and use for loops including the enhanced for loop
In this section, I’ll cover the regular or traditional for loop. The enhanced for loop is
covered in the next section.
A for loop is usually used to execute a set of statements a fixed number of times. It
takes the following form:
for (initialization; condition; update) {
statements;
}
Here’s a simple example:
int tableOf = 25;
for (int ctr = 1; ctr <= 5; ctr++) {
System.out.println(tableOf * ctr);
}
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b
Executes
multiple times
347
The for loop
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
25
50
75
100
125
In the preceding example, the code at B will execute five times. It’ll start with an initial value of 1 for the variable ctr and execute while the value of the variable ctr is
less than or equal to 5. The value of variable ctr will increment by 1 (ctr++) after the
execution of the code at B.
The code at B executes for ctr values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Because 6 <= 5 evaluates
to false, the for loop completes its execution without executing the code at B any
further.
In the preceding example, notice that the for loop
defines three types of statements separated with semicoStart
lons (;), as follows:
■
■
■
Initialization statements
Termination condition
Update clause (executable statement)
This loop is depicted as a flowchart in figure 5.11. The
statements defined within the loop body execute until
the termination condition is false.
One important point to note with respect to the for
loop is that the update clause executes after all the statements defined within the for loop body. In other words,
you can consider the update clause to be a last statement
in the for loop. The initialization section, which executes only once, may define multiple initialization statements. Similarly, the update clause may define multiple
statements. But there can be only one termination condition for a for loop.
In figure 5.12, I’ve provided a code snippet and a
flowchart that depicts the corresponding flow of execution of statements to explain the previous concept.
Let’s explore the initialization block, termination
condition, and update clause of a for loop in detail.
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Initialization
statement(s)
Condition
== true?
Yes
Statements within
for block
Update
statement(s)
Stop
Figure 5.11 The flow of
control in a for loop
No
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Start
public class DemonstrateFor {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int ctr = 12;
for ( int j=10, k=14;
Multiple declaration and initialization
int j = 10;
int k = 14;
j <= k;
++j, k=k-1, ctr--)
{
No
j <= k?
System.out.println(j+":"+k+":"+ctr);
}
}
}
Yes
Print (j+":"+k+":"+ctr);
Multiple increment and decrement
statements execute at the end
++j;
k = k-1;
ctr--;
Stop
Figure 5.12
5.3.1
The flow of control in a for loop using a code example
Initialization block
An initialization block executes only once. A for loop can declare and initialize multiple variables in its initialization block, but the variables it declares should be of the
same type. The following code is valid:
int tableOf = 25;
for (int ctr = 1, num = 100000; ctr <= 5; ++ctr) {
System.out.println(tableOf * ctr);
System.out.println(num * ctr);
}
Define and assign
multiple variables
But you can’t declare variables of different types in an initialization block. The following code will fail to compile:
for (int j=10, long longVar = 10; j <= l; ++j) { }
Can’t define variables of different
types in an initialization block
It’s a common programming mistake to try to use the variables defined in a for’s initialization block outside the for block. Please note that the scope of the variables
declared in the initialization block is limited to the for block. An example follows:
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The for loop
int tableOf = 25;
for (int ctr = 1; ctr <= 5; ++ctr) {
System.out.println(tableOf * ctr);
}
ctr = 20;
Variable ctr is accessible
only within for loop body
Variable ctr isn’t accessible
outside for loop
5.3.2
Termination condition
The termination condition is evaluated once for each iteration before executing the
statements defined within the body of the loop. The for loop terminates when the termination condition evaluates to false:
for (int ctr = 1; ctr <= 5; ++ctr) {
System.out.println(ctr);
}
...
b
for loop body
c
Code following
the for loop
The termination condition—ctr <= 5 in this example—is checked before B executes.
If the condition evaluates to false, control is transferred to c. A for loop can define
exactly one termination condition—no more, no less.
5.3.3
The update clause
Usually, you’d use this block to manipulate the value of the variable that you used to specify the termination condition. In the previous example, I defined the following code:
++ctr;
Code defined in this block executes after all the code defined in the body of the for
loop. The previous code increments the value of the variable ctr by 1 after the following code executes:
System.out.println(ctr);
The termination condition is evaluated next. This execution continues until the termination condition evaluates to false.
You can define multiple statements in the update clause, including calls to other
methods. The only limit is that these statements will execute in the order in which
they appear, at the end of all the statements defined in the for block. Examine the following code, which calls a method in the update block:
public class ForIncrementStatements {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String line = "ab";
for (int i=0; i < line.length(); ++i, printMethod())
System.out.println(line.charAt(i));
}
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The increment
block can also
call methods.
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private static void printMethod() {
System.out.println("Happy");
}
printMethod is called
by the for loop’s
increment block.
}
The output of this code is as follows:
a
Happy
b
Happy
5.3.4
Optional parts of a for statement
All three parts of a for statement—that is, initialization block, termination condition,
and update clause—are optional. But you must specify that you aren’t including a section by just including a semicolon. In the following example, the initialization block
doesn’t include any code:
int a = 10;
for(; a < 5; ++a) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Valid for loop without any
code in the initialization block
Removing the semicolon that marks the end of the initialization block prevents the
code from compiling:
int a = 10;
for(a < 5; ++a) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Won’t compile
In the following example, the termination condition is missing, resulting in a potentially
infinite loop (potentially because it can be stopped with a break statement or an exception):
for(int a = 10; ; ++a) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Missing termination condition
implies infinite loop
Again, if you remove the semicolon that marks the end of the termination condition,
the code won’t compile:
for(int a = 10; ++a) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Won’t
compile
The following code doesn’t include code in its update clause but compiles successfully:
for(int a = 10; a > 5; ) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Missing
update clause
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The for loop
But removing the semicolon that marks the start of the update clause prevents the
code from compiling:
for(int a = 10; a > 5) {
System.out.println(a);
}
Won’t
compile
It’s interesting to note that the following code is valid:
for(;;)
System.out.println(1);
All three parts of a for statement—initialization block, termination condition, and update clause—are optional. A missing termination condition implies an infinite loop.
EXAM TIP
5.3.5
Nested for loop
If a loop encloses another loop, they are called nested loops. The loop that encloses
another loop is called the outer loop, and the enclosed loop is called the inner loop. Theoretically, there are no limits on the levels of nesting for loops.
Let’s get started with a single-level nested loop. For an example, you can compare
the hour hand of a clock to an outer loop and its minute hand to an inner loop. Each
hour can be compared with an iteration of the outer loop, and each minute can be
compared with an iteration of the inner loop. Because an hour has 60 minutes, the
inner loop should iterate 60 times for each iteration of the outer loop. This comparison
between a clock and a nested loop is shown in figure 5.13.
Hour hand
(Outer loop)
Figure 5.13
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 hour = 1 complete revolution
by minute hand
Minute hand
(Inner loop)
Comparison of the hands of a clock to a nested loop
You can use the following nested for loops to print out each minute (1 to 60) for hours
from 1 to 6:
Outer loop iterates for
values 1 through 6
for (int hrs = 1; hrs <= 6; hrs++) {
for (int min = 1; min <= 60; min++) {
System.out.println(hrs + ":" + min);
}
}
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Inner loop iterates for
values 1 through 60
Executes 6 60 times (total outer loop
iterations total inner loop iterations)
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Nested loops are often used to initialize or iterate multidimensional arrays. The following code initializes a multidimensional array using nested for loops:
b
Array declaration
int multiArr[][];
multiArr = new int[2][3];
for (int i = 0; i < multiArr.length; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < multiArr[i].length; j++) {
multiArr[i][j] = i + j;
}
Inner for loop ends
}
c
Array allocation
d
e
Outer for loop
Inner for loop
Outer for loop ends
B defines a two-dimensional array multiArr. c allocates
multiArr
0
0
0
this array, creating two rows and three columns, and assigns
1
1
1
all array members the default int value of 0. Figure 5.14
2
2
illustrates the array multiArr after it’s initialized using the
preceding code.
1
0
d defines an outer for loop. Because the value of multi2
Arr.length is 2 (the value of the first subscript at c), the
1
3
outer for loop executes twice, with the variable i having
2
the values 0 and 1. The inner for loop is defined at e.
Figure 5.14 The array
Because the length of each of the rows of the multiArr multiArr after its
array is 3 (the value of the second subscript at c), the inner initialization
loop executes three times for each iteration of the outer
for loop, with the variable j having the values 0, 1, and 2.
In the next section, I’ll discuss another flavor of the for loop: the enhanced for
loop or for-each loop.
5.4
The enhanced for loop
[5.2] Create and use for loops including the enhanced for loop
The enhanced for loop is also called the for-each loop, and it offers some advantages
over the regular for loop. It also has some limitations.
5.4.1
Iteration with enhanced for loop
To start with, the regular for loop is cumbersome to use when it comes to iterating
through a collection or an array. You need to create a looping variable and specify the
start and end positions of the collection or the array, even if you want to iterate
through the complete collection or list. The enhanced for loop makes the previously
mentioned routine task quite a breeze, as the following example demonstrates for the
ArrayList myList:
ArrayList myList= new ArrayList();
myList.add("Java");
myList.add("Loop");
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The following code uses the regular for loop to iterate through this list:
for(Iterator i = myList.iterator(); i.hasNext();)
System.out.println(i.next());
This code uses the enhanced for loop to iterate through the list myList:
for (String val : myList)
System.out.println(val);
You can read the colon (:) in a for-each loop as “in.”
The for-each loop is a breeze to implement: there’s no code clutter, and the code
is easy to write and comprehend. In the preceding example, the for-each loop is read
as “for each element val in collection myList, print the value of val.”
You can also easily iterate through nested collections using the enhanced for loop.
In this example, assume that an ArrayList of exams, levels, and grades is defined
as follows:
ArrayList exams= new ArrayList();
exams.add("Java");
exams.add("Oracle");
ArrayList levels= new ArrayList();
levels.add("Basic");
levels.add("Advanced");
ArrayList grades= new ArrayList();
grades.add("Pass");
grades.add("Fail");
The following code creates a nested ArrayList, nestedArrayList, every element of
which is itself an ArrayList of String objects:
ArrayList of
ArrayList
ArrayList> nestedArrayList =
new ArrayList< ArrayList>();
nestedArrayList.add(exams);
nestedArrayList.add(levels);
Add object of ArrayList
nestedArrayList.add(grades);
to nestedArrayList
The nestedArrayList can be compared to a multidimensional array, as shown in figure 5.15.
nestedArrayList
0
exams
0
1
Figure 5.15
Java
Oracle
1
levels
2
0
1
Basic
Advanced
Pictorial representation of nestedArrayList
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0
1
Pass
Fail
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A nested enhanced for loop can be used to iterate through the nested ArrayList
nestedArrayList. Here’s the relevant code:
for (ArrayList nestedListElement : nestedArrayList)
for (String element : nestedListElement)
System.out.println(element);
The output of this code is as follows:
Java
Oracle
Basic
Advanced
Pass
Fail
The enhanced for loop is again a breeze to use to iterate through nested or non-nested
arrays. For example, you can use the following code to iterate through an array of elements and calculate its total:
int total = 0;
int primeNums[] = {2, 3, 7, 11};
for (int num : primeNums)
total += num;
What happens when you try to modify the value of the loop variable in an enhanced
for loop? The result depends on whether you’re iterating through a collection of
primitive values or objects. If you’re iterating through an array of primitive values,
manipulation of the loop variable will never change the value of the array being iterated
because the primitive values are passed by value to the loop variable in an enhanced
for loop.
When you iterate through a collection of objects, the value of the collection is
passed by reference to the loop variable. Therefore, if the value of the loop variable
is manipulated by executing methods on it, the modified value will be reflected in the
collection of objects being iterated:
StringBuilder myArr[] = {
new StringBuilder("Java"),
new StringBuilder("Loop")
};
Iterates through array myArr
for (StringBuilder val : myArr)
and prints Java and Loop
System.out.println(val);
for (StringBuilder val : myArr)
Appends Oracle to value
val.append("Oracle");
referenced by loop variable val
for (StringBuilder val : myArr)
System.out.println(val);
Iterates through array myArr and
prints JavaOracle and LoopOracle
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The output of the preceding code is
Java
Loop
JavaOracle
LoopOracle
Let’s modify the preceding code. Instead of calling the method append on the loop
variable val, let’s assign to it another StringBuilder object. In this case, the original
elements of the array being iterated won’t be affected and will remain the same:
StringBuilder myArr[] = {
new StringBuilder("Java"),
new StringBuilder("Loop")
};
or (StringBuilder val : myArr)
System.out.println (val);
for (StringBuilder val : myArr)
val = new StringBuilder("Oracle");
for (StringBuilder val : myArr)
System.out.println (val);
Iterates through array myArr
and prints Java and Loop
Assigns new StringBuilder object to
reference variable val with value Oracle
Iterates through array myArray
and still prints Java and Loop
The output of the preceding code is
Java
Loop
Java
Loop
Watch out for code that uses an enhanced for loop and its loop
variable to change the values of elements in the collection that it iterates. This
behavior often serves as food for thought for the exam authors.
EXAM TIP
5.4.2
Limitations of the enhanced for loop
Although a for-each loop is a good choice for iterating through collections and
arrays, it can’t be used in some places.
CAN’T BE USED TO INITIALIZE AN ARRAY AND MODIFY ITS ELEMENTS
Can you use an enhanced for loop in place of the regular for loop in the following
code?
int[] myArray = new int[5];
for (int i=0; i myList= new ArrayList<>();
myList.add(new StringBuilder("One"));
myList.add(new StringBuilder("Two"));
for (StringBuilder val : myList)
Doesn’t remove an object
System.out.println (val);
from list; sets value of
for (StringBuilder val : myList)
loop variable to null
val = null;
for (StringBuilder val : myList)
System.out.println(val);
The output of the preceding code is
One
Two
One
Two
CAN’T BE USED TO ITERATE OVER MULTIPLE COLLECTIONS OR ARRAYS IN THE SAME LOOP
Although it’s perfectly fine for you to iterate through nested collections or arrays
using a for loop, you can’t iterate over multiple collections or arrays in the same foreach loop because the for-each loop allows for the creation of only one looping variable. Unlike the regular for loop, you can’t define multiple looping variables in a foreach loop.
EXAM TIP Use the for-each loop to iterate over arrays and collections. Don’t
use it to initialize, modify, or filter them.
5.4.3
Nested enhanced for loop
First of all, working with a nested collection is not the same as working with a nested
loop. A nested loop can also work with unrelated collections.
As discussed in section 5.3.4, loops defined within another loop are called nested
loops. The loop that defines another loop within itself is called the outer loop, and the
loop that’s defined within another loop is called the inner loop. Theoretically, the level
of nesting for any of the loops has no limits, including the enhanced for loop.
In this section, we’ll work with three nested, enhanced for loops. You can compare
a three-level nested loop with a clock that has hour, minute, and second hands. The
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The enhanced for loop
second hand of the clock completes a full circle each minute. Similarly, the minute
hand completes a full circle each hour. This comparison is shown in figure 5.16.
Minute hand
(Inner loop)
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 hour = 1 complete revolution by minute hand
1 min = 60 seconds
1 min = 1 complete revolution by second hand
Hour hand
(Outermost loop)
Second hand
(Innermost loop)
Figure 5.16
Comparison between a clock with three hands and the levels of a nested for loop
The following is a coding example of the nested, enhanced for loop, which I discussed in a previous section:
Third
ArrayList
First ArrayList
ArrayList exams= new ArrayList();
exams.add("Java"); exams.add("Oracle");
ArrayList levels= new ArrayList();
Second ArrayList
levels.add("Basic"); levels.add("Advanced");
ArrayList grades= new ArrayList();
Outermost
grades.add("Pass"); grades.add("Fail");
loop
for (String exam : exams)
Inner
for (String level : levels)
nested
loop
for (String grade : grades)
System.out.println(exam+":"+level+":"+grade);
b
c
d
Innermost
nested loop
An inner loop in a nested loop executes for each iteration of its outer loop. The preceding example defines three enhanced for loops: the outermost loop at B, the inner
nested loop at c, and the innermost loop at d. The complete innermost loop at d
executes for each iteration of its immediate outer loop defined at c. Similarly, the complete inner loop defined at c executes for each iteration of its immediate outer loop
defined at B. Figure 5.17 shows the loop values for which all of these loops iterate.
Iterates for Java, Oracle
for (String exam : exams)
Iterates for Basic, Advanced
for (String level : levels)
for (String grade : grades)
Iterates for Pass, Fail
System.out.println(exam+":"+level+":"+grade);
Figure 5.17 Nested for loop with the loop values for which each of these
nested loops iterates
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The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Java:Basic:Pass
Java:Basic:Fail
Java:Advanced:Pass
Java:Advanced:Fail
Oracle:Basic:Pass
Oracle:Basic:Fail
Oracle:Advanced:Pass
Oracle:Advanced:Fail
A nested loop executes all its iterations for each single iteration of
its immediate outer loop.
EXAM TIP
Apart from the for loops, the other looping statements on the exam are while and
do-while, which are discussed in the next section.
5.5
The while and do-while loops
[5.1] Create and use while loops
[5.3] Create and use do-while loops
You’ll learn about while and do-while loops in this section. Both of these loops execute a set of statements as long as their condition evaluates to true. Both of these
loops work in the same manner except for one difference: the while loops checks its
condition before evaluating its loop body, and the do-while loop checks its condition
after executing the statements defined in its loop body.
Does this difference in behavior make a difference in their execution? Yes, it does,
and in this section, you’ll see how.
5.5.1
The while loop
A while loop is used to repeatedly execute a set of statements as long as its condition
evaluates to true. This loop checks the condition before it starts the execution of the
statement.
For example, at the famous fast-food chain Superfast Burgers, an employee may be
instructed to prepare burgers as long as buns are available. In this example, the availability of buns is the while condition and the preparation of burgers is the while’s
loop body. You can represent this in code as follows:
boolean bunsAvailable = true;
while (bunsAvailable) {
/* ... prepare burger ...*/
if (noMoreBuns)
bunsAvailable = false;
}
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The preceding example is for demonstration purposes only, because the loop body
isn’t completely defined. The condition used in the while loop to check whether or
not to execute the loop body again should evaluate to false at some point; otherwise,
the loop will execute indefinitely. The value of this loop variable may be changed by
the while loop or by another method if it’s an instance or a static variable.
The while loop accepts arguments of type boolean or Boolean. In the preceding
code, the loop body checks whether more buns are available. If none are available, it
sets the value of the variable bunsAvailable to false. The loop body doesn’t execute
for the next iteration because bunsAvailable evaluates to false.
The execution of the preceding while loop is shown in figure 5.18 as a simple flowchart to help you understand the concept better.
Start
bunsAvailable == true?
No
Stop
while
Yes
Prepare burger
Statements to
execute if while
condition evaluates
to true
Yes
moreBuns == true?
No
bunsAvailable = false
Figure 5.18
A flowchart depicting the flow of code in a while loop
Now, let’s examine another simple example that uses the while loop:
int num = 9;
boolean divisibleBy7 = false;
while (!divisibleBy7) {
System.out.println(num);
if (num % 7 == 0) divisibleBy7 = true;
--num;
}
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The output of this code is as follows:
9
8
7
What happens if you change the code as follows (changes in bold)?
int num = 9;
boolean divisibleBy7 = true;
while (divisibleBy7 == false) {
System.out.println(num);
if (num % 7 == 0) divisibleBy7 = true;
--num;
}
The code won’t enter the loop because the condition divisibleBy7==false isn’t true.
5.5.2
The do-while loop
A do-while loop is used to repeatedly execute a set of statements until the condition
that it uses evaluates to false. This loop checks the condition after it completes the
execution of all the statements in its loop body.
You could compare this structure to a software application that displays a menu at
startup. Each menu option will execute a set of steps and redisplay the menu. The last
menu option is “exit,” which exits the application and does not redisplay the menu:
boolean exitSelected = false;
do {
String selectedOption = displayMenuToUser();
if (selectedOption.equals("exit"))
exitSelected = true;
else
executeCommand(selectedOption);
} while (exitSelected == false);
The preceding code is represented by a simple flowchart in figure 5.19 that will help
you to better understand the code.
The preceding example is for demonstration purposes only because the methods
used in the do-while loop aren’t defined. As discussed in the previous section on
while loops, the condition that’s used in the do-while loop to check whether or not
to execute the loop body again should evaluate to false at some point, or the loop
will execute indefinitely. The value of this loop variable may be changed by the while
loop or by another method, if it’s an instance or static variable.
NOTE Don’t forget to use a semicolon (;) to end the do-while loop after
specifying its condition. Even some experienced programmers overlook
this step!
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The while and do-while loops
Start
Display menu to user
Accept selectedOption
do
No
selectedOption == exit?
executeCommand(selectedOption)
Yes
exitSelected = true
No
exitSelected == true?
while
Yes
Stop
Figure 5.19
Flowchart showing the flow of code in a do-while loop
The do-while loop accepts arguments of type boolean or Boolean.
Let’s modify the example used in section 5.5.1 to use the do-while loop instead of
a while loop, as follows:
int num = 9;
boolean divisibleBy7 = false;
do {
System.out.println(num);
if (num % 7 == 0) divisibleBy7 = true;
num--;
} while (divisibleBy7 == false);
The output of this code is as follows:
9
8
7
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What happens if you change the code as follows (changes in bold)?
int num = 9;
boolean divisibleBy7 = true;
do {
System.out.println(num);
if (num % 7 == 0) divisibleBy7 = true;
num--;
} while (divisibleBy7 == false);
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
9
The do-while loop executes once, even though the condition specified in the do-while
loop evaluates to false because the condition is evaluated at the end of execution of
the loop body.
5.5.3
while and do-while block, expression, and nesting rules
You can use the curly braces {} with while and do-while loops to define multiple
lines of code to execute for every iteration. Without the use of curly braces, only the
first line of code will be considered a part of the while or do-while loop, as specified
in the if-else construct in section 5.1.3.
Similarly, the rules that define an appropriate expression to be passed to while
and do-while loops are the same as for the if-else construct in section 5.1.4. Also, the
rules for defining nested while and do-while loops are the same as for the if-else
construct in section 5.1.5.
5.6
Comparing loop constructs
[5.4] Compare loop constructs
In this section, I’ll discuss the differences and similarities between the following looping constructs: do-while, while, for, and enhanced for.
5.6.1
Comparing do-while and while loops
Both do-while and while loops execute a set of statements until their termination
condition evaluates to false. The only difference between these two statements is that
the do-while loop executes the code at least once, even if the condition evaluates to
false. The do-while loop evaluates the termination condition after executing the
statements, whereas the while loop evaluates the termination condition before executing its statements.
The forms taken by these statements are depicted in figure 5.20.
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Comparing loop constructs
do-while loop
while loop
while (condition is true) {
do {
... code
... code
}
} while (condition is true);
Code executes at least once, even if the
while condition initially evaluates to false.
Figure 5.20
Code never executes if while
condition initially evaluates to false.
Comparing do-while and while loops
What do you think the output of the following code is?
int num=10;
do {
num++;
} while (++num > 20);
System.out.println (num);
Value of num incremented
to 11 is incremented by 1
Evaluate condition
++num > 20
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
12
What do you think the output of the following code is?
int num=10;
while (++num > 20) {
num++;
}
System.out.println(num);
Because 11 isn’t > 20,
num++ doesn’t execute.
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
11
5.6.2
Comparing for and enhanced for loops
The regular for loop, although cumbersome to use, is much more powerful than the
enhanced for loop (as mentioned in section 5.4.1):
■
■
■
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to initialize an array and modify its
elements.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to delete the elements of a collection.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to iterate over multiple collections or
arrays in the same loop.
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5.6.3
Comparing for and while loops
You should try to use a for loop when you know the number of iterations—for example, when you’re iterating through a collection or an array or when you’re executing a
loop for a fixed number of times, say, to ping a server five times.
You should try to use a do-while or a while loop when you don’t know the number
of iterations beforehand and when the number of iterations depends on a condition
being true—for example, when accepting passport renewal applications from applicants until there are no more applicants. In this case, you’d be unaware of the number
of applicants who have submitted their applications on a given day.
5.7
Loop statements: break and continue
[5.5] Use break and continue
Imagine that you’ve defined a loop to iterate through a list of managers, and you’re
looking for at least one manager whose name starts with the letter D. You’d like to exit
the loop after you find the first match, but how? You can do this by using the break
statement in your loop.
Now imagine that you want to iterate through all the folders on your laptop and
scan any files larger than 10 MB for viruses. If all those files are found to be OK, you
want to upload them to a server. But what if you’d like to skip the steps of virus checking
and file uploading for file sizes less than 10 MB yet still proceed with the remaining files
on your laptop? You can! You’d use the continue statement in your loop.
In this section, I’ll discuss the break and continue statements, which you can use
to exit a loop completely or to skip the remaining statements in a loop iteration. At
the end of this section, I’ll discuss labeled statements.
5.7.1
The break statement
The break statement is used to exit —or break out of —the for, for-each, do, and
do-while loops, as well as switch constructs. Alternatively, the continue statement
can be used to skip the remaining steps in the current iteration and start with the
next loop iteration.
The difference between these statements can be best demonstrated with an
example. You could use the following code to browse and print all the values of a
String array:
String[] programmers = {"Paul", "Shreya", "Selvan", "Harry"};
for (String name : programmers) {
System.out.println(name);
}
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The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Paul
Shreya
Selvan
Harry
Let’s modify the preceding code to exit the loop when the array value is equal to
Shreya. Here’s the required code:
String[] programmers = {"Paul", "Shreya", "Selvan", "Harry"};
for (String name : programmers) {
if (name.equals("Shreya"))
Break out
break;
of the loop
System.out.println(name);
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Paul
As soon as a loop encounters a break, it exits the loop. Hence, only the first value of
this array—that is, Paul—is printed. As mentioned in the section on the switch construct, the break statement can be defined after every case in order for the control to
exit the switch construct once it finds a matching case.
The preceding code snippets are depicted in figure 5.21, which shows the transfer
of control upon execution of the break statement.
for (String name : programmers) {
for (String name : programmers) {
if (name.equals("Shreya"))
System.out.println(name);
break;
}
System.out.println(name);
}
No exit condition. Code executes
for all iterations of for loop.
Figure 5.21
Control is transferred here if name
is equal to Shreya.
The flow of control when the break statement executes within a loop
When you use the break statement with nested loops, it exits the inner loop. The next
Twist in the Tale exercise looks at a small code snippet to see how the control transfers
when you use a break statement in nested for loops (answer in the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 5.4
Modify the code used in the previous example as follows. What is the output of this code?
String[] programmers = {"Outer", "Inner"};
for (String outer : programmers) {
for (String inner : programmers) {
if (inner.equals("Inner"))
break;
System.out.print(inner + ":");
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
5.7.2
Outer:Outer:
Outer:Inner:Outer:Inner:
Outer:
Outer:Inner:
Inner:Inner:
The continue statement
The continue statement is used to skip the remaining steps in the current iteration
and start with the next loop iteration. Let’s replace the break statement in the previous example with continue and examine its output:
String[] programmers = {"Paul", "Shreya", "Selvan", "Harry"};
for (String name : programmers) {
if (name.equals("Shreya"))
Skip the remaining
continue;
loop statements
System.out.println(name);
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Paul
Selvan
Harry
As soon as a loop encounters continue, it exits the current iteration of the loop. In
this example, it skips the printing step for the array value Shreya. Unlike the break
statement, continue doesn’t exit the loop—it restarts with the next loop iteration,
printing the remaining array values (that is, Selvan and Harry).
When you use the continue statement with nested loops, it exits the current iteration of the inner loop.
Figure 5.22 compares how the control transfers out of the loop and to the next
iteration when break and continue statements are used.
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break statement
367
continue statement
...
for or while loop {
...
for or while loop {
continue;
...
...
break;
}
Takes control to the
start of next iteration
}
Takes control here
Figure 5.22 Comparing the flow of control when using break and continue
statements in a loop
5.7.3
Labeled statements
In Java, you can add labels to the following types of statements:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
A code block defined using {}
All looping statements (for, enhanced for, while, do-while)
Conditional constructs (if and switch statements)
Expressions
Assignments
return statements
try blocks
throws statements
An example of a labeled loop is given here:
String[] programmers = {"Outer", "Inner"};
outer:
for (int i = 0; i < programmers.length; i++) {
}
You can’t add labels to declarations. The following labeled declaration won’t compile:
Variable declaration
that fails compilation
outer :
int[] myArray = {1,2,3};
It’s interesting to note that the preceding declaration can be defined within a block
statement, as follows:
outer : {
int[] myArray = {1,2,3};
}
Start definition
of block
Variable declaration,
compiles
End block
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LABELED BREAK STATEMENTS
You can use a labeled break statement to exit an outer loop. Here’s an example:
String[] programmers = {"Outer", "Inner"};
outer:
for (String outer : programmers) {
for (String inner : programmers) {
if (inner.equals("Inner"))
break outer;
System.out.print(inner + ":");
}
}
Exits the outer loop,
marked with label outer
The output of the preceding code is
Outer:
When this code executes break outer;, control transfers to the line of text that marks
the end of this block. It doesn’t transfer control to the label outer.
LABELED CONTINUE STATEMENTS
You can use a labeled continue statement to skip an iteration of the outer loop.
Here’s an example:
String[] programmers = {"Paul", "Shreya", "Selvan", "Harry"};
outer:
for (String name1 : programmers) {
Skips remaining code for current
for (String name : programmers) {
iteration of outer loop and starts
if (name.equals("Shreya"))
with its next iteration
continue outer;
System.out.println(name);
}
}
The output of the preceding code is
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
NOTE Please use labels sparingly and only if they really seem to increase the
readability of your code.
5.8
Summary
We started this chapter with the selection statements if and switch and ternary constructs. We covered the different flavors of the if construct. Then we looked at the
switch construct, which accepts a limited set of argument types including byte, char,
short, int, and String. The humble if-else construct can define virtually any set of
simple or complicated conditions.
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You also saw how you can execute your code using all types of loops: for, for-each,
do, and do-while. The for, do, and do-while loops have been around since the Java
language was first introduced, whereas the enhanced for loop (the for-each loop)
was added to the language as of Java version 5.0. I recommend that you use the foreach loop to iterate through arrays and collections.
At the end of this chapter, we looked at the break and continue statements. You
use the break statement to exit—or break out of—a for, for-each, do, do-while, or
switch construct. You use the continue statement to skip the remaining steps in the
current iteration and start with the next loop iteration.
5.9
Review notes
if and if-else constructs:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The if statement enables you to execute a set of statements in your code based on
the result of a condition, which should evaluate to a boolean or a Boolean value.
The multiple flavors of an if statement are if, if-else, and if-else-if-else.
The if construct doesn’t use the keyword then to define code to execute when
an if condition evaluates to true. The then part of the if construct follows the
if condition.
An if construct may or may not define its else part.
The else part of an if construct can’t exist without the definition of its then part.
It’s easy to get confused with the common if-else syntax used in other programming languages. The if-elsif and if-elseif statements aren’t used in Java to
define if-else-if-else constructs. The correct keywords are if and else.
You can execute a single statement or a block of statements for corresponding
true and false conditions. A pair of braces marks a block of statements: {}.
If an if construct doesn’t use {} to define a block of code to execute for its then
or else part, only the first line of code is part of the if construct.
An assignment of a boolean variable can also be passed as an argument to the
if construct. It’s valid because the resultant value is boolean, which is accepted
by if constructs.
Theoretically, nested if and if-else constructs have no limits on their levels.
When using nested if-else constructs, be careful about matching the else
part with the right if part.
Ternary constructs:
■
■
■
■
You can use a ternary operator, ?:, to define a compact if-else construct to
assign value to a variable depending on a boolean expression.
The parentheses enclosing a boolean expression are optional for better readability. The code will work without them.
You can assign a literal value or an expression to a variable using a ternary operator.
A method that returns a value can be used to initialize a variable in a ternary
construct.
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■
■
■
■
■
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Flow control
If the expression used to evaluate a ternary operator doesn’t return a boolean
or Boolean value, the code won’t compile.
All three parts of a ternary operator are mandatory.
The value returned by a ternary operator must be assigned to a variable, or the
code won’t compile.
Because a ternary operator must return values, which are assigned to a variable,
it can’t include code blocks.
A method that doesn’t return a value can’t be used to initialize variables in a ternary construct.
The value returned by a ternary construct must be compatible with the variable
type to which the value is being assigned.
Ternary operators can be nested to any level.
switch statements:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
A switch statement is used to compare the value of a variable with multiple predefined values.
A switch statement accepts arguments of type char, byte, short, int, and
String. It also accepts arguments of wrapper classes: Character, Byte, Short,
Integer, and Enum.
A switch statement can be compared with multiple related if-else-if-else
constructs.
You can pass an expression as an argument to a switch statement, as long as the
type of the expression is one of the acceptable data types.
The case value should be a compile-time constant, assignable to the argument
passed to the switch statement.
The case value can’t be the literal value null.
The case value can define expressions that use literal values; that is, they can be
evaluated at compile time, as in 7+2.
One code block can be defined to execute for multiple case values in a switch
statement.
A break statement is used to exit a switch construct once a matching case is
found and the required code statements have executed.
In the absence of the break statement, control will fall through all the remaining
case values in a switch statement until the first break statement is found, evaluating the code for the case statements in order.
for loops:
■
■
A traditional for loop is usually used to execute a set of statements a fixed number of times.
A for loop defines three types of statements separated by semicolons (;): initialization statements, termination condition, and update clause.
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Review notes
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
371
The definition of any of the three for statements—initialization statements, termination condition, and update clause—is optional. For example, for (;;);
and for (;;){} are valid code for defining a for loop. Also, defining any one of
these statements is also valid code.
An initialization block executes only once. A for loop can declare and initialize
multiple variables in its initialization block, but the variables that it declares
should be of the same type.
The termination condition is evaluated once, for each iteration, before the
statements defined within the body of the loop are executed.
The for loop terminates when the termination condition evaluates to false.
The update block is usually used to increment or decrement the value of the
variables that are defined in the initialization block. It can also execute multiple
other statements, including method calls.
Nested for loops have no limits on levels.
Nested for loops are frequently used to work with multidimensional arrays.
Enhanced for loops:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The enhanced for loop is also called the for-each loop.
The enhanced for loop offers some benefits over the regular for loop, but it’s
not as flexible as the regular for loop.
The enhanced for loop offers simple syntax to iterate through a collection of
values—an array, ArrayList, or other classes from Java’s Collection framework
that store a collection of values.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to initialize an array and modify its elements.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to delete the elements of a collection.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to iterate over multiple collections or
arrays in the same loop.
Nested enhanced for loops have no limits on levels.
while and do-while loops:
■
■
■
■
A while loop is used to keep executing a set of statements until the condition
that it uses evaluates to false. This loop checks the condition before it starts the
execution of the statement.
A do-while loop is used to keep executing a set of statements until the condition that it uses evaluates to false. This loop checks the condition after it completes the execution of all the statements in its loop body.
The levels of nested do-while or while loops have no limitations.
Both do-while and while loops can define either a single line of code or a code
block to execute. The latter is defined by using curly braces {}.
Comparing loop constructs:
■
Both the do-while and while loops execute a set of statements until the termination condition evaluates to false. The only difference between these two
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Flow control
statements is that the do-while loop executes the code at least once, even if the
condition evaluates to false.
The regular for loop, though cumbersome to use, is much more powerful than
the enhanced for loop.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to initialize an array and modify its elements. The enhanced for loop can’t be used to delete or remove the elements
of a collection.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used to iterate over multiple collections or
arrays in the same loop.
You should try to use a for loop when you know the number of iterations—for
example, iterating through a collection or an array, or executing a loop for a
fixed number of times, say, to ping a server five times.
You should try to use a do-while or a while loop when you don’t know the
number of iterations beforehand and the number of iterations depends on a
condition being true—for example, accepting passport renewal applications
until all applicants have been attended to.
Loop statements (break and continue):
■
■
■
■
The break statement is used to exit—or break out of—the for, for-each, do, and
do-while loops and the switch construct.
The continue statement is used to skip the remaining steps in the current iteration and start with the next loop iteration. The continue statement works with
the for, for-each, do, and do-while loops and the switch construct.
When you use the break statement with nested loops, it exits the corresponding loop.
When you use the continue statement with nested loops, it exits the current
iteration of the corresponding loop.
Labeled statements:
■
■
■
■
You can add labels to a code block defined using braces, {}, all looping statements (for, enhanced for, while, do-while), conditional constructs (if and
switch statements), expressions and assignments, return statements, try
blocks, and throws statements.
You can’t add labels to declarations of variables.
You can use a labeled break statement to exit an outer loop.
You can use a labeled continue statement to skip the iteration of the outer loop.
5.10 Sample exam questions
Q5-1. What’s the output of the following code?
class Loop2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 10;
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Sample exam questions
do
while (i < 15)
i = i + 20;
while (i < 2);
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
b
c
d
10
30
31
32
Q5-2. What’s the output of the following code?
class Loop2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 10;
do
while (i++ < 15)
i = i + 20;
while (i < 2);
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
b
c
d
10
30
31
32
Q5-3. Which of the following statements is true?
a
b
c
d
e
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a regular for loop.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a while loop.
The enhanced for loop can be used within a do-while loop.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a switch construct.
All of the above statements are false.
Q5-4. What’s the output of the following code?
int a = 10;
if (a++ > 10) {
System.out.println("true");
}
{
System.out.println("false");
}
System.out.println("ABC");
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a
true
false
ABC
b
false
ABC
c
true
ABC
d
Compilation error
Flow control
Q5-5. Given the following code, which of the optional lines of code can individually
replace the //INSERT CODE HERE line so that the code compiles successfully?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 10;
final int num2 = 20;
switch (num) {
// INSERT CODE HERE
break;
default: System.out.println("default");
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
case
case
case
case
10*3: System.out.println(2);
num: System.out.println(3);
10/3: System.out.println(4);
num2: System.out.println(5);
Q5-6. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 20;
final int num2;
num2 = 20;
switch (num) {
default: System.out.println("default");
case num2: System.out.println(4);
break;
}
}
}
a
default
b
default
4
c
4
d
Compilation error
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Sample exam questions
Q5-7. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 120;
switch (num) {
default: System.out.println("default");
case 0: System.out.println("case1");
case 10*2-20: System.out.println("case2");
break;
}
}
}
a
default
case1
case2
b
case1
case2
c
case2
d
Compilation error
Runtime exception
e
Q5-8. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
byte foo = 120;
switch (foo) {
default: System.out.println("ejavaguru"); break;
case 2: System.out.println("e"); break;
case 120: System.out.println("ejava");
case 121: System.out.println("enum");
case 127: System.out.println("guru"); break;
}
}
}
a
ejava
enum
guru
b
ejava
c
ejavaguru
e
d
ejava
enum
guru
ejavaguru
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Q5-9. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru4 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean myVal = false;
if (myVal=true)
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) System.out.println(i);
else System.out.println("else");
}
}
a
else
b
0
1
2
c
0
1
d
Compilation error
Q5-10. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru5 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int i = 0;
for (; i < 2; i=i+5) {
if (i < 5) continue;
System.out.println(i);
}
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
Compilation error
b
0
5
c
0
5
10
d
10
e
0
1
5
f
5
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5.11 Answers to sample exam questions
Q5-1. What’s the output of the following code?
class Loop2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 10;
do
while (i < 15)
i = i + 20;
while (i < 2);
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
b
c
d
10
30
31
32
Answer: b
Explanation: The condition specified in the do-while loop evaluates to false (because
10<2 evaluates to false). But the control enters the do-while loop because the do-while
loop executes at least once—its condition is checked at the end of the loop. The while
loop evaluates to true for the first iteration and adds 20 to i, making it 30. The while loop
doesn’t execute for the second time. Hence, the value of the variable i at the end of the
execution of the previous code is 30.
Q5-2. What’s the output of the following code?
class Loop2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 10;
do
while (i++ < 15)
i = i + 20;
while (i < 2);
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
b
c
d
10
30
31
32
Answer: d
Explanation: If you attempted to answer question 5-1, it’s likely that you would select
the same answer for this question. I deliberately used the same question text and
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variable names (with a small difference) because you may encounter a similar pattern
in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam. This question includes one difference:
unlike question 5-1, it uses a postfix unary operator in the while condition.
The condition specified in the do-while loop evaluates to false (because 10<2
evaluates to false). But the control enters the do-while loop because the do-while
loop executes at least once—its condition is checked at the end of the loop. This question prints out 32, not 30, because the condition specified in the while loop (which
has an increment operator) executes twice.
In this question, the while loop condition executes twice. For the first evaluation,
i++ < 15 (that is, 10<15) returns true and increments the value of variable i by 1 (due
to the postfix increment operator). The loop body modifies the value of i to 31. The
second condition evaluates i++<15 (that is, 31<15) to false. But because of the postfix increment operator value of i, the value increments to 32. The final value is
printed as 32.
Q5-3. Which of the following statements is true?
a
b
c
d
e
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a regular for loop.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a while loop.
The enhanced for loop can be used within a do-while loop.
The enhanced for loop can’t be used within a switch construct.
All of the above statements are false.
Answer: c
Explanation: The enhanced for loop can be used within all types of looping and conditional constructs. Notice the use of “can” and “can’t” in the answer options. It’s
important to take note of these subtle differences.
Q5-4. What’s the output of the following code?
int a = 10;
if (a++ > 10) {
System.out.println("true");
}
{
System.out.println("false");
}
System.out.println("ABC");
a
true
false
ABC
b
false
ABC
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c
true
ABC
d
Compilation error
379
Answer: b
Explanation: First of all, the code has no compilation errors. This question has a
trick—the following code snippet isn’t part of the if construct:
{
System.out.println("false");
}
Hence, the value false will print no matter what, regardless of whether the condition
in the if construct evaluates to true or false.
Because the opening and closing braces for this code snippet are placed right after
the if construct, it leads you to believe that this code snippet is the else part of the if
construct. Also, note that an if construct uses the keyword else to define the else
part. This keyword is missing in this question.
The if condition (that is, a++ > 10) evaluates to false because the postfix increment operator (a++) increments the value of the variable a immediately after its earlier value is used. 10 isn’t greater than 10, so this condition evaluates to false.
Q5-5. Given the following code, which of the optional lines of code can individually
replace the //INSERT CODE HERE line so that the code compiles successfully?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 10;
final int num2 = 20;
switch (num) {
// INSERT CODE HERE
break;
default: System.out.println("default");
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
case
case
case
case
10*3: System.out.println(2);
num: System.out.println(3);
10/3: System.out.println(4);
num2: System.out.println(5);
Answer: a, c, d
Explanation: Option (a) is correct. Compile-time constants, including expressions, are
permissible in the case labels.
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Option (b) is incorrect. The case labels should be compile-time constants. A nonfinal variable isn’t a compile-time constant because it can be reassigned a value during
the course of a class’s execution. Although the previous class doesn’t assign a value to
it, the compiler still treats it as a changeable variable.
Option (c) is correct. The value specified in the case labels should be assignable to
the variable used in the switch construct. You may think that 10/3 will return a decimal number, which can’t be assigned to the variable num, but this operation discards
the decimal part and compares 3 with the variable num.
Option (d) is correct. The variable num2 is defined as a final variable and assigned
a value on the same line of code, with its declaration. Hence, it’s considered to be a
compile-time constant.
Q5-6. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 20;
final int num2;
num2 = 20;
switch (num) {
default: System.out.println("default");
case num2: System.out.println(4);
break;
}
}
}
a
default
b
default
4
c
4
d
Compilation error
Answer: d
Explanation: The code will fail to compile. The case labels require compile-time constant values, and the variable num2 doesn’t qualify as such. Although the variable num2
is defined as a final variable, it isn’t assigned a value with its declaration. The code
assigns a literal value 20 to this variable after its declaration, but it isn’t considered to
be a compile-time constant by the Java compiler.
Q5-7. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int num = 120;
switch (num) {
default: System.out.println("default");
case 0: System.out.println("case1");
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381
case 10*2-20: System.out.println("case2");
break;
}
}
}
a
default
case1
case2
b
case1
case2
c
case2
d
Compilation error
Runtime exception
e
Answer: d
Explanation: The expressions used for both case labels—0 and 10*2-20—evaluate to
the constant value 0. Because you can’t define duplicate case labels for the switch
statement, the code will fail to compile with an error message that states that the code
defines a duplicate case label.
Q5-8. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
byte foo = 120;
switch (foo) {
default: System.out.println("ejavaguru"); break;
case 2: System.out.println("e"); break;
case 120: System.out.println("ejava");
case 121: System.out.println("enum");
case 127: System.out.println("guru"); break;
}
}
}
a
ejava
enum
guru
b
ejava
c
ejavaguru
e
d
ejava
enum
guru
ejavaguru
Answer: a
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Explanation: For a switch case construct, control enters the case labels when a
matching case is found. The control then falls through the remaining case labels
until it’s terminated by a break statement. The control exits the switch construct
when it encounters a break statement or it reaches the end of the switch construct.
In this example, a matching label is found for case label 120. The control executes
the statement for this case label and prints ejava to the console. Because a break
statement doesn’t terminate the case label, the control falls through to case label 121.
The control executes the statement for this case label and prints enum to the console.
Because a break statement doesn’t terminate this case label also, the control falls
through to case label 127. The control executes the statement for this case label and
prints guru to the console. This case label is terminated by a break statement, so the
control exits the switch construct.
Q5-9. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru4 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean myVal = false;
if (myVal=true)
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) System.out.println(i);
else System.out.println("else");
}
}
a
else
b
0
1
2
c
0
1
d
Compilation error
Answer: c
Explanation: First of all, the expression used in the if construct isn’t comparing the
value of the variable myVal with the literal value true—it’s assigning the literal value
true to it. The assignment operator (=) assigns the literal value. The comparison
operator (==) is used to compare values. Because the resulting value is a boolean
value, the compiler doesn’t complain about the assignment in the if construct.
The code is deliberately poorly indented because you may encounter similarly
poor indentation in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam. The for loop is part of
the if construct, which prints 0 and 1. The else part doesn’t execute because the if
condition evaluates to true. The code has no compilation errors.
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Q5-10. What’s the output of the following code?
class EJavaGuru5 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int i = 0;
for (; i < 2; i=i+5) {
if (i < 5) continue;
System.out.println(i);
}
System.out.println(i);
}
}
a
Compilation error
b
0
5
c
0
5
10
d
10
e
0
1
5
f
5
Answer: f
Explanation: First, the following line of code has no compilation errors:
for (; i < 2; i=i+5) {
Using the initialization block is optional in a for loop. In this case, using a semicolon
(;) terminates it.
For the first for iteration, the variable i has a value of 0. Because this value is less
than 2, the following if construct evaluates to true and the continue statement
executes:
if (i < 5) continue;
Because the continue statement ignores all the remaining statements in a for loop
iteration, the control doesn’t print the value of the variable i, which leads the control
to move on to the next for iteration. In the next for iteration, the value of the variable i is 5. The for loop condition evaluates to false and the control moves out of
the for loop. After the for loop, the code prints out the value of the variable i, which
increments once using the code i=i+5.
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Working with inheritance
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[7.1] Describe inheritance and its benefits.
The need for inheriting classes.
How to implement inheritance using classes.
[7.2] Develop code that demonstrates the use
of polymorphism; including overriding and
object type versus reference type.
How to implement polymorphism with classes and
interfaces.
How to define polymorphic or overridden methods.
How to determine the valid types of the variables
that can be used to refer to an object.
How to determine the differences in the members
of an object, which ones are accessible, and when
an object is referred to using a variable of an inherited base class or an implemented interface.
[7.3] Determine when casting is necessary.
The need for casting.
How to cast an object to another class or an
interface.
[7.4] Use super and this to access objects
and constructors.
How to access variables, methods, and constructors using super and this.
What happens if a derived class tries to access
variables of a base class when the variables aren't
accessible to the derived class.
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces.
The role of abstract classes and interfaces in implementing polymorphism.
[9.5] Write a simple Lambda expression that
consumes a Lambda Predicate expression
Syntax and usage of lambda expressions. Usage of
Predicate class.
384
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Inheritance with classes
385
All living beings inherit the characteristics and behaviors of their parents. The offspring of a fly looks and behaves like a fly, and that of a lion looks and behaves like a
lion. But despite being similar to their parents, all offspring are also different and
unique in their own ways. In addition, a single action may have different meanings for
different beings. For example, the action “eat” has different meanings for a fly than a
lion. A fly eats nectar, whereas a lion eats an antelope.
Something similar happens in Java. The concept of inheriting characteristics and
behaviors from parents can be compared to classes inheriting variables and methods
from a parent class. Being different and unique in one’s own way is similar to how a
class can both inherit from a parent and define additional variables and methods. Single actions having different meanings can be compared to polymorphism in Java.
In the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, you’ll be asked questions on how to
implement inheritance and polymorphism and how to use classes and interfaces.
Hence, this chapter covers the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
6.1
Understanding and implementing inheritance
Developing code that demonstrates the use of polymorphism
Differentiating between the type of a reference and an object
Determining when casting is required
Using super and this to access objects and constructors
Using abstract classes and interfaces
Inheritance with classes
[7.1] Describe inheritance and its benefits
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces
When we discuss inheritance in the context of an object-oriented programming language such as Java, we talk about how a class can inherit the properties and behavior
of another class. The class that inherits from another class can also define additional
properties and behaviors. The exam will ask you explicit questions about the need to
inherit classes and how to implement inheritance using classes.
Let’s get started with the need to inherit classes.
6.1.1
The need to inherit classes
Imagine the positions Programmer and Manager within an organization. Both of these
positions have a common set of properties, including name, address, and phone number. These positions also have different properties. A Programmer may be concerned with
a project’s programming languages, whereas a Manager may be concerned with project
status reports.
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Let’s assume you’re supposed to store details of all Programmers and Managers in
your office. Figure 6.1 shows the properties and behavior that you may have identified
for a Programmer and a Manager, together with their representations as classes.
Programmer
name
address
phoneNumber
experience
programmingLanguages
writeCode()
class Programmer {
String name;
String address;
String phoneNumber;
float experience;
String[] programmingLanguages;
void writeCode() {}
}
Manager
name
address
phoneNumber
experience
teamSize
reportProjectStatus()
class Manager {
String name;
String address;
String phoneNumber;
float experience;
int teamSize;
void reportProjectStatus() {}
}
Figure 6.1 Properties and behavior of a Programmer and a Manager,
together with their representations as classes
Did you notice that the classes Programmer and Manager have common properties,
namely, name, address, phoneNumber, and experience? The next step is to pull out
these common properties into a new position and name it something like Employee.
This step is shown in figure 6.2.
This new position, Employee, can be defined as a new class, Employee, which is
inherited by the classes Programmer and Manager. A class uses the keyword extends to
inherit a class, as shown in figure 6.3.
Inheriting a class is also referred to as subclassing. In figure 6.3, the inherited class
Employee is also referred to as the superclass, base class, or parent class. The classes
Programmer and Manager that inherit the class Employee are called subclasses, derived
classes, extended classes, or child classes.
Why do you think you need to pull out the common properties and behaviors into
a separate class Employee and make the Programmer and Manager classes inherit it?
The next section covers the benefits of inheriting classes.
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Inheritance with classes
Employee
name
address
phoneNumber
experience
Programmer
Manager
name
name
address
address
phoneNumber
phoneNumber
experience
experience
programmingLanguages
teamSize
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
Figure 6.2 Identify common properties and behaviors of a Programmer
and a Manager, pull them out into a new position, and name it Employee.
Employee
name
address
phoneNumber
experience
Programmer
Manager
programmingLanguages
teamSize
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
class Employee {
String name;
String address;
String phoneNumber;
float experience;
}
class Programmer extends Employee {
String[] programmingLanguages;
void writeCode() {}
}
class Manager extends Employee {
int teamSize;
void reportProjectStatus() {}
}
Figure 6.3 The classes Programmer and Manager extend the class Employee.
6.1.2
Benefits
Do you know that all classes in Java inherit class java.lang.Object, either implicitly
or explicitly? Extending a class offers multiple benefits. Let’s revisit the examples used
in the previous section to highlight the benefits of inheriting classes.
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SMALLER DERIVED CLASS DEFINITIONS
What if you were supposed to write more-specialized classes, such as Astronaut and
Doctor, which have the same common characteristics and behaviors as those of the
class Employee? With the class Employee in place, you’d only need to define the variables and methods that are specific to the classes Astronaut and Doctor and have the
classes inherit Employee.
Figure 6.4 is a UML representation of the classes Astronaut, Doctor, Programmer,
and Manager, both with and without inheritance from the class Employee. As you
can see in this figure, the definition of these classes is smaller when they inherit the
class Employee.
Astronaut
Employee
Doctor
name
name
name
address
address
address
phoneNumber
phoneNumber
experience
experience
hoursInSpace
surgery
extends
extends
phoneNumber
experience
Astronaut
Doctor
hoursInSpace
Programmer
surgery
Manager
name
name
address
address
phoneNumber
phoneNumber
experience
experience
extends
extends
Programmer
Manager
programmingLanguages
teamSize
programmingLanguages
teamSize
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
Without inheritance
With inheritance
Figure 6.4 Differences in the size of the classes Astronaut, Doctor, Programmer, and Manager,
both with and without inheriting from the class Employee
The examples used in this book are simplified and generalized so that
you can focus on the concept being covered. They don’t take into consideration all real-world scenarios. For example, on a particular project, an astronaut or a doctor might not be an employee of some organization.
NOTE
EASE OF MODIFICATION TO COMMON PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR
What happens if your boss steps in and tells you that all of these specialized classes—
Astronaut, Doctor, Programmer, and Manager—should now have a property facebookId? Figure 6.5 shows that with the base class Employee in place, you just need to
add this variable to that base class. If you haven’t inherited from the class Employee,
you’ll need to add the variable facebookId to each of these four classes.
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Astronaut
Doctor
Employee
facebookId
facebookId
facebookId
name
name
name
address
address
address
phoneNumber
phoneNumber
experience
experience
hoursInSpace
surgery
extends
extends
phoneNumber
experience
Astronaut
Doctor
hoursInSpace
Programmer
Manager
facebookId
facebookId
name
name
address
address
phoneNumber
phoneNumber
experience
experience
surgery
extends
extends
Programmer
Manager
programmingLanguages
teamSize
programmingLanguages
teamSize
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
writeCode()
reportProjectStatus()
Without inheritance
With inheritance
Figure 6.5 Adding a new property, facebookId, to all classes, with and without the base class
Employee
Note that common code can be modified and deleted from the base class Employee
fairly easily.
EXTENSIBILITY
Code that works with the base class in a hierarchy tree can work with all classes that
are added using inheritance later.
Assume that an organization needs to send out invitations to all its employees and
that it uses the following method to do so:
class HR {
void sendInvitation(Employee emp) {
System.out.println("Send invitation to" +
emp.name + " at " + emp.address);
}
}
Because the method sendInvitation accepts an argument of type Employee, you can
also pass to it a subclass of Employee. Essentially, this design means that you can use
the previous method with a class defined later that has Employee as its base class.
Inheritance makes code extensible.
USE TRIED-AND-TESTED CODE FROM A BASE CLASS
You don’t need to reinvent the wheel. With inheritance in place, subclasses can use
tried-and-tested code from a base class.
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CONCENTRATE ON THE SPECIALIZED BEHAVIOR OF YOUR CLASSES
Inheriting a class enables you to concentrate on the variables and methods that define
the special behavior of your class. Inheritance lets you make use of existing code from
a base class without having to define it yourself.
LOGICAL STRUCTURES AND GROUPING
When multiple classes inherit a base class, this creates a logical group. For an example, see figure 6.5. The classes Astronaut, Doctor, Programmer, and Manager are all
grouped as types of the class Employee.
EXAM TIP Inheritance enables you to reuse code that has already been
defined by a class. Inheritance can be implemented by extending a class.
The next section solves the mystery of how you can access the inherited members of a
base class directly in a derived class.
6.1.3
A derived class contains within it an object of its base class
The classes Programmer and Manager inherit the nonprivate variables and methods
defined in the class Employee and use them directly, as if they were defined in their
own classes. Examine the following code:
class Employee {
protected String name;
protected String address;
protected String phoneNumber;
protected float experience;
}
class Manager extends Employee {
protected int teamSize;
public void reportProjectStatus() {}
}
class Programmer extends Employee {
private String[] programmingLanguages;
public void writeCode() {}
public void accessBaseClassMembers() {
name = "Programmer";
}
}
Derived class Programmer
can directly access
members of its superclass
How can the class Programmer assign a value to a variable that’s defined in the class
Employee? You can think of this arrangement as follows: When a class inherits another
class, it encloses within it an object of the inherited class. Hence, all the nonprivate
members (variables and methods) of the inherited class are available to the class, as
shown in figure 6.6.
But a derived class can’t inherit all the members of its base class. The next two sections discuss which base class members are and aren’t inherited by a derived class.
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Features of class
Employee exist within
class Programmer.
Employee
Programmer
Figure 6.6 An object of a derived class can access features of its base
class object.
6.1.4
Which base class members are inherited by a derived class?
The access modifiers play an important role in determining the inheritance of base
class members in derived classes. A derived class can inherit only what it can see. A
derived class inherits all the nonprivate members of its base class. A derived class
inherits base class members with the following accessibility levels:
■
■
■
Default—Members with default access can be accessed in a derived class only if
the base and derived classes reside in the same package.
protected—Members with protected access are accessible to all the derived
classes, regardless of the packages in which the base and derived classes are
defined.
public—Members with public access are visible to all other classes.
EXAM TIP
6.1.5
A derived class can inherit only what it can see.
Which base class members aren’t inherited by a derived class?
A derived class doesn’t inherit the following members:
■
private members of the base class.
■
Base class members with default access, if the base class and derived classes exist
in separate packages.
Constructors of the base class. A derived class can call a base class’s constructors, but it doesn’t inherit them (section 6.5 discusses how a derived class can
call a base class’s constructors using the implicit reference super).
■
Apart from inheriting the properties and behavior of its base class, a derived class can
also define additional properties and behaviors, as discussed in the next section.
6.1.6
Derived classes can define additional properties and behaviors
Although derived classes are similar to their base classes, they generally also have
differences. Derived classes can define additional properties and behaviors. You
may see explicit questions on the exam about how a derived class can differ from its
base class.
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Take a quick look back at figure 6.5. All the derived classes—Manager, Programmer,
Doctor, and Astronaut—define additional variables, methods, or both. Derived classes
can also define their own constructors and static methods and variables. A derived
class can also hide or override its base class’s members.
When a derived class defines an instance or class variable with the same name as
one defined from its base class, only these new variables and methods are visible to
code using the derived class. When a derived class defines different code for a method
inherited from a base class by defining the method again, this method is treated as a
special method—an overridden method.
You can implement inheritance by using either a concrete class or an abstract
class as a base class, but there are some important differences that you should be
aware of. These are discussed in the next section.
6.1.7
Abstract base class versus concrete base class
Figures 6.2 and 6.3 showed how you can pull out the common properties and behavior of a Programmer and Manager and represent these as a new class, Employee. You
can define the class Employee as an abstract class, if you think that it’s only a categorization and no real Employee exists in real life—that is, if all Employees are really
either Programmers or Managers. That’s the essence of an abstract class: it groups the
common properties and behavior of its derived classes, but it prevents itself from
being instantiated. Also, an abstract class can force all its derived classes to define
their own implementations for a behavior by defining it as an abstract method (a
method without a body).
Section 6.6.1 includes an example of usage of abstract classes: how it
forces its derived classes to implement the abstract methods.
NOTE
It isn’t mandatory for an abstract class to define an abstract method. But if an
abstract base class defines one or more abstract methods, the class must be marked
as abstract and the abstract methods must be implemented in all its concrete
derived classes. If a derived class doesn’t implement all the abstract methods defined
by its base class, then it also needs to be an abstract class.
For the exam, you need to remember the following important points about implementing inheritance using an abstract base class:
■
■
■
■
You can never create objects of an abstract class.
A base class can be defined as an abstract class, even if it doesn’t define any
abstract methods.
A derived class should implement all the abstract methods of its base class. If it
doesn’t, it must be defined as an abstract derived class.
You can use variables of an abstract base class to refer to objects of its derived
class (discussed in detail in section 6.3).
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The first Twist in the Tale exercise for this chapter queries you on the relationship
between base and derived classes (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 6.1
Modify the code used in the previous example as follows. Which of the options is correct for this modified code?
class Employee {
private String name;
String address;
protected String phoneNumber;
public float experience;
}
class Programmer extends Employee {
Programmer (String val) {
name = val;
}
String getName() {
return name;
}
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
new Programmer ("Harry").getName();
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
The class Office prints Harry.
The derived class Programmer can’t define a getter method for a variable defined
in its base class Employee.
The derived class Programmer can’t access variables of its base class in its
constructors.
new Programmer ("Harry").getName(); isn’t the right way to create an object
of class Programmer.
Compilation error.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS TO REMEMBER
Following is a list of terms and their corresponding definitions that you should
remember; they’re used throughout the chapter, and you’ll come across them while
answering questions on inheritance in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam.
■
Base class—A class inherited by another class. The class Employee is a base class
for the classes Programmer and Manager in the previous examples.
– Superclass—A base class is also known as a superclass.
– Parent class—A base class is also known as a parent class.
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■
■
■
■
Working with inheritance
Derived class—A class that inherits from another class. The classes Programmer
and Manager are derived classes in the previous examples.
– Subclass—A derived class is also known as a subclass.
– Extended class—A derived class is also known as an extended class.
– Child class—A derived class is also known as a child class.
IS-A relationship—A relationship shared by base and derived classes. In the previous examples, a Programmer IS-A Employee. A Manager IS-A Employee. Because
a derived class represents a specialized type of a base class, a derived class IS-A
kind of base class.
extends—The keyword used by a class to inherit another class and by an interface to inherit another interface.
implements—The keyword used by a class to implement an interface (interfaces are covered in the next section).
The terms base class, superclass, and parent class are used interchangeably. Similarly, the terms derived class and subclass are also used interchangeably.
NOTE
In this section, you learned that an abstract class may define abstract methods.
Let’s take it a step further to interfaces. In the next section, we’ll discuss why you need
interfaces and how to use them.
6.2
Use interfaces
[7.1] Describe inheritance and its benefits
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces
We all use interfaces quite often in our lives. For example, when you refer to someone
as a runner, do you care whether that person is also an orator, a parent, or an entrepreneur? You care only that the person is able to run. The term runner enables you to
refer to unrelated individuals, by opening a small window to each person and accessing behavior that’s applicable to only that person’s capacity as a runner. Someone can
be referred to as a runner only if that person supports characteristics relevant to running, though the specific behavior can depend on the person.
In the preceding example, you can compare the term runner to a Java interface,
which defines the required behavior run. An interface can define a set of behaviors
(methods) and constants. Usually it delegates the implementation of the behavior to
the classes that implement it. Interfaces are used to refer to multiple related or unrelated objects that share the same set of behaviors. Figure 6.7 compares the interface
runner with a small window to an object, which is concerned only about the running
capabilities of that object.
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Orator
Parent
Entrepreneur
work
facilitate
invest
run
guide
run
conferences
run
expand
Window Runner
has limited access
to the objects.
Figure 6.7 You can compare an interface with a window that can connect multiple
objects but has limited access to them.
Similarly, when you design your application by using interfaces, you can use similar
windows (also referred to as specifications or contracts) to specify the behavior that you
need from an object, without caring about the specific types of objects.
You can compare a contract with a set of rules or deliverables that are
mutually accepted by persons. A contract might include a set of rules to
abide by or deliverables to be made accessible by a certain date. A contract
usually doesn’t include how the rules stated would be abided by or how the
deliverables would be made accessible. It states what and not how. Similarly,
an interface defines what behavior would be supported by the classes that
implement it.
NOTE
Separating the required behavior from its implementation has many benefits. As an
application designer, you can use interfaces to establish the behavior that’s required
from objects, promoting flexibility in the design (new classes that implement an interface can be created and used later). Interfaces make an application manageable,
extensible, and less prone to propagation of errors due to changes to existing types.
Now imagine you created an interface in an application some time ago. The application needs to be upgraded, which requires additional behavior to be added to some
of its interfaces. This wouldn’t have been possible with Java 7 or its earlier versions.
But with Java 8, you can add methods to an interface without breaking the existing
implementations. Prior to Java 8, an interface could only define abstract methods.
With Java 8, an interface can define the default implementation for its methods (so it
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doesn’t stop the existing classes that implement it from compiling). Interfaces in Java 8
can also define static methods. One of the main reasons for this language change
(adding default and static methods to interfaces) was to improve the aging Collections API, especially with Stream-based functionalities (covered by the OCP exam).
In this section, you’ll come to understand the need for and importance of using
interfaces and different types of methods that can be defined in an interface. You’ll
work with the implicit and explicit properties of interface members—its constants and
methods. You’ll also see why inheriting multiples classes isn’t allowed but inheriting
multiple interfaces is allowed. Let’s get started with the need for interfaces.
6.2.1
Need for using interfaces
You need interfaces to enable multiple classes to support a set of behaviors. Let’s work
with the example used in section 6.1. In this example, Employee is the base class and
classes Programmer and Manager subclass Employee. Imagine that your boss steps in
and states that Programmer and Manager must support additional behaviors, as listed
in table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Additional behaviors that need to be supported by the classes
Programmer and Manager
Entity
New expected behavior
Programmer
Attend training
Manager
Attend training, conduct interviews
How will you accomplish this task? One approach you can take is to define all the relevant methods in the class Employee. Because both Programmer and Manager extend
the class Employee, they’d be able to access these methods. But wait: Programmer
doesn’t need the behavior of the conducting interview task; only Manager should support the functionality of conducting interviews.
Another obvious approach would be to define the relevant methods in the desired
classes. You could define methods to conduct interviews in Manager and methods to
attend training in both Programmer and Manager. Again, this isn’t an ideal solution.
What will happen if your boss later informs you that all the Employees who attend
training should accept a training schedule; that is, there’s a change in the signature of
the method that defines the behavior “attend training”? Can you define separate
classes for this behavior and make the classes Programmer and Manager implement
them? No, you can’t. Java doesn’t allow a class to inherit multiple classes (covered in a
later section in this chapter).
Let’s try interfaces. Create two interfaces to define the specified behavior:
interface Trainable {
public void attendTraining();
}
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interface Interviewer {
public void conductInterview();
}
Although Java doesn’t allow a class to inherit from more than one class, it allows a
class to implement multiple interfaces. A class uses the keyword implements to implement an interface. In the following code, the classes Programmer and Manager implement the relevant interfaces (the modified code is in bold):
class Employee {
Manager
String name;
implements
String address;
Interviewer
String phoneNumber;
and Trainable
float experience;
}
class Manager extends Employee implements Interviewer, Trainable {
int teamSize;
void reportProjectStatus() {}
public void conductInterview() {
System.out.println("Mgr - conductInterview");
}
public void attendTraining() {
System.out.println("Mgr - attendTraining");
}
Programmer
}
implements
class Programmer extends Employee implements Trainable{
String[] programmingLanguages;
void writeCode() {}
public void attendTraining() {
System.out.println("Prog - attendTraining");
}
}
only Trainable
Figure 6.8 displays the relationships between these classes in a UML diagram.
An interface can be represented in UML diagrams using either a rectangle with the text <> or simply a circle. Both notations are popular; you may see them in various websites or books.
NOTE
<>
Trainable
Programmer
extends
Employee
<>
Interviewer
Manager
implements
Figure 6.8 Relationships among the
classes Employee, Programmer, and
Manager and the interfaces Trainable
and Interviewer
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The preceding relationships can also be represented as depicted in figure 6.9, where
the interfaces are defined as circles.
Employee
Trainable
Programmer
extends
Interviewer
Manager
implements
Figure 6.9 Relationships among the classes Employee,
Programmer, and Manager and the interfaces Trainable and
Interviewer, with interfaces represented by circles
6.2.2
Defining interfaces
You can define methods and constants in an interface. Declaring an interface is
simple, but don’t let this simplicity take you for a ride. For the exam, it’s important
to understand the implicit modifiers that are added to the members of an interface. All methods of an interface are implicitly public. The interface variables are
implicitly public, static, and final. Let’s define an interface Runner that defines
an abstract method speed and a variable distance. Figure 6.10 shows how implicit
modifiers are added to the members of interface Runner during the compilation
process.
interface Runner{
int speed();
double distance = 70;
}
Becomes
interface Runner{
public abstract int speed();
public static final double distance = 70;
}
Figure 6.10 All the methods of an interface are implicitly public. Its variables are implicitly public,
static, and final.
Why do you think these implicit modifiers are added to the interface members?
Because an interface is used to define a contract, it doesn’t make sense to limit access
to its members—and so they are implicitly public. An interface can’t be instantiated,
and so the value of its variables should be defined and accessible in a static context,
which makes them implicitly static.
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The exam will also test you on the various components of an interface declaration,
including access and nonaccess modifiers. Here’s the complete list of the components
of an interface declaration:
■
■
■
■
■
Access modifiers
Nonaccess modifiers
Interface name
All extended interfaces, if the interface is extending any interfaces
Interface body (variables and methods), included within a pair of curly braces {}
To include all the possible components, let’s modify the declaration of the interface Runner:
public strictfp interface Runner extends Athlete, Walker {}
The components of the interface Runner are shown in figure 6.11. To declare any
interface, you must include the keyword interface, the name of interface, and its
body, marked by {}.
public
stictfp
interface
Runner
extends
Athlete, Walker
{}
Access
modifier
Nonaccess
modifier
Keyword
Interface
name
Keyword
Name of interfaces
extended by
interface Runner
Curly
braces
Optional
Optional
Compulsory
Compulsory
Optional
Optional
Compulsory
Figure 6.11
Components of an interface declaration
The optional and compulsory components of an interface can be summarized as listed
in table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Optional and compulsory components of an interface declaration
Compulsory
Optional
Keyword interface
Access modifier
Name of the interface
Nonaccess modifier
Interface body, marked by the opening
and closing curly braces {}
Keyword extends, together with the name of the base
interface(s) (Unlike a class, an interface can extend multiple
interfaces.)
The declaration of an interface can’t include a class name. An
interface can never extend any class.
EXAM TIP
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Can you define a top-level, protected interface? No, you can’t. For the exam, you must
know the answer to questions about the correct values for each component that can
be used with an interface declaration. Let’s dive into these nuances.
VALID ACCESS MODIFIERS FOR AN INTERFACE
You can declare a top-level interface (the one that isn’t declared within any other class or
interface), with only the following access levels:
■
public
■
No modifier (default access)
If you try to declare your top-level interfaces by using the other access modifiers
(protected or private), your interface will fail to compile. The following definitions
of the interface MyInterface won’t compile:
Top-level interface can’t be
defined as private
private interface MyInterface{}
Top-level interface can’t be
defined as protected
protected interface MyInterface {}
All the top-level Java types (classes, enums, and interfaces) can be
declared using only two access levels: public and default. Inner or nested
types can be declared using any access level.
EXAM TIP
VALID ACCESS MODIFIERS FOR MEMBERS OF AN INTERFACE
All members of an interface—variables, methods, inner interfaces, and inner classes
(yes, an interface can define a class within it!)—are inherently public because that’s
the only modifier they can accept. Using other access modifiers results in compilation errors:
interface MyInterface {
private int number = 10;
protected void aMethod();
interface interface2{}
public interface interface4{}
}
b
Won’t
compile
Won’t compile
interface2 is implicitly
prefixed with public
Interface member can
be prefixed with public
The code at B fails compilation with the following error message:
illegal combination of modifiers: public and private
private int number = 10;
VALID NONACCESS MODIFIERS FOR AN INTERFACE
You can declare a top-level interface with only the following nonaccess modifiers:
■
■
abstract
strictfp
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NOTE The strictfp keyword guarantees that results of all floating-point cal-
culations are identical on all platforms.
If you try to declare your top-level interfaces by using the other nonaccess modifiers
(final, static, transient, synchronized, or volatile), the interface will fail to
compile. All the following interface declarations fail to compile because they use
invalid nonaccess modifiers:
final interface MyInterface {}
static interface MyInterface {}
transient interface MyInterface {}
synchronized interface MyInterface {}
volatile interface MyInterface {}
6.2.3
Won’t compile; invalid
nonaccess modifiers used
with interface declaration
Types of methods in an interface
Oracle has made fundamental changes to interfaces in Java 8. Apart from abstract
methods, an interface can define methods with default implementations. It can also
define static methods. Here’s a quick list of the types of methods that can be defined
in an interface (in Java 8):
■
abstract methods
■
Default methods (new in Java 8)
static methods (new in Java 8)
■
Let’s examine each of these in detail.
NOTE The default methods are also referred to as defender or virtual extension
methods. But the most popular term to refer them is default methods because the
default keyword is used to identify them.
ABSTRACT METHODS
Most jobs require a candidate to be interviewed, and the interviewer can be a CEO, a
technical leader, or a programmer. Although each of these categories supports the
behavior of an interviewer, it will conductInterview in its own specific manner.
An abstract method is used to specify a behavior (set of methods), which must be
defined by the class that implements it. It’s another way of stating “a class supports a
behavior, but in its own manner” in the way it likes. In the following example, the
interface Interviewer defines an abstract method conductInterview.
An abstract method is defined without a method body:
interface Interviewer {
void conductInterview();
}
Doesn’t include the
keyword abstract
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You might include the keyword abstract to define an abstract method in an interface. The following definition of the method conductInterview is the same as its definition in the preceding code:
interface Interviewer {
abstract void conductInterview();
}
Includes keyword
abstract
Interface methods are implicitly abstract. To define default or
static methods, you must explicitly use the keyword default or static with
the method declaration in an interface. Default and static methods include
their implementation in an interface.
EXAM TIP
When a class implements an interface with abstract methods, the class must implement all the methods, or else the class won’t compile. A developer can’t add abstract
methods to an interface without breaking existing implementations. It can only be
done with default methods.
DEFAULT METHODS
Imagine you need to add a behavior—submit interview status—to the interface Interviewer, after its publication. This wouldn’t have been possible with Java 7 and its earlier versions without implying the need to provide an implementation for each
existing concrete class (either directly or through a superclass). Default methods can
rescue you here. Starting with Java 8, interfaces can be augmented by adding methods
with default implementation. Implementing classes might choose to override these
methods to define their own specific behavior. If they don’t choose to override them,
the default implementation from the interface is used. The definition of a default
method must include the keyword default:
interface Interviewer {
abstract void conductInterview();
default void submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Accept");
}
}
Inclusion of
keyword default
I deliberately oversimplified submitInterviewStatus() in the preceding code so
that the code focuses on the definition of default methods and not on its implementation details.
NEW IN JAVA 8
Interface methods can define an implementation by using
default methods.
Because the return type of the preceding method, submitInterviewStatus, is void,
the following definition of method submitInterviewStatus is valid:
interface Interviewer {
default void submitInterviewStatus() {}
}
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Empty method body
!= abstract method
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Even though the method in the preceding example doesn’t define any code in its
body, it isn’t equivalent to an abstract method. Declaration of a default method must
be followed by the method body marked using {}. The following code won’t compile:
interface Interviewer {
default void submitInterviewStatus();
}
Won’t compile;
missing {}
Just like regular methods, the return type of a default method must match the type of
the value that it returns. The following won’t compile:
interface Interviewer {
default void submitInterviewStatus() {
return 0;
}
}
Won’t compile; can’t return
0 for return type void
STATIC METHODS
Revisit the interface Interviewer used in the preceding section. Imagine that you
need a utility (static) method that can be used to book a conference hall for an
interview on a particular date and time. With Java 8, you can add static methods to
an interface. Prior to Java 8, interfaces weren’t allowed to define static methods. In
such a case, you’d need to define the required static method in a separate class. This
is one of the main reasons why static methods have been allowed in the interfaces—
to improve the aging Collections API, which includes a few classes just to define
static methods (like Collections and Paths).
NOTE static interface methods enable you to define utility methods in the
interfaces that they belong to.
Let’s add a static method bookConferenceRoom to the interface Interviewer (in bold):
interface Interviewer {
abstract void conductInterview();
default void submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Accept");
}
static void bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime dateTime, int duration) {
System.out.println("Interview scheduled on:" + dateTime);
System.out.println("Book conference room for: "+duration + " hrs");
}
}
The method bookConferenceRoom() must be called by prefixing its call with the
interface name. You can’t call it using a reference variable of the type Interviewer
or of the class that implements this interface. Let’s define the class Manager that
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implements Interviewer and the class Project that tries to call the method bookConferenceRoom:
class Manager implements Interviewer {}
class Project {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Interviewer inv = new Manager();
inv.bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime.now(), 2);
Manager mgr = new Manager();
mgr.bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime.now(), 2);
Won’t
compile
Interviewer.bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime.now(), 2);
}
}
Compiles
successfully
It’s interesting to note that for mgr.bookConferenceRoom(), the compiler states that
the method bookConferenceRoom is not defined for the type Manager.
EXAM TIP A static method in an interface can’t be called using a reference
variable. It must be called using the interface name.
In contrast to the preceding code, you can call a static method defined in a class
either by using reference variables or by the name of the class:
class Employee {
static void defaultPlan() {
System.out.println("Basic");
}
}
class Programmer extends Employee {}
Static method in
class Employee
Programmer
subclasses Employee
class Project {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Employee emp = new Programmer();
emp.defaultPlan();
Programmer pgr = new Programmer();
pgr.defaultPlan();
Employee.defaultPlan();
Programmer.defaultPlan();
Compiles; static method
accessed using variable emp
Compiles; static method
accessed using variable pgr
Compiles; static method accessed
using Employee and Programmer
}
}
In the preceding example, the static method defaultPlan is defined in the class
Employee, which is subclassed by the class Programmer. The class Project defines reference variables of the type Employee and Programmer and initializes them using
Programmer instances. To execute defaultPlan(), you can use the reference variables
emp and pgr of types Employee and Programmer, respectively. You can also call defaultPlan() by using the class name: Employee or Programmer.
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Unlike an interface, if you define a static method in a base class,
it can be accessed using either a reference variable or the class name.
EXAM TIP
6.2.4
Implementing a single interface
When a class implements an interface, it must follow a set of rules.
IMPLEMENT ABSTRACT METHODS
If a concrete class doesn’t implement the abstract methods of the interface it implements, it won’t compile:
interface Interviewer {
abstract int interviewConducted();
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {}
Won’t compile;
doesn’t implement
interviewConducted()
Do you think the following code will compile?
interface Interviewer {
abstract int interviewConducted();
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
int interviewConducted() {
return 1;
}
}
Won’t compile;
attempting to assign
weaker access privilege
You must implement an abstract method of an interface using
the explicit access modifier public.
EXAM TIP
When you implement an interface method in a class, it follows method-overriding
rules:
interface Interviewer {
abstract Object interviewResult();
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
public String interviewResult() {
return null;};
}
Compiles
successfully
But the following won’t compile:
interface Interviewer {
abstract int interviewConducted();
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
public Integer interviewConducted() {
return 1;
}
}
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Won’t compile; return
type Integer isn't
compatible with int
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OVERRIDING DEFAULT METHODS
A class might choose to override the implementation of a default method in an interface that it implements. If it doesn’t, the default implementation of the interface
method will be used. In the following example, the class Manager implements the
interface Interviewer but doesn’t override the default method submitInterviewStatus():
interface Interviewer {
default Object submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Accept");
return null;
}
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {}
default method in
interface Interviewer
Class Manager doesn’t override
submitInterviewStatus()
Let’s override the default implementation of the method submitInterviewStatus()
in the class Manager. When a class overrides a default method, it doesn’t use the keyword default. Also, it follows method-overriding rules:
interface Interviewer {
default Object submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Accept");
return null;
}
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
public String submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Accept");
return null;
}
}
EXAM TIP
default method with
return type Object
Overriding method with
return type String
While overriding a default method, you must not use the keyword
default. Rules for overriding default and regular methods are the same.
STATIC METHODS
If an interface defines a static method, the class that implements it can define a
static method with the same name, but the method in the interface isn’t related to the
method defined in the class. In the following example, the method bookConferenceRoom in the class Manager doesn’t overload or override the method bookConferenceRoom defined in the interface Interviewer. This is evident from the return types of
these methods (highlighted in bold):
interface Interviewer {
static void bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime dateTime, int dur) {
System.out.println("Interviewer-bookConferenceRoom");
}
}
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class Manager implements Interviewer {
static String bookConferenceRoom(LocalDateTime dateTime, int dur) {
System.out.println("Manager-bookConferenceRoom");
return null;
Compiles
}
successfully
}
static methods in a class and the interface that it implements are
not related to each other. A static method in a class doesn’t hide or override
the static method in the interface that it implements.
EXAM TIP
Why do you think Java doesn’t allow a class to inherit multiple classes but allows a class
to implement multiple interfaces? I’ll cover that in detail in the next sections.
6.2.5
A class can’t extend multiple classes
In Java, a class can’t extend multiple classes. Let’s examine the reason using an example, in which the class Programmer is allowed to inherit two classes: Employee and
Philanthropist. Figure 6.12 shows the relationship between these classes and the
corresponding code.
Employee
Philanthropist
receiveSalary()
receiveSalary()
extends
extends
Programmer
Figure 6.12
class Employee {
public void receiveSalary() {
system.out.println("PayDues");
}
}
class Philanthropist {
public void receiveSalary() {
system.out.println("Donate");
}
}
class Programmer extends Employee, Philanthropist {}
What happens if a class is allowed to extend multiple classes?
If the class Programmer inherited the method receiveSalary, defined in both Employee
and Philanthropist, what do you think a Programmer would do with their salary: pay
dues (like an Employee) or donate it (like a Philanthropist)? What do you think
would be the output of the following code?
class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Programmer p = new Programmer();
p.receiveSalary();
}
}
Would this print
“PayDues” or “Donate”?
In this case, the class Programmer can access two receiveSalary methods with identical method signatures but different implementations, so it’s impossible to resolve this
method call. This is why classes aren’t allowed to inherit multiple classes in Java.
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Because a derived class may inherit different implementations for
the same method signature from multiple base classes, multiple inheritance
isn’t allowed in Java.
EXAM TIP
6.2.6
A class can implement multiple interfaces
In the preceding section, we discussed that a class can’t inherit multiple classes. But a
class can implement multiple interfaces. Why is this allowed, when Java doesn’t
allow a class to extend multiple classes? Prior to Java 8, an interface could define only
abstract methods. So even if a class inherited methods with the same name from different interfaces, it came without an implementation.
But with Java 8, an interface can also define default methods—methods that
include an implementation. So when a class implements multiple interfaces, it must
adhere to a set of rules.
EXAM TIP
A class can extend multiple interfaces only if a set of rules is
adhered to.
IMPLEMENTING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME CONSTANT NAMES
A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same constant name, as long as a
call to these interfaces isn’t ambiguous. In the following example, the class Animal
compiles successfully. It doesn’t use the constant MIN_DISTANCE defined in the interfaces Moveable and Jumpable that it implements:
interface Jumpable {
int MIN_DISTANCE = 10;
}
interface Moveable {
String MIN_DISTANCE = "SMALL";
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {}
Compiles successfully;
no ambiguous
implicit reference
to MIN_DISTANCE
If you modify the implementation details of the class Animal so that it refers to the
variable MIN_DISTANCE without prefixing it with the interface name, then it won’t
compile:
interface Jumpable {
int MIN_DISTANCE = 10;
}
interface Moveable {
String MIN_DISTANCE = "SMALL";
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
Animal() {
System.out.println(MIN_DISTANCE);
}
}
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Won’t compile;
implicit reference
to MIN_DISTANCE
is ambiguous
409
Use interfaces
When prefixed with the interface name, the reference to MIN_DISTANCE is no longer
ambiguous:
interface Jumpable {
int MIN_DISTANCE = 10;
}
interface Moveable {
String MIN_DISTANCE = "SMALL";
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
Animal() {
System.out.println(Jumpable.MIN_DISTANCE);
}
}
Compiles successfully;
the reference to
MIN_DISTANCE is
not ambiguous
If an implicit reference to a constant defined in an interface(s) isn’t ambiguous, the
class that implements the interface can refer to it without prefixing it with the interface name:
interface Jumpable {
int MIN_DISTANCE = 10;
}
interface Moveable {
String MAX_DISTANCE = "SMALL";
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
Animal() {
System.out.println(MIN_DISTANCE);
}
}
Compiles successfully;
implicit reference to
MIN_DISTANCE is not
ambiguous
A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same constant
names, only if a reference to the constants isn’t ambiguous.
EXAM TIP
IMPLEMENTING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME ABSTRACT METHOD NAMES
An abstract method doesn’t define a body. It’s acceptable for a class to extend multiple interfaces that define abstract methods with the same signature because when a
class implements the abstract method, it seems to implement the abstract method
from all the interfaces:
interface Jumpable {
abstract String currentPosition();
}
interface Moveable {
abstract String currentPosition();
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
public String currentPosition() {
return "Home";
}
}
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But you can’t make a class extend multiple interfaces that define methods with the same
name that don’t seem to be a correct combination of overloaded methods. If you
change the return type of the method currentPosition() from String to void in the
interface Moveable, the class Animal won’t compile. It would need to implement methods currentPosition, which differ only in their return type, which isn’t acceptable:
interface Jumpable {
abstract String currentPosition();
}
interface Moveable {
abstract void currentPosition();
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
public String currentPosition() {
return "Home";
}
}
Won’t
compile
A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same abstract
method names if they have the same signature or form an overloaded set of
methods.
EXAM TIP
IMPLEMENTING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME DEFAULT METHOD NAMES
Imagine a class, Animal, that extends multiple interfaces, Moveable and Jumpable,
which define default methods with the same name, relax(). If the class Animal doesn’t
override the default implementation of relax(), it won’t compile:
interface Jumpable {
default void relax() {
System.out.println("No jumping");
}
}
interface Moveable {
default void relax() {
System.out.println("No moving");
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable { }
Won’t compile; inherits
unrelated defaults for
relax() from Jumpable
and Moveable
Let’s modify the preceding code, so that the class Animal overrides the default implementation of relax(). In this case, it will compile successfully:
interface Jumpable {
default void relax() {
System.out.println("No jumping");
}
}
interface Moveable {
default void relax() {
System.out.println("No moving");
}
}
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class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable {
public void relax() {
System.out.println("Watch movie");
}
}
Compiles
successfully
The default methods that a class inherits from the interfaces that it implements must
form a correct set of overloaded methods, or else the class won’t compile:
interface Jumpable {
default void relax() {
System.out.println("No jumping");
}
}
interface Moveable {
default String relax() {
System.out.println("No moving");
return null;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable { }
Won’t compile;
relax in Jumpable
and Moveable have
unrelated return types
A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same default
method name and signature, if it overrides its default implementation.
EXAM TIP
IMPLEMENTING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME STATIC METHOD NAMES
A class can implement multiple interfaces that define static methods with the same
name, even if they don’t qualify as correctly overloaded or overridden methods. This
is because they’re not inherited by the class that implements the interfaces:
interface Jumpable {
static int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
interface Moveable {
static String maxDistance() {
return "forest";
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable, Moveable { }
Compiles
successfully
A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same static
method names, irrelevant of their return types or signature.
EXAM TIP
6.2.7
Extending interfaces
An interface can extend multiple interfaces. When an interface extends another
interface, it must follow a set of rules.
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<>
BaseInterface1
extends
Working with inheritance
<>
BaseInterface2
extends
<>
MyInterface
Figure 6.13 The interface MyInterface
extends the interfaces BaseInterface1
and BaseInterface2.
EXTENDING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME ABSTRACT METHOD NAMES
An abstract method doesn’t define a body. Consider the following code, whose UML
representation is shown in figure 6.13. Which of the getName methods will be inherited by the interface MyInterface? Will MyInterface inherit the getName method
defined in BaseInterface1 or the one defined in BaseInterface2?
interface BaseInterface1 {
String getName();
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
String getName();
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {}
Because neither of the getName methods defined in BaseInterface1 and BaseInterface2 define a method body (as shown in figure 6.14), the question of which of
the methods MyInterface inherits is irrelevant. The interface MyInterface has access
to a single getName method, which must be implemented by all the concrete classes
that implement MyInterface.
<>
BaseInterface1
<>
BaseInterface2
String getName();
String getName();
Figure 6.14
Oops! Only
name, no body.
Methods defined in an interface don’t have a method body.
Let’s make the Employee class implement the interface MyInterface, as follows:
class Employee implements MyInterface
String name;
public String getName() {
return name;
}
}
{
Employee defines a body for
the method getName, inherited
from the interface MyInterface
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EXTENDING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME NAME DEFAULT METHOD NAMES
When an interface extends multiple interfaces, Java ensures that it shouldn’t inherit
multiple method implementations for the same method. In the following example,
interface MyInterface won’t compile because it inherits unrelated defaults for getName() from types BaseInterface1 and BaseInterface2:
interface BaseInterface1 {
default void getName() {
System.out.println("Base 1");
}
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
default void getName() {
System.out.println("Base 2");
}
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {}
Won’t
compile
If you override the default implementation of the method getName() in MyInterface,
it will compile successfully:
interface BaseInterface1 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Base 1"); }
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Base 2"); }
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Just me"); }
}
Compiles
successfully
In the preceding code, the getName method in MyInterface can refer to a superinterface method by using the super keyword:
■
■
BaseInterface1.super.getName();
BaseInterface2.super.getName(); (This would work as well if MyInterface
were a class implementing both interfaces.) Other methods too can invoke a
superinterface method this way.
Here are three resolution rules in case of multiple inheritance:
■
■
■
Classes always win: a method implemented in a class always has priority over an
interface default method.
Otherwise, subinterfaces always win: a method implemented in a more specific
interface has precedence over one defined in a more general interface (for
example, a superinterface).
Otherwise, if there’s an ambiguity that can’t be resolved by the previous rules,
then you get to the case presented earlier: the targeted superinterface must be
specified, using the super keyword.
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When an interface extends multiple interfaces, Java ensures that it
shouldn’t inherit multiple method implementations for the same method.
EXAM TIP
EXTENDING MULTIPLE INTERFACES WITH THE SAME STATIC METHOD NAMES
An interface can extend multiple interfaces with the same static method name:
interface BaseInterface1 {
static void status() { System.out.println("Base 1"); }
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
static void status() { System.out.println("Base 2"); }
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {}
Compiles
successfully
The following code also compiles successfully, even though the return types of the
methods status() in BaseInterface1 and BaseInterface2 are unrelated:
interface BaseInterface1 {
static void status() {
System.out.println("Base 1");
}
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
static String status() {
System.out.println("Base 2");
return null;
}
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {
}
Compiles
successfully
An interface can extend multiple interfaces, which define static
methods with the same name; the signatures of these methods don’t matter.
This is because static methods are never inherited, so no conflicts can
occur.
EXAM TIP
6.2.8
Modifying existing methods of an interface
What happens if you modify the declaration of the methods in an interface? Because
you can define multiple types of methods in an interface—abstract, default, and
static—these modifications would have different implications.
The modifications to existing methods of an interface can break the code of the
classes that implement it or the interfaces that extend it. The modifications must follow the rules of implementing or extending interfaces, as covered in detail in the previous sections.
In this section, you’ll see what happens when you modify an interface by changing
the type of its method (abstract, default, or static). This change can affect the
classes that implement the interface or the code that calls the modified methods.
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CHANGING STATIC METHOD TO DEFAULT OR ABSTRACT
In an interface, if you change a static method to a default method, the implement-
ing class will continue to compile, but the code that calls the method won’t compile. It
you change a static method to an abstract method, the implementing class might
not compile. The code, changes, and results are shown in figure 6.15.
interface Jumpable {
static int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
interface Jumpable {
default int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal lion = new Animal();
System.out println(Jumpable.maxDistance());
}
}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal lion = new Animal();
System.out println(Jumpable.maxDistance());
}
}
Compiles
Won’t compile
interface Jumpable {
abstact int maxDistance();
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
Won’t compile
Figure 6.15
What happens when you change a static method in an interface to a default or abstract method
CHANGING AN ABSTRACT METHOD TO DEFAULT OR STATIC
If you modify an interface by changing its abstract method to a default method,
the code that calls the method will continue to compile. But if you change an
abstract method into a static method, the code that calls the method won’t compile. This is because static methods of an interface are called by prefixing the
method name with the interface name. The code, modifications, and its results are
shown in figure 6.16.
CHANGING A DEFAULT METHOD TO ABSTRACT OR STATIC
If you modify an interface and change its default method to an abstract method, a
class that implements it might fail to compile. The implementing class will fail to compile, if it doesn’t override the default method of the interface. If you modify the
default method to a static method in an interface, the code that calls the method
won’t compile. The code, changes, and results are shown in figure 6.17.
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interface Jumpable {
abstract int maxDistance();
)
class Animal implements Jumpable {
public int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal lion = new Animal();
System.out println(lion.maxDistance());
}
}
Working with inheritance
interface Jumpable {
default int maxDistance() {
return 200;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
public int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal lion = new Animal();
System.out println(lion.maxDistance());
}
}
Compiles
Compiles
Figure 6.16 What happens when you change an
abstract method in an interface to a default or
static method
interface Jumpable {
default int maxDistance() {
return 200;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
interface Jumpable {
static int maxDistance() {
return 200;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
public int maxDistance() {
return 100;
}
}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal lion = new Animal();
System.out println(lion.maxDistance());
}
}
Doesn’t compile
interface Jumpable {
abstract int maxDistance();
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Jumpable lion = new Animal();
System.out println(lion.maxDistance());
}
}
Won’t compile
interface Jumpable {
static int maxDistance() {
return 200;
}
}
class Animal implements Jumpable {}
Figure 6.17 What happens when you change a
default method in an interface to an abstract or
static method
class Forest {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Jumpable lion = new Animal();
System.out println(lion.maxDistance());
}
}
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6.2.9
Properties of members of an interface
An interface can define constants and methods, which are implicitly assigned a set
of properties.
INTERFACE CONSTANTS
As you’ve already seen, the variables of an interface are implicitly public, final, and
static. So the following definition of the interface MyInterface
interface MyInterface {
int age = 10;
}
is equivalent to the following definition:
interface MyInterface {
public static final int AGE = 10;
}
public, static, and final
modifiers are implicitly
added to variables
defined in an interface
You must initialize all variables in an interface, or your code won’t compile:
interface MyInterface {
int AGE;
}
Won’t compile; should assign
a value to a final variable
INTERFACE METHODS
The methods of an interface are implicitly public. When you implement an interface,
you must implement all its methods by using the access modifier public. A class that
implements an interface can’t make the interface’s methods more restrictive.
Although the following class and interface definitions look acceptable, they’re not:
interface Relocatable {
void move();
Implicitly public
}
class CEO implements Relocatable {
Won’t compile; can’t assign weaker
access (default access) to public
void move() {}
method move in class CEO
}
The following code is correct and compiles happily:
interface Relocatable {
void move();
Implicitly public
}
class CEO implements Relocatable {
public void move() {}
Will compile
}
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INTERFACE CONSTRUCTORS
Unlike a class, an interface can’t define constructors.
You can use a reference variable of a base class to refer to an object of its derived
class. Similarly, you can use a reference variable of an interface to refer to an object of
a class that implements it. It’s interesting to note that these variables can’t access all
the variables and methods defined in the derived class or the class that implements
the interface.
Let’s dig into some more details about this in the next section.
6.3
Reference variable and object types
[7.2] Develop code that demonstrates the use of polymorphism; including
overriding and object type versus reference type
For this exam objective, you need to understand that when you refer to an object, the
type of the object reference variable and the type of the object being referred to may be different. But there are rules on how different these can be. This concept may take a while
to sink in, so don’t worry if you don’t get it on your first attempt.
In the same way in which you can refer to a person using their first name, last
name, or both names, objects of derived classes can be referred to using a reference
variable of any of the following types:
■
■
■
Its own type—An object of a class HRExecutive can be referred to using an object
reference variable of type HRExecutive.
Its superclass—If the class HRExecutive inherits the class Employee, an object of
the class HRExecutive can be referred to using a variable of type Employee. If
the class Employee inherits the class Person, an object of the class HRExecutive
can also be referred to using a variable of type Person.
Implemented interfaces—If the class HRExecutive implements the interface
Interviewer, an object of the class HRExecutive can be referred to using a variable of type Interviewer.
There are differences, however, when you try to access an object using a reference
variable of its own type, its base class, or an implemented interface. Let’s start with
accessing an object with a variable of its own type.
6.3.1
Using a variable of the derived class to access its own object
Let’s start with the code of the class HRExecutive, which inherits the class Employee
and implements the interface Interviewer, as follows:
class Employee {
String name;
String address;
String phoneNumber;
float experience;
}
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interface Interviewer {
public void conductInterview();
}
class HRExecutive extends Employee implements Interviewer {
String[] specialization;
public void conductInterview() {
System.out.println("HRExecutive - conducting interview");
}
}
Class HRExecutive
inherits class
Employee and
implements
interface
Interview
Here’s some code that demonstrates that an object of the class HRExecutive can be
referred to using a variable of type HRExecutive:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
HRExecutive hr = new HRExecutive();
}
}
A variable of type
HRExecutive can
be used to refer
to its object
You can access fields and methods defined in the class Employee, the class HRExecutive, and the interface Interviewer using the variable hr (with the type HRExecutive), as follows:
class Office {
Access variable
public static void main(String args[]) {
defined in class
HRExecutive hr = new HRExecutive();
HRExecutive
hr.specialization = new String[] {"Staffing"};
System.out.println(hr.specialization[0]);
hr.name = "Pavni Gupta";
Access variable defined
System.out.println(hr.name);
in class Employee
hr.conductInterview();
}
Access method defined in
interface Interviewer
}
When you access an object of the class HRExecutive using its own type, you can access
all the variables and methods that are defined in its base class and interface—the class
Employee and the interface Interviewer. Can you do the same if the type of the reference variable is changed to the class Employee, as defined in the next section?
6.3.2
Using a variable of a superclass to access an object of
a derived class
Let’s access an object of type HRExecutive using a reference variable of type Employee,
as follows:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new HRExecutive();
}
}
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Variable of type Employee can also
be used to refer to an object of
class HRExecutive because class
HRExecutive extends Employee
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Now let’s see whether changing the type of the reference variable makes any difference when accessing the members of the class Employee, the class HRExecutive, or the
interface Interviewer. Will the following code compile successfully?
b
Type of
variable
emp is
Employee
Variable emp can’t
access member
specialization
defined in class
HRExecutive
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee emp = new HRExecutive();
emp.specialization = new String[] {"Staffing"};
System.out.println(emp.specialization[0]);
emp.name = "Pavni Gupta";
Variable emp can access member
name defined in class Employee
System.out.println(emp.name);
emp.conductInterview();
}
Variable emp can’t access
method conductInterview
}
defined in interface Interviewer
The code at B fails to compile because the type of the variable emp is defined as
Employee. Picture it like this: the variable emp can see only the Employee object. Hence,
it can access only the variables and methods defined in the class Employee, as illustrated in figure 6.18.
emp
Reference
variable of type
Employee
Employee
Features of class
Employee exist
within class
HRExecutive.
HRExecutive
Figure 6.18 A variable of type Employee can see only the members defined
in the class Employee.
6.3.3
Using a variable of an implemented interface to access a derived
class object
Here’s another interesting equation: what happens when you change the type of the reference variable to the interface Interviewer? A variable of type Interviewer can also
be used to refer to an object of the class HRExecutive because the class HRExecutive
implements Interviewer. See the following code:
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Interviewer interviewer = new HRExecutive();
}
}
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Reference variable and object types
Now try to access the same set of variables and methods using the variable interviewer, which refers to an object of the class HRExecutive:
Variable
interviewer can’t
access members
of class Employee
or HRExecutive
Type of variable
class Office {
interviewer is
public static void main(String args[]) {
Interviewer
Interviewer interviewer = new HRExecutive();
interviewer.specialization = new String[] {"Staffing"};
System.out.println(interviewer.specialization[0]);
interviewer.name = "Pavni Gupta";
System.out.println(interviewer.name);
interviewer.conductInterview();
Variable interviewer can access
}
method conductInterview
}
defined in interface Interviewer
b
The code at B doesn’t compile because the type of the variable interviewer is
defined as Interviewer. Picture it like this: the variable interviewer can only access
the methods defined in the interface Interviewer, as illustrated in figure 6.19.
Interviewer
Reference
variable of type
Interviewer
Employee
Interviewer
Features of class
Employee exist
within the class
HRExecutive.
HRExecutive
A variable of type Interviewer
can only access methods defined
in interface Interviewer.
Figure 6.19 A variable of type Interviewer can see only the members defined in the
interface Interviewer.
6.3.4
The need for accessing an object using the variables of its base
class or implemented interfaces
You may be wondering why you need a reference variable of a base class or an implemented interface to access an object of a derived class if a variable can’t access all the
members that are available to an object of a derived class. The simple answer is that
you might not be interested in all the members of a derived class.
Confused? Compare it with the following situation. When you enroll in flying
classes, do you care whether the instructor can cook Italian cuisine or knows how to
swim? No! You don’t care about characteristics and behavior that are unrelated to flying. Here’s another example. At an office party, all the Employees are welcome, whether
they are Programmers, HRExecutives, or Managers, as shown in figure 6.20.
The same logic applies when you access an object of the class HRExecutive using a
reference variable of type Interviewer. When you do so, you’re only concerned about
the behavior of HRExecutive that relates to its capability as an Interviewer.
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Employees
Programmer
Figure 6.20 All types of
Employees can attend an
office party.
Manager
HRExecutive
This arrangement also makes it possible to create an array (or a list) of the objects that
refers to different types of objects grouped by a common base class or an interface.
The following code segment defines an array of type Interviewer and stores in it
objects of the classes HRExecutive and Manager:
class OfficeInheritanceList {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Because
Interviewer[] interviewers = new Interviewer[2];
Manager
interviewers[0] = new Manager();
implements
interviewers[1] = new HRExecutive();
interface
for (Interviewer interviewer : interviewers) {
Interviewer,
interviewer.conductInterview();
it can be
}
stored here
}
Loop through the
}
array and call method
conductInterview
Array of type
Interviewer—
an interface
Because
HRExecutive
implements
interface
Interviewer, it can
be stored here
The class HRExecutive extends the class Employee and implements the interface
Interviewer. Hence, you can assign an object of HRExecutive to any of the following
types of variables:
■
■
■
■
HRExecutive
Employee
Interviewer
Object
Please note that the reverse of these assignments will fail compilation. To start with,
you can’t refer to an object of a base class by using a reference variable of its derived
class. Because all members of a derived class can’t be accessed using an object of the
base class, it isn’t allowed. The following statement won’t compile:
HRExecutive hr = new Employee();
Not allowed—
won’t compile
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423
Because you can’t create an object of an interface, the following line of code will also
fail to compile:
HRExecutive hr = new Interviewer();
Not allowed—
won’t compile
It’s now time for you to try to add objects of the previously defined related classes—
Employee, Manager, and HRExecutive—to an array in your next Twist in the Tale exercise (answers in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 6.2
Given the following definition of the classes Employee, Manager, and HRExecutive and
the interface Interviewer, select the correct options for the class TwistInTale2:
class Employee {}
interface Interviewer {}
class Manager extends Employee implements Interviewer {}
class HRExecutive extends Employee implements Interviewer {}
class TwistInTale2 {
public static void main (String args[]) {
Interviewer[] interviewer = new Interviewer[] {
new Manager(),
// Line 1
new Employee(),
// Line 2
new HRExecutive(),
// Line 3
new Interviewer()
// Line 4
};
}
}
a
b
c
d
An object of the class Manager can be added to an array of the interface
Interviewer. Code on line 1 will compile successfully.
An object of the class Employee can be added to an array of the interface
Interviewer. Code on line 2 will compile successfully.
An object of the class HRExecutive can be added to an array of the interface
Interviewer. Code on line 3 will compile successfully.
An object of the interface Interviewer can be added to an array of the interface Interviewer. Code on line 4 will compile successfully.
You may see multiple questions in the exam that try to assign an
object of a base class to a reference variable of a derived class. Note that a
derived class can be referred to using a reference variable of a superclass. The
reverse is not allowed and won’t compile.
EXAM TIP
In this section, you learned that the variables of a base class or interface are unable to
access all the members of the object to which they refer. Don’t worry; this can be
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resolved by casting a reference variable of a base class or an interface to the exact type
of the object they refer to, as discussed in the next section.
6.4
Casting
[7.3] Determine when casting is necessary
Casting is the process of forcefully making a variable behave as a variable of another
type. If a class shares an IS-A or inheritance relationship with another class or interface, their variables can be cast to each other’s type.
In section 6.3, you learned that you can’t access all the members of the class
HRExecutive (derived class) if you refer to it via a variable of type Interviewer (implemented interface) or Employee (base class). In this section, you’ll learn how to cast a
variable of type Interviewer to access variables defined in the class HRExecutive and
why you’d want to.
6.4.1
How to cast a variable to another type
We’ll start with the definitions of the interface Interviewer and the classes HRExecutive
and Manager:
class Employee {}
interface Interviewer {
public void conductInterview();
}
class HRExecutive extends Employee implements Interviewer {
String[] specialization;
public void conductInterview() {
System.out.println("HRExecutive - conducting interview");
}
}
class Manager implements Interviewer{
int teamSize;
public void conductInterview() {
System.out.println("Manager - conducting interview");
}
}
Create a variable of type Interviewer and assign to it an object of type HRExecutive
(as depicted in figure 6.21):
Interviewer interviewer = new HRExecutive();
Variable of type
Interviewer
Object of
HRExecutive
Figure 6.21 A reference variable of the interface
Interviewer referring to an object of the class
HRExecutive
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Casting
Try to access the variable specialization defined in the class HRExecutive using the
previous variable:
interviewer.specialization = new String[] {"Staffing"};
Won’t compile
The previous line of code won’t compile. The compiler knows that the type of the variable interviewer is Interviewer and that the interface Interviewer doesn’t define
any variable with the name specialization (as shown in figure 6.22).
I just consulted
interface Interviewer.
It doesn't define the
variable specialization.
interviewer.specialization
= new String[]{"Staffing"};
In
interface interviewer {
public void conductInterview();
}
Java
compiler
Consult
Compilation error
Out
Figure 6.22 The Java compiler doesn’t compile code if you try to access the variable
specialization, defined in the class HRExecutive, by using a variable of the interface
Interviewer.
On the other hand, the JRE knows that the object referred to by the variable
interviewer is of type HRExecutive, so you can use casting to get past the Java compiler and access the members of the object being referred to, as follows (see also figure 6.23):
((HRExecutive)interviewer).specialization = new String[] {"Staffing"};
In the previous example code, (HRExecutive) is placed just before the name of the
variable, interviewer, to cast it to HRExecutive. A pair of parentheses surrounds
HRExecutive, which lets Java know you’re sure that the object being referred to is an
object of the class HRExecutive. Casting is another method of telling Java, “Look, I
know that the actual object being referred to is HRExecutive, even though I’m using a
reference variable of type Interviewer.”
The parentheses that surround the whole (HRExecutive)interviewer token are
required to bypass the Java operator precedence rules, according to which the casting
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((HRExecutive) interviewer).specialization
= new String[]{"Staffing"};
OK! Now I should consult the class
HRExecutive to check whether it
defines the variable specialization.
In
Consult
class HRExecutive extends Employee
implements Interviewer {
String [] specialization;
...
...
...
Java
compiler
}
Out
Compilation successful
Figure 6.23 Casting can be used to access the variable specialization, defined
in the class HRExecutive, by using a variable of the interface Interviewer.
“operator” (the parentheses) has lower priority than the dot “operator” (used to access
an object field or invoke a method).
6.4.2
Need for casting
In section 6.3.4, I discussed the need to use a reference variable of an inherited class
or an implemented interface to refer to an object of a derived class. I also used an
example of enrolling in flying classes, where you don’t care about whether the instructor can cook Italian cuisine or knows how to swim. You don’t care about characteristics
and behavior that are unrelated to flying.
But think about a situation in which you do care about the swimming skills of your
instructor. Imagine that when you’re attending flying classes, your friend inquires
about whether your flying instructor also conducts swimming classes, and if so,
whether your friend could enroll. In this case, a need arises to inquire about the swimming skills of your flying instructor.
Let’s apply this situation to Java. You can’t access all the members of an object if
you access it using a reference variable of any of its implemented interfaces or of a
base class. But when a need arises (as mentioned in the preceding paragraph), you
might choose to access some of the members of a derived class, which aren’t explicitly
available, by using the reference variable of the base type or the implemented interface. This is where casting comes in!
It’s time to see this in code. Here’s an example that exhibits the need for casting. An
application maintains a list of interviewers, and depending on the type of interviewer
(HRExecutive or Manager), it performs a different set of actions. If the interviewer is a
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Use this and super to access objects and constructors
Manager, the code calls conductInterview only if the value for the Manager’s teamSize
is greater than 10. Here’s the code that implements this logic:
Array to store objects of
classes that implement
interface Interviewer
class OfficeWhyCasting {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Store object of
Interviewer[] interviewers = new Interviewer[2];
Store object of Manager
HRExecutive at
interviewers[0] = new Manager();
at array position 0
array position 1
interviewers[1] = new HRExecutive();
for (Interviewer interviewer : interviewers) {
if (interviewer instanceof Manager) {
Loop through
If object referred to
int teamSize =((Manager)interviewer).teamSize;
values of array
by interviewer is of
if (teamSize > 10) {
interviewers
class Manager, use
interviewer.conductInterview();
casting to retrieve
value for its teamSize
} else {
If interviewer’s
System.out.println("Mgr can't " +
teamSize <= 10,
"interview with team size less than 10");
If interviewer’s
print message
}
teamSize > 10, call
} else if (interviewer instanceof HRExecutive) {
conductInterview
interviewer.conductInterview();
}
}
}
Otherwise, if object stored is of class
HRExecutive, call conductInterview
}
method on object; no casting is
required in this case
The preceding code shows a best practice when it comes to casting a variable, that is,
interviewer instanceof Manager. If you omit this test, you run the risk of code
throwing a ClassCastException (covered in section 7.5.2 in detail).
6.5
Use this and super to access objects and constructors
[7.4] Use super and this to access objects and constructors
In this section, you’ll use the this and super keywords to access objects and constructors. this and super are implicit object references. These variables are defined and initialized by the JVM for every object in its memory.
Let’s examine the capabilities and use of each of these reference variables.
6.5.1
Object reference: this
The this reference always points to an object’s own instance. Any object can use the
this reference to refer to its own instance. Think of the words me, myself, and I: anyone using those words is always referring to oneself, as shown in figure 6.24.
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this = I, me, myself
Figure 6.24 The keyword this can be
compared to the words me, myself, and I.
USING THIS TO ACCESS VARIABLES AND METHODS
You can use the keyword this to refer to all methods and variables that are accessible
to a class. For example, here’s a modified definition of the class Employee:
class Employee {
String name;
}
The variable name can be accessed in the class Programmer (which extends the class
Employee) as follows:
class Programmer extends Employee {
void accessEmployeeVariables() {
name = "Programmer";
}
}
Because there exist members of the class Employee within the class Programmer, the
variable name is accessible to an object of Programmer. The variable name can also be
accessed in the class Programmer as follows:
class Programmer extends Employee {
void accessEmployeeVariables() {
this.name = "Programmer";
}
}
The this reference is required only when code executing within a method block
needs to differentiate between an instance variable and its local variable or method
parameters. But some developers use the keyword this all over their code, even when
it’s not required. Some use this as a means to differentiate instance variables from
local variables or method parameters.
Figure 6.25 shows the constructor of the class Employee, which uses the reference
variable this to differentiate between the local and instance variables name, which are
declared with the same name.
In the previous example, the class Employee defines an instance variable name. The
Employee class constructor also defines a method parameter name, which is effectively
a local variable defined within the scope of the method block. Hence, within the
scope of the previously defined Employee constructor, there’s a clash of names, and
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class Employee {
String name;
Employee(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
}
Method parameter name
Instance variable name
429
Figure 6.25 Using the keyword
this to differentiate between the
method parameter and the
instance variable
the local variable will take precedence (covered in section 3.1). Using name within the
scope of the Employee class constructor block will implicitly refer to that method’s
parameter, not the instance variable. In order to refer to the instance variable name
from within the scope of the Employee class constructor, you are obliged to use a this
reference.
USING THIS TO ACCESS CONSTRUCTORS
You can also reference one constructor from another by using the keyword this.
Here’s an example in which the class Employee defines two constructors, with the second constructor calling the first one:
Constructor
that accepts
name and
address
class Employee {
String name;
String address;
Employee(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
Employee(String name, String address) {
this(name);
this.address = address;
}
}
Instance variables are
name and address
Constructor that
accepts only name
Calls constructor that
accepts only name
Assigns value of method parameter
address to instance variable
To call the default constructor (one that doesn’t accept any method parameters), call
this(). Here’s an example:
Calls
constructor
that doesn’t
accept any
arguments.
Must be the
first statement
in this method.
class Employee {
String name;
Instance variables are
String address;
name and address
Employee() {
Constructor that doesn’t
name = "NoName";
accept any arguments
address = "NoAddress";
}
Constructor that accepts
Employee(String name, String address) {
name and address
this();
if (name != null) this.name = name;
Assigns value of not-null
if (address != null) this.address = address;
method parameters
}
}
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If present, a call to a constructor from another constructor must be done on the first
line of code of the calling constructor.
this refers to the instance of the class in which it’s used. this can
be used to access the inherited members of a base class in the derived class.
EXAM TIP
USING THE KEYWORD THIS IN AN INTERFACE
With Java 8, you can use the keyword this in an interface’s default method to access
its constants and other default and abstract methods. In the following example, the
interface Interviewer defines a default method submitInterviewStatus. This method
uses this to access itself and its constants or methods:
interface Interviewer {
int MIN_SAL = 9999;
default void submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println(this);
System.out.println(this.MIN_SAL);
System.out.println(this.print());
}
String print();
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
public String print() {
return("I am " + this);
}
}
class Foo {
public static void main(String rags[]) {
Interviewer m = new Manager();
m.submitInterviewStatus();
}
}
You might see a similar output for the preceding code:
Manager@19e0bfd
9999
I am Manager@19e0bfd
With Java 8, you can use the keyword this in a default method to
access the methods of an interface and its constants.
EXAM TIP
You can’t use the this keyword to access static methods of an interface.
6.5.2
Object reference: super
In the previous section, I discussed how this refers to the object instance itself. Similarly, super is also an object reference, but super refers to the direct parent or base
class of a class. Think of the words my parent, my base: anyone using those terms is
always referring to their direct parent or the base class, as shown in figure 6.26.
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Inherit
431
super = parent or
base class
Figure 6.26 When a class mentions super, it refers
to its direct parent or the base class.
USING SUPER TO ACCESS VARIABLES AND METHODS OF THE BASE CLASS
The variable reference super can be used to access a variable or method from the
base class if there’s a clash between these names. This situation normally occurs when
a derived class defines variables and methods with the same name as the base class.
Here’s an example:
Assign value
to instance
variable—
name, defined
in Programmer
Instance variable—
class Employee {
name, in Employee
String name;
}
Instance variable—
class Programmer extends Employee {
name, in Programmer
String name;
void setNames() {
this.name = "Programmer";
Assign value to instance variable—
super.name = "Employee";
name, defined in Employee
}
void printNames() {
Print value of instance variable—
System.out.println(super.name);
name, defined in Employee
System.out.println(this.name);
}
Print value of instance
}
variable—name, defined
class UsingThisAndSuper {
in Programmer
public static void main(String[] args) {
Programmer programmer = new Programmer();
Create an object of
programmer.setNames();
class Programmer
programmer.printNames();
}
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Employee
Programmer
Similarly, you can use the reference variable super to access a method defined with
the same name in the base or the parent class.
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USING SUPER TO ACCESS CONSTRUCTORS OF BASE CLASS
The reference variable super can also be used to refer to the constructors of the base
class in a derived class.
Here’s an example in which the base class, Employee, defines a constructor that
assigns default values to its variables. Its derived class calls the base class constructor in
its own constructor.
Constructor
that accepts
values for
superclass
variables also
class Employee {
String name;
Instance variables—
String address;
name and address
Employee(String name, String address) {
this.name = name;
Constructor that accepts
this.address = address;
name and address
}
}
Instance variable—
class Programmer extends Employee {
progLanguage
String progLanguage;
Programmer(String name, String address, String progLang) {
super(name, address);
Calls
this.progLanguage = progLang;
Employee
}
constructor
}
b
The code at B calls the superclass constructor by passing it the reference variables,
name and address, which it accepts itself.
If present, a call to a superclass’s constructor must be the first
statement in a derived class’s constructor. Otherwise, a call to super(); (the
no-argument constructor) is inserted automatically by the compiler.
EXAM TIP
USING SUPER AND THIS IN STATIC METHODS
The keywords super and this are implicit object references. Because static methods
belong to a class, not to objects of a class, you can’t use this and super in static
methods. Code that tries to do so won’t compile:
Won’t
compile—
can’t use
this in static
method
class Employee {
String name;
}
class Programmer extends Employee {
String name;
static void setNames() {
this.name = "Programmer";
super.name = "Employee";
}
}
Instance variable—
name, in Employee
Instance variable—
name, in Programmer
Won’t compile—can’t use
super in static method
It’s time to attempt the next Twist in the Tale exercise, using the this and super keywords (answer in the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 6.3
Let’s modify the definition of the Employee and Programmer classes as follows. What is
the output of the class TwistInTale3?
class Employee {
String name = "Emp";
String address = "EmpAddress";
}
class Programmer extends Employee{
String name = "Prog";
void printValues() {
System.out.print(this.name + ":");
System.out.print(this.address + ":");
System.out.print(super.name + ":");
System.out.print(super.address);
}
}
class TwistInTale3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
new Programmer().printValues();
}
}
c
Prog:null:Emp:EmpAddress
Prog:EmpAddress:Emp:EmpAddress
Prog::Emp:EmpAddress
d
Compilation error
a
b
Similarly, you can’t use the keyword this in a static method, defined in an interface:
interface Interviewer {
int MIN_SAL = 9999;
static int getMinSalary() {
return this.MIN_SAL;
}
}
Won’t compile; can’t use
keyword this in a static method
Now let’s move to one of the very important programming concepts: polymorphism.
In the next section, you’ll use abstract classes and interfaces to implement it.
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Polymorphism
[7.5] Use abstract classes and interfaces
[7.2] Develop code that demonstrates the use of polymorphism; including
overriding and object type versus reference type
The literal meaning of the word polymorphism is “many forms.” At the beginning of this
chapter, I used a practical example to explain the meaning of polymorphism; the
same action may have different meanings for different living beings. The action eat
has a different meaning for a fly and a lion. A fly may eat nectar, whereas a lion may eat
an antelope. Reacting to the same action in one’s own unique manner in living beings
can be compared to polymorphism in Java.
For the exam, you need to know what polymorphism in Java is, why you need it,
and how to implement it in code.
6.6.1
Polymorphism with classes
Polymorphism with classes comes into the picture when a class inherits another class
and both the base and the derived classes define methods with the same method signature (the same method name and method parameters). As discussed in the previous section, an object can also be referred to using a reference variable of its base
class. In this case, depending on the type of the object used to execute a method, the
Java runtime executes the method defined in the base or derived class.
Let’s consider polymorphism using the classes
Employee, Programmer, and Manager, where the
Employee
classes Programmer and Manager inherit the class
extends
extends
Employee. Figure 6.27 shows a UML diagram depicting the relationships among these classes.
Programmer
Manager
We’ll start with the Employee class, which is not
quite sure about what must be done to start work
Figure 6.27 Relationships among the
on a project (execute method startProjectWork). classes Employee, Programmer,
Hence, the method startProjectWork is defined and Manager
as an abstract method, and the class Employee is
defined as an abstract class, as follows:
abstract class Employee {
public void reachOffice() {
System.out.println("reached office - Gurgaon, India");
}
Doesn’t know how to
public abstract void startProjectWork();
work on a project
}
The class Programmer extends the class Employee, which essentially means that it
has access to the method reachOffice defined in Employee. Programmer must also
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implement the abstract method startProjectWork, inherited from Employee. How
do you think a Programmer will typically start work on a programming project? Most
probably, the Programmer will define classes and unit test them. This behavior is contained in the definition of the class Programmer, which implements the method startProjectWork, as follows:
class Programmer extends Employee {
public void startProjectWork() {
defineClasses();
unitTestCode();
}
private void defineClasses() { System.out.println("define classes"); }
private void unitTestCode() { System.out.println("unit test code"); }
}
We’re fortunate to have another special type of Employee, a Manager, who knows how
to start work on a project. How do you think a Manager will typically start work on a
programming project? Most probably, the Manager will meet with the customers,
define a project schedule, and assign work to the team members. Here’s the definition of the class Manager that extends the class Employee and implements the method
startProjectWork:
class Manager extends Employee {
public void startProjectWork() {
meetingWithCustomer();
defineProjectSchedule();
assignRespToTeam();
}
private void meetingWithCustomer() {
System.out.println("meet Customer");
}
private void defineProjectSchedule() {
System.out.println("Project Schedule");
}
private void assignRespToTeam() {
System.out.println("team work starts");
}
}
Let’s see how this method behaves with different types of Employees. Here’s the relevant code:
class PolymorphismWithClasses {
public static void main(String[] args)
Employee emp1 = new Programmer();
Employee emp2 = new Manager();
emp1.reachOffice();
Method from
emp2.reachOffice();
Programmer
emp1.startProjectWork();
emp2.startProjectWork();
}
}
emp2
refers to
Manager
c
b
{
e
f
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emp1 refers to
Programmer
No confusion here because
reachOffice is defined only
in class Employee
Method from
Manager
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Here’s the output of the code (blank lines added for clarity):
reached office - Gurgaon, India
reached office - Gurgaon, India
define classes
unit test code
meet Customer
Project Schedule
team work starts
The code at B creates an object of the class Programmer and assigns it to a variable of
type Employee. c creates an object of the class Manager and assigns it to a variable
of type Employee. So far, so good!
Now comes the complicated part. d executes the method reachOffice. Because
this method is defined only in the class Employee, there isn’t any confusion and the
same method executes, printing the following:
reached office - Gurgaon, India
reached office - Gurgaon, India
The code at
e executes the code emp1.startProjectWork() and calls the method
startProjectWork defined in the class Programmer, because emp1 refers to an object
of the class Programmer. Here’s the output of this method call:
define classes
unit test code
The code at f executes emp2.startProjectWork() and calls the method startProjectWork defined in the class Manager, because emp2 refers to an object of the class
Manager. Here’s the output of this method call:
meet Customer
Project Schedule
team work starts
Figure 6.28 illustrates this code.
As discussed in the beginning of this section, the usefulness of polymorphism lies
in the ability of an object to behave in its own specific manner when the same action is
passed to it. In the previous example, reference variables (emp1 and emp2) of type
Employee are used to store objects of the classes Programmer and Manager. When the
same action—that is, the method call startProjectWork—is invoked on these reference variables (emp1 and emp2), each method call results in the method defined in the
respective classes being executed.
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Hey! I am a Programmer
and I follow my own different
way to start work on a project.
emp1
emp1
Variable of type
Employee
1) Define classes
2) Unit test code
Object of
Programmer
message
'startProjectWork'
Hey! I am a Manager
and I follow my own different
way to start work on a project.
emp2
Variable of type
Employee
1) Meet customer
2) Project schedule
3) Team work status
emp2
Object of
Manager
message
'startProjectWork'
Figure 6.28 The objects are aware of their own type and execute the overridden method defined in
their own class, even if a base class variable is used to refer to them.
POLYMORPHIC METHODS ARE ALSO CALLED OVERRIDDEN METHODS
Take a quick look at the method startProjectWork, as defined in the following classes
Employee, Programmer, and Manager (only the relevant code is shown):
abstract class Employee {
public abstract void startProjectWork();
}
class Programmer extends Employee {
public void startProjectWork() {
...
}
}
class Manager extends Employee {
public void startProjectWork() {
...
}
}
Method
startProjectWork in
class Employee
Method
startProjectWork in
class Programmer
Method
startProjectWork
in class Manager
Note that the name of the method startProjectWork is same in all these classes. Also,
it accepts the same number of method arguments and defines the same return type in
all three classes: Employee, Programmer, and Manager. This is a contract specified to
define overridden methods. Failing to use the same method name, same argument
list, or same return type won’t mark a method as an overridden method.
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RULES TO REMEMBER TO OVERRIDE METHODS
Here’s the set of rules to note to define overriding methods:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Overridden methods are defined by classes and interfaces that share inheritance relationships.
The name of the overridden method in the base class and the overriding
method in the subclass must be the same.
The argument list passed to the overridden method in the base class must be
the same as the argument list passed to the overriding method in the subclass.
The return type of an overriding method in the subclass can be the same as or a
subclass of the return type of the overridden method in the base class. When
the overriding method returns a subclass of the return type of the overridden
method, it’s known as a covariant return type.
An overridden method defined in the base class can be an abstract method or
a non-abstract method.
A derived class can override only non-final methods.
Access modifiers for an overriding method can be the same as or less restrictive
than the method being overridden, but they can’t be more restrictive.
DO POLYMORPHIC METHODS ALWAYS HAVE TO BE ABSTRACT?
No, polymorphic methods don’t always have to be abstract. You can define the class
Employee as a concrete class and the method startProjectWork as a non-abstract
method and still get the same results (changes in bold):
class Employee {
public void reachOffice() {
System.out.println("reached office - Gurgaon, India");
}
public void startProjectWork() {
System.out.println("procure hardware");
System.out.println("install software");
}
}
Because there’s no change in the definition of the rest of the classes—Programmer,
Manager, and PolymorphismWithClasses—I haven’t listed them here. If you create an
object of the class Employee (not of any of its derived classes), you can execute the
method startProjectWork as follows:
Employee emp = new Employee();
emp.startProjectWork();
Object of class Employee,
not its derived classes
Call method startProjectWork,
defined in Employee
To implement polymorphism with classes, you can define abstract
or non-abstract methods in the base class and override them in the derived
classes.
EXAM TIP
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CAN POLYMORPHISM WORK WITH OVERLOADED METHODS?
No, polymorphism works only with overridden methods. Overridden methods have the
same number and type of method arguments, whereas overloaded methods define a
method argument list with either a different number or type of method parameters.
Overloaded methods share only the same name; the JRE treats them like different
methods. In the case of overridden methods, the JRE decides at runtime which
method should be called based on the exact type of the object on which it’s called.
It’s time for the next Twist in the Tale exercise. As usual, you can find the answers
in the appendix.
Twist in the Tale 6.4
Given the following definition of classes Employee and Programmer, which of the
options when inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE// will define the method run as a polymorphic method?
class Employee {
//INSERT CODE HERE// {
System.out.println("Emp-run");
return null;
}
}
class Programmer extends Employee{
String run() {
System.out.println("Programmer-run");
return null;
}
}
class TwistInTale4 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
new Programmer().run();
}
}
a
b
c
d
6.6.2
String run()
void run(int meters)
void run()
int run(String race)
Binding of variables and methods at compile time and runtime
You can use reference variables of a base class to refer to an object of a derived class.
But there’s a major difference in how Java accesses the variables and methods for
these objects. With inheritance, the instance variables bind at compile time and the
methods bind at runtime.
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Binding refers to resolving of variables or methods that would be called
for a reference variable.
NOTE
Examine the following code:
class Employee {
String name = "Employee";
void printName() {
System.out.println(name);
}
}
Reference variable of
class Programmer extends Employee {
type Employee, object
String name = "Programmer";
of type Employee
void printName() {
System.out.println(name);
}
}
class Office1 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Employee emp = new Employee();
Employee programmer = new Programmer();
Accesses
method
in class
Employee
System.out.println(emp.name);
System.out.println(programmer.name);
emp.printName();
programmer.printName();
}
}
Methods are bound at runtime; which
method executes depends on the type of
object on which it’s called. This code calls
method printName in class Programmer.
f
e
b
c
Reference variable
of type Employee,
object of type
Programmer
d
Accesses variable
name defined in
class Employee
Variables are bound at compile
time. Because type of variable
programmer is Employee, this
accesses the variable name
defined in class Employee.
g
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
Employee
Employee
Employee
Programmer
Let’s see what’s happening in the code, step by step:
■
■
■
■
B creates an object of the class Employee, referenced by a variable of its own
type—Employee.
c creates an object of the class Programmer, referenced by a variable of its base
type—Employee.
d accesses the variable name defined in the class Employee and prints
Employee.
e also prints Employee. The type of the variable programmer is Employee.
Because the variables are bound at compile time, the type of the object that’s
referenced by the variable emp doesn’t make a difference. programmer.name will
access the variable name defined in the class Employee.
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■
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f prints Employee. Because the type of the reference variable emp and the type
of object referenced by it are the same (Employee), there’s no confusion with
the method call.
g prints Programmer. Even though the method printName is called using a reference of type Employee, the JRE is aware that the method is invoked on a
Programmer object and hence executes the overridden printName method in
the class Programmer.
Watch out for code in the exam that uses variables of the base class
to refer to objects of the derived class and then accesses variables and methods of the referenced object. Remember that variables bind at compile time,
whereas methods bind at runtime.
EXAM TIP
6.6.3
Polymorphism with interfaces
Polymorphism can also be implemented using interfaces. Whereas polymorphism
with classes has a class as the base class, polymorphism with interfaces requires a class
to implement an interface. Polymorphism with interfaces involves abstract or default
methods from the implemented interface. An interface can also define static methods, but static methods never participate in polymorphism.
POLYMORPHISM WITH ABSTRACT METHODS
Let’s start with an example. Here’s an interface, MobileAppExpert, that defines an
abstract method, deliverMobileApp:
interface MobileAppExpert {
void deliverMobileApp();
}
Here’s a simplified version of the classes Programmer and Manager that implement this
interface and the method deliverMobileApp:
class Employee {}
class Programmer extends Employee implements MobileAppExpert {
public void deliverMobileApp() {
System.out.println("testing complete on real device");
}
}
class Manager extends Employee implements MobileAppExpert {
public void deliverMobileApp() {
System.out.println("QA complete");
System.out.println("code delivered with release notes");
}
}
The relationships among the two classes and the interface are shown in figure 6.29.
In the real world, the delivery of a mobile application would have different meanings for a programmer and a manager. For a programmer, the delivery of a mobile
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<>
MobileAppExpert
Working with inheritance
Employee
extends
implements
Programmer
Manager
Figure 6.29 Relationships among classes Employee, Programmer, and
Manager and the interface MobileAppExpert
application may require the completion of testing on the real mobile device. But for a
manager, the delivery of a mobile application may mean completing the QA process
and handing over code to the client along with any release notes. The bottom line is
that the same message, deliverMobileApp, results in the execution of different sets of
steps for a programmer and a manager.
Here’s a class, PolymorphismWithInterfaces, that creates objects of the classes
Programmer and Manager and calls the method deliverMobileApp:
class PolymorphismWithInterfaces {
public static void main(String[] args) {
MobileAppExpert expert1 = new Programmer();
MobileAppExpert expert2 = new Manager();
expert1.deliverMobileApp();
expert2.deliverMobileApp();
}
}
b
Reference type of variables
expert1 and expert2 is
MobileAppExpert
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
testing complete on real device
QA complete
code delivered with release notes
At B, the type of the variable is MobileAppExpert. Because the classes Manager and
Programmer implement the interface MobileAppExpert, a reference variable of type
MobileAppExpert can also be used to store objects of the classes Programmer and
Manager.
Because both these classes also extend the class Employee, you can use a variable of
type Employee to store objects of the classes Programmer and Manager. But in this case
you won’t be able to call the method deliverMobileApp because it isn’t visible to the
class Employee. Examine the following code:
class PolymorphismWithInterfaces {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Employee expert1 = new Programmer();
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Polymorphism
Employee expert2 = new Manager();
expert1.deliverMobileApp();
expert2.deliverMobileApp();
Won’t compile
}
}
Let’s see what happens if you modify the class Employee to implement the interface
MobileAppExpert, as follows:
class Employee implements MobileAppExpert {
// code
}
interface MobileAppExpert {
// code
}
Now the classes Programmer and Manager can just extend the class Employee. They no
longer need to implement the interface MobileAppExpert because their base class,
Employee, implements it:
class Programmer extends Employee {
// code
}
class Manager extends Employee {
// code
}
With the modified code, the new relationships among the classes Employee, Manager,
and Programmer and the interface MobileAppExpert are shown in figure 6.30.
<>
MobileAppExpert
<>
MobileAppExpert
Employee
Employee
extends
implements
Programmer
New relationship
Manager
Programmer
Manager
Old relationship
Figure 6.30 Modified relationships among the classes Employee, Manager, and Programmer, and
the interface MobileAppExpert
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Let’s try to access the method deliverMobileApp using a reference variable of type
Employee class, as follows:
class PolymorphismWithInterfaces {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Employee expert1 = new Programmer();
Employee expert2 = new Manager();
expert1.deliverMobileApp();
expert2.deliverMobileApp();
}
}
Employee can see
deliverMobileApp
Will work!
Figure 6.31 shows what’s accessible to the variable expert1.
expert1
Reference
variable of type
Employee
MobileAppExpert
Employee
Programmer
Figure 6.31
Methods defined in interface
MobileAppExpert accessible in Employee
Fields and methods of class
Employee
Fields and methods of class
Programmer
What’s accessible to the variable expert1
EXAM TIP Watch out for overloaded methods that seem to participate in
polymorphism—overloaded methods don’t participate in polymorphism.
Only overridden methods—methods with the same method signatures—participate in polymorphism.
POLYMORPHISM WITH DEFAULT METHODS
When a class implements an interface that defines a default method, the class might
or might not override the default method. In the following example, the class Manager
overrides the default method submitInterviewStatus, defined in the interface
Interviewer:
interface Interviewer {
default Object submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Interviewer:Accept");
return null;
}
}
class Manager implements Interviewer {
public String submitInterviewStatus() {
System.out.println("Manager:Accept");
return null;
}
}
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class Project {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Interviewer interviewer = new Manager();
interviewer.submitInterviewStatus();
Manager mgr = new Manager();
mgr.submitInterviewStatus();
}
}
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
Manager:Accept
Manager:Accept
In the preceding code, even though the class Project uses a reference variable of
the interface Interviewer and the class Manager to refer to a Manager instance, the
call to submitInterviewStatus() is delegated to the overriding method defined in
the class Manager.
Here’s an interesting situation. Imagine that two interfaces, BaseInterface1 and
BaseInterface2, define default methods with the same name, getName(). These interfaces are extended by another interface, MyInterface, which overrides the method
getName. Now, imagine that a class, MyClass, implements all three interfaces. What is
the output when you call getName() on the MyClass instance? Will it compile?
interface BaseInterface1 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Base 1"); }
}
interface BaseInterface2 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Base 2"); }
}
interface MyInterface extends BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 {
default void getName() { System.out.println("Just me"); }
}
class MyClass implements BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2, MyInterface {
public static void main(String ar[]) {
new MyClass().getName();
}
}
The preceding code compiles successfully and outputs Just me. Using the interface
names BaseInterface1, BaseInterface2 in the declaration of class MyClass is redundant (duplicate) because MyInterface already extends BaseInterface1 and BaseInterface2. So MyClass doesn’t inherit three implementations of the default method
getName. It inherits just one of them, getName(), which is defined in the interface
MyInterface.
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6.7
CHAPTER 6
Working with inheritance
Simple lambda expressions
[9.5] Write a simple Lambda expression that consumes a Lambda
Predicate expression
This exam includes working with simple lambda expressions to enable you to get
started with functional-style programming in Java. Functional programming enables you
to write declarative code. It lets you define what to do, rather than focusing on how to
do it. With functional programming, you can pass code to your methods as arguments. Let’s get the hang of it by comparing passing of variable or literal values to
methods with passing code to them.
6.7.1
Comparing passing values with passing code to methods
Imagine that you need to write methods to print values of a range of numbers, like 1
to 10, 10 to 20, and so on, without passing parameters to methods. Here’s how you
might write your code:
class NoMethodParameters{
void print1To10() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
System.out.println(i);
}
void print10To20() {
for (int i = 10; i <= 20; i++)
System.out.println(i);
}
void print1To99() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 99; i++)
System.out.println(i);
}
}
Because you know how to define method parameters for a method, you’re sure to
think it’s insane to define the methods as shown in the preceding code. So here’s a
method that accepts method arguments:
class WithMethodParameters {
void printNumbers(int start, int end) {
for (int i = start; i <= end; i++)
System.out.println(i);
}
}
Here’s how you would call the methods to print integers, defined in the preceding code:
NoMethodParameters noParameters = new NoMethodParameters();
noParameters.print10To20();
noParameters.print1To99();
WithMethodParameters withParameters = new WithMethodParameters();
withParameters.printNumbers(10, 20);
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withParameters.printNumbers(1, 99);
withParameters.printNumbers(100, 200);
withParameters.printNumbers(500, 1000);
Note how you can define just one method, printNumbers, and call it with multiple values. Let’s apply the same logic to defining just one method, passing it code so that we
don’t need its multiple implementations.
Before using lambdas, let’s work with an example that doesn’t use them, to highlight
their benefits. The following example defines the class Emp (with a few instance variables). It also defines an interface, Validate, which defines just one abstract method,
check. It’s meant to check the state of an Emp instance and return a boolean value:
interface Validate {
boolean check(Emp emp);
}
class Emp {
String name;
int performanceRating;
double salary;
Emp(String nm, int rating, double sal) {
name = nm;
performanceRating = rating;
salary = sal;
}
public String getName() { return name; }
public int getPerformanceRating() { return performanceRating; }
public double getSalary() { return salary; }
public String toString() {
return name + ":" + performanceRating + ":" + salary;
}
}
To use the interface Validate (without using lambdas), you can either define a class
that implements it or define anonymous classes. Because anonymous classes aren’t on
this exam, I’ll define a class that implements the interface Validate. In the following
code, the class ValidatePerformanceRating checks an Emp instance, returning true if
the performanceRating of an Emp instance is greater than or equal to 5:
class ValidatePerformanceRating implements Validate{
public boolean check(Emp emp) {
return (emp.getPerformanceRating() >= 5);
}
}
What happens if you want to check another attribute of an Emp instance, say, name?
You’ll need another class:
class ValidateName implements Validate{
public boolean check(Emp emp) {
return (emp.getName.startsWith("P"));
}
}
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Compare the preceding classes—ValidateName and ValidatePerformanceRating—
with multiple printXXX methods in the class NoMethodParameters. Note how just the
boolean condition is changing in the check methods in the classes ValidateName and
ValidatePerformanceRating. Here’s how you would use instances of ValidateName
or ValidatePerformanceRating in a method, say, filter:
class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Emp e1 = new Emp("Shreya", 5, 9999.00);
Emp e2 = new Emp("Paul", 4, 1234.00);
Emp e3 = new Emp("Harry", 5, 8769.00);
Emp e4 = new Emp("Selvan", 1, 2769.00);
ArrayList empArrList = new ArrayList<>();
empArrList.add(e1);
empArrList.add(e2);
empArrList.add(e3);
empArrList.add(e4);
filter(empArrList, new ValidatePerformanceRating());
}
static void filter(ArrayList list, Validate rule) {
for (Emp e : list) {
if (rule.check(e)) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
}
In the preceding code, the filter method accepts an ArrayList of Emp and outputs
the ones that return true when an Emp instance is checked with the method check of
the interface Validate.
As mentioned previously, you’ll need to create multiple classes (that implement
the interface Validate) to use different validity rules. Apart from being mostly repetitive, it’s verbose too. Lambdas to the rescue! Let’s remove the definition of the classes
ValidateName and ValidatePerformanceRating. To define the validation condition,
we’ll use lambdas (the modified code is in bold):
class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Emp e1 = new Emp("Shreya", 5, 9999.00);
Emp e2 = new Emp("Paul", 4, 1234.00);
Emp e3 = new Emp("Harry", 5, 8769.00);
Emp e4 = new Emp("Selvan", 1, 2769.00);
ArrayList empArrList = new ArrayList<>();
empArrList.add(e1);
empArrList.add(e2);
empArrList.add(e3);
empArrList.add(e4);
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Validate validatePerfor = e -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
filter(empArrList, validatePerfor);
}
static void filter(ArrayList list, Validate rule) {
for (Emp e : list) {
if (rule.check(e)) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
Use lambda
expressions
b
}
In the preceding code, there isn’t any change to the method filter that accepts a
method parameter of type Validate (an interface). The code at B defines a lambda
expression. It defines code to be passed to the method filter. Map the lambda
expression to the method signature of check in Validate. The method check accepts
only one method parameter and so does the lambda expression, that is, (e). The
method check returns a boolean value and so does the expression e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5 in the lambda expression.
Lambdas work only with functional interfaces—interfaces that define
exactly one abstract method.
NOTE
Let’s dive into the details of lambda expressions in the next section.
6.7.2
Syntax of lambda expressions
Let’s revisit the lambda expression used in the previous expression:
Validate validatePerfor = e -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
The preceding code includes only the mandatory sections of a lambda, as shown in
figure 6.32.
(e) -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
Parameter
name
Lambda body
Arrow
Figure 6.32 A Lambda expression
and its mandatory sections
Each lambda expression has multiple optional and mandatory sections:
■
■
■
■
■
■
Parameter type (optional)
Parameter name (mandatory)
Arrow (mandatory)
Curly braces (optional)
Keyword return (optional)
Lambda body (mandatory)
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The following are valid variations of the preceding lambda expression (modifications
in bold):
Validate validate = (e) -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
Validate validate = (Emp e) -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
Validate validate = (e) -> { return (e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5); };
On the exam, you’ll need to identify invalid lambda expressions. The return value of
the lambda expression must match or must be compatible with the return value of the
only abstract method in the interface. The method check in the interface Validate
declares its return type as boolean. So the following would be invalid:
Validate validatePerformance = (Emp e) -> 5;
Doesn’t compile;
invalid return type
If you try to pass an incorrect count of method parameters to the lambda expression,
the code won’t compile:
Validate validatePerformance = (e, f) -> { return true; };
Doesn’t compile;
mismatch in
parameter count
Java 8 has added multiple functional interfaces for your convenience. This exam covers just one of these—interface Predicate—discussed in the next section.
6.7.3
Interface Predicate
Predicate is a functional interface. Here’s the partial definition of this interface:
public interface Predicate {
/**
* Evaluates this predicate on the given argument.
*
* @param t the input argument
* @return {@code true} if the input argument matches the predicate,
* otherwise {@code false}
*/
boolean test(T t);
// rest of the code
}
In the preceding code, the class declaration includes , which declares that
Predicate is a generic interface, which isn’t limited to a particular type. It can be
used with multiple types. Generics are covered in detail in the OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam.
To use Predicate in your code, your method must accept a parameter of type
Predicate and you must use its public method test to evaluate an argument. Let’s
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modify the example used in section 6.7.1 to use Predicate instead of Validate
(changes in bold):
class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Emp e1 = new Emp("Shreya", 5, 9999.00);
Emp e2 = new Emp("Paul", 4, 1234.00);
Emp e3 = new Emp("Harry", 5, 8769.00);
Emp e4 = new Emp("Selvan", 1, 2769.00);
ArrayList empArrList = new ArrayList<>();
empArrList.add(e1);
empArrList.add(e2);
empArrList.add(e3);
empArrList.add(e4);
Predicate predicate = e -> e.getPerformanceRating() >= 5;
filter(empArrList, predicate);
}
static void filter(ArrayList list, Predicate rule) {
for (Emp e : list) {
if (rule.test(e)) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
}
Java 8 has also modified many of its existing API methods, which work with functional
interfaces like Predicate. For example, the class ArrayList defines the method
removeIf, which accepts a method parameter of type Predicate. The following example shows the use of removeIf:
Emp
Emp
Emp
Emp
e1
e2
e3
e4
=
=
=
=
new
new
new
new
Emp("Shreya", 5, 9999.00);
Emp("Paul", 4, 1234.00);
Emp("Harry", 5, 8769.00);
Emp("Selvan", 1, 2769.00);
ArrayList empArrList = new ArrayList<>();
empArrList.add(e1);
empArrList.add(e2);
empArrList.add(e3);
empArrList.add(e4);
for (Emp e : empArrList)
System.out.println(e);
System.out.println("After deletion..");
empArrList.removeIf(e -> e.getName().startsWith("S"));
for (Emp e : empArrList)
System.out.println(e);
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Here’s the output of the preceding code:
Shreya:5:9999.0
Paul:4:1234.0
Harry:5:8769.0
Selvan:1:2769.0
After deletion..
Paul:4:1234.0
Harry:5:8769.0
As you can see, the use of Predicate and lambda expressions in the preceding code
enabled you to write code declaratively.
6.8
Summary
We started the chapter with a discussion of inheritance and polymorphism, using an
example from everyday life: all creatures inherit the properties and behavior of their
parents, and the same action (such as reproduce) may have different meanings for different species. Inheritance enables the reuse of existing code, and it can be implemented using classes and interfaces. A class can’t extend more than one class, but it
can implement more than one interface. Inheriting a class is also called subclassing,
and the inherited class is referred to as the base or parent class. A class that inherits
another class or implements an interface is called a derived class or subclass.
Just as it’s common to address someone using a last name or family name, an
object of a derived class can be referred to with a variable of a base class or an interface that it implements. But when you refer to an object using a variable of the base
class, the variable can access only the members defined in the base class. Similarly, a
variable of type interface can access only the members defined in that interface. Even
with this limitation, you may wish to refer to objects using variables of their base class
to work with multiple objects that have common base classes.
Objects of related classes—the ones that share an inheritance relationship—can
be cast to another object. You may wish to cast an object when you wish to access its
members that aren’t available by default using the variable that’s used to refer to
the object.
The keywords this and super are object references and are used to access an
object and its base class, respectively. You can use the keyword this to access a class’s
variables, methods, and constructors. Similarly, the keyword super is used to access a
base class’s variables, methods, and constructors.
Polymorphism is the ability of objects to execute methods defined in a superclass
or base class, depending on their type. Classes that share an inheritance relationship
exhibit polymorphism. The polymorphic method should be defined in both the base
class and the inherited class.
You can implement polymorphism by using either classes or interfaces. In the case
of polymorphism with classes, the base class can be either an abstract class or a concrete class. The method in question here also need not be an abstract method. When
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you implement polymorphism using interfaces, you must use an abstract method
from the interface.
Java 8 enables you to write code declaratively. We covered lambda expressions,
their syntax, and the interface Predicate.
6.9
Review notes
Inheritance with classes:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
A class can inherit the properties and behavior of another class.
A class can implement multiple interfaces.
An interface can inherit zero or more interfaces. An interface can’t inherit
a class.
Inheritance enables you to use existing code.
Inheriting a class is also known as subclassing.
A class that inherits another class is called a derived class or subclass.
A class that’s inherited is called a parent or base class or superclass.
Private members of a base class can’t be inherited in the derived class.
A derived class can only inherit members with the default access modifier if
both the base class and the derived class are in the same package.
A class uses the keyword extends to inherit a class.
A class uses the keyword implements to implement an interface.
A class can implement multiple interfaces but can inherit only one class.
An abstract class can inherit a concrete class, and a concrete class can inherit
an abstract class.
Use interfaces:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
An interface uses the keyword extends to inherit another interface.
An interface can extend multiple interfaces.
Although interfaces can define a default implementation for their methods in
Java 8, it’s not compulsory for them to do so. Interfaces can also define
abstract methods.
The declaration of an interface can’t include a class name. An interface can
never extend any class.
All the top-level Java types (classes, enums, and interfaces) can be declared
using only two access levels: public and default. Inner or nested types can be
declared using any access level.
The strictfp keyword guarantees that results of all floating-point calculations
are identical on all platforms.
Interface methods are implicitly abstract. To define default or static methods,
you must use the keyword default or static.
Interface methods can define an implementation by using default methods.
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■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Working with inheritance
A static method in an interface can’t be called using a reference variable. It
must be called using the interface name.
Unlike an interface, if you define a static method in a base class, it can be
accessed using either a reference variable or the class name.
You must implement an abstract method of an interface using the explicit
access modifier public.
While overriding a default method, you must not use the keyword default. The
rules for overriding default and regular methods are same.
static methods in a class and the interface that it implements are not related
to each other. A static method in a class doesn’t hide or override the static
method in the interface that it implements.
Because a derived class may inherit different implementations for the same
method signature from multiple base classes, multiple inheritance is not
allowed in Java.
A class can extend multiple interfaces, only if a set of rules is adhered to:
– A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same constant names only
if the reference to the constants is not ambiguous.
– A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same abstract method
names if they have the same signature or form an overloaded set of methods.
– A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same default method name
if it overrides its default implementation.
– A class can implement multiple interfaces with the same static method name
regardless of their return types or signature.
When an interface extends multiple interfaces, Java ensures that it doesn’t inherit
multiple method implementations for the same method.
An interface can extend multiple interfaces that define static methods with
the same name; the signatures of these methods don’t matter.
The variables of an interface are implicitly public, final, and static.
The methods of an interface are implicitly public.
An interface can’t define any constructors.
Reference variable and object types:
■
■
■
■
With inheritance, you can also refer to an object of a derived class using a variable of a base class or interface.
An object of a base class can’t be referred to using a reference variable of its
derived class.
When an object is referred to by a reference variable of a base class, the reference variable can access only the variables and members that are defined in the
base class.
When an object is referred to by a reference variable of an interface implemented by a class, the reference variable can access only the variables and methods defined in the interface.
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455
You may need to access an object of a derived class using a reference variable of
the base class to group and use all the classes with common parent classes or
interfaces.
The need for casting:
■
■
Casting is the process of forcefully making a variable behave as a variable of
another type.
If the class Manager extends the class Employee, and a reference variable emp of
type Employee is used to refer to an object of the class Manager, ((Manager)emp)
will cast the variable emp to Manager.
Using super and this to access objects and constructors:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
The keywords super and this are object references. These variables are
defined and initialized by the JVM for every object in its memory.
The this reference always points to an object’s own instance.
You can use the keyword this to refer to all methods and variables that are
accessible to a class.
If a method defines a local variable or method parameter with the same name
as an instance variable, the keyword this must be used to access the instance
variable in the method.
You can call one constructor from another constructor by using the keyword
this.
With Java 8, you can use the keyword this in a default method to access the
methods of an interface and its constants.
The static methods of an interface can’t be accessed using the keyword this.
super, an object reference, refers to the parent class or the base class of a class.
The reference variable super can be used to access a variable or method from
the base class if there’s a clash between these names. This situation normally
occurs when a derived class defines variables and methods with the same names
as in the base class.
The reference variable super can also be used to refer to the constructors of the
direct parent class in a derived class.
Polymorphism with classes:
■
■
■
■
The literal meaning of the word polymorphism is “many forms.”
In Java, polymorphism comes into the picture when there’s an inheritance relationship between classes, and both the base and derived classes define methods
with the same name.
The polymorphic methods are also called overridden methods.
Overridden methods should define methods with the same name, same argument list, and same list of method parameters. The return type of the overriding method can be the same, or it can be a subclass of the return type of the
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■
■
■
■
■
Working with inheritance
overridden method in the base class, which is also known as the covariant
return type.
Access modifiers for an overriding method can be equally or less restrictive but
can’t be more restrictive than the method being overridden.
A derived class is said to override a method in the base class if it defines a
method with the same name, same parameter list, and same return type as in
the derived class.
If a method defined in a base class is overloaded in the derived classes, then
these two methods (in the base class and the derived class) are not called polymorphic methods.
When implementing polymorphism with classes, a method defined in the base
class may or may not be abstract.
When implementing polymorphism with interfaces, a method defined in the
base interface could be an abstract method or a non-abstract method with a
default implementation.
Static methods in interfaces don’t participate in polymorphism.
Simple lambda expressions:
■
■
Lambdas work only with functional interfaces—interfaces that define exactly
one abstract method.
Each lambda expression has multiple optional and mandatory sections:
– Parameter type (optional)
– Parameter name (mandatory)
– Arrow (mandatory)
– Curly braces (optional)
– Keyword return (optional)
– Lambda body (mandatory)
6.10 Sample exam questions
Q6-1. What is the output of the following code?
class Animal {
void jump() { System.out.println("Animal"); }
}
class Cat extends Animal {
void jump(int a) { System.out.println("Cat"); }
}
class Rabbit extends Animal {
void jump() { System.out.println("Rabbit"); }
}
class Circus {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal cat = new Cat();
Rabbit rabbit = new Rabbit();
cat.jump();
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rabbit.jump();
}
}
a
Animal
Rabbit
b
Cat
Rabbit
c
Animal
Animal
d
None of the above
Q6-2. Given the following code, select the correct statements:
class Flower {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Flower"); }
}
class Rose {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Rose"); }
}
class Lily {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Lily"); }
}
class Bouquet {
public void arrangeFlowers() {
Flower f1 = new Rose();
Flower f2 = new Lily();
f1.fragrance();
}
}
a
The output of the code is
Flower
b
The output of the code is
Rose
c
The output of the code is
Lily
d
The code fails to compile.
Q6-3. Examine the following code and select the correct method declaration to be
inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE:
interface Movable {
void move();
}
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class Person implements Movable {
public void move() { System.out.println("Person move"); }
}
class Vehicle implements Movable {
public void move() { System.out.println("Vehicle move"); }
}
class Test {
// INSERT CODE HERE
movable.move();
}
}
a
b
c
d
void
void
void
void
walk(Movable movable) {
walk(Person movable) {
walk(Vehicle movable) {
walk() {
Q6-4. Select the correct statements:
a
b
c
d
Only an abstract class can be used as a base class to implement polymorphism
with classes.
Polymorphic methods are also called overridden methods.
In polymorphism, depending on the exact type of object, the JVM executes the
appropriate method at compile time.
None of the above.
Q6-5. Given the following code, select the correct statements:
class Person {}
class Employee extends Person {}
class Doctor extends Person {}
a
b
c
d
The code exhibits polymorphism with classes.
The code exhibits polymorphism with interfaces.
The code exhibits polymorphism with classes and interfaces.
None of the above.
Q6-6. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
c
d
Inheritance enables you to reuse existing code.
Inheritance saves you from having to modify common code in multiple classes.
Polymorphism passes special instructions to the compiler so that the code can
run on multiple platforms.
Polymorphic methods can’t throw exceptions.
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Q6-7. Given the following code, which of the options are true?
class Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
class Moon extends Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
class ArtificialSatellite extends Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
c
The method orbit defined in the classes Satellite, Moon, and ArtificialSatellite is polymorphic.
Only the method orbit defined in the classes Satellite and ArtificialSatellite is polymorphic.
Only the method orbit defined in the class ArtificialSatellite is polymor-
d
phic.
None of the above.
a
b
Q6-8. Examine the following code:
class Programmer {
void print() {
System.out.println("Programmer - Mala Gupta");
}
}
class Author extends Programmer {
void print() {
System.out.println("Author - Mala Gupta");
}
}
class TestEJava {
Programmer a = new Programmer();
// INSERT CODE HERE
a.print();
b.print();
}
Which of the following lines of code can be individually inserted at //INSERT CODE
HERE so that the output of the code is as follows?
Programmer - Mala Gupta
Author - Mala Gupta
a
b
c
d
Programmer
Programmer
Author b =
Author b =
b =
b =
new
new
new Programmer();
new Author();
Author();
Programmer();
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f
Working with inheritance
Programmer b = ((Author)new Programmer());
Author b = ((Author)new Programmer());
Q6-9. Given the following code, which of the options, when applied individually, will
make it compile successfully?
Line1>
Line2>
Line3>
Line4>
Line5>
Line6>
Line7>
Line8>
Line9>
Line10>
a
b
c
d
interface Employee {}
interface Printable extends Employee {
String print();
}
class Programmer {
String print() { return("Programmer - Mala Gupta"); }
}
class Author extends Programmer implements Printable, Employee {
String print() { return("Author - Mala Gupta"); }
}
Modify the code on line 2 to interface Printable{
Modify the code on line 3 to publicStringprint();
Define the accessibility of the print methods to public on lines 6 and 9.
Modify the code on line 8 so that it implements only the interface Printable.
Q6-10. What is the output of the following code?
class Base {
String var = "EJava";
void printVar() {
System.out.println(var);
}
}
class Derived extends Base {
String var = "Guru";
void printVar() {
System.out.println(var);
}
}
class QReference {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Base base = new Base();
Base derived = new Derived();
System.out.println(base.var);
System.out.println(derived.var);
base.printVar();
derived.printVar();
}
}
a
EJava
EJava
EJava
Guru
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b
EJava
Guru
EJava
Guru
c
EJava
EJava
EJava
EJava
d
EJava
Guru
Guru
Guru
461
6.11 Answers to sample exam questions
Q6-1. What is the output of the following code?
class Animal {
void jump() { System.out.println("Animal"); }
}
class Cat extends Animal {
void jump(int a) { System.out.println("Cat"); }
}
class Rabbit extends Animal {
void jump() { System.out.println("Rabbit"); }
}
class Circus {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal cat = new Cat();
Rabbit rabbit = new Rabbit();
cat.jump();
rabbit.jump();
}
}
a
Animal
Rabbit
b
Cat
Rabbit
c
Animal
Animal
d
None of the above
Answer: a
Explanation: Although the classes Cat and Rabbit seem to override the method
jump, the class Cat doesn’t override the method jump() defined in the class Animal.
The class Cat defines a method parameter with the method jump, which makes it an
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overloaded method, not an overridden method. Because the class Cat extends the
class Animal, it has access to the following two overloaded jump methods:
void jump() { System.out.println("Animal"); }
void jump(int a) { System.out.println("Cat"); }
The following lines of code create an object of class Cat and assign it to a variable of
type Animal:
Animal cat = new Cat();
When you call the method jump on the previous object, it executes the method jump,
which doesn’t accept any method parameters, printing the following value:
Animal
The following code will also print Animal and not Cat:
Cat cat = new Cat();
cat.jump();
Q6-2. Given the following code, select the correct statements:
class Flower {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Flower"); }
}
class Rose {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Rose"); }
}
class Lily {
public void fragrance() {System.out.println("Lily"); }
}
class Bouquet {
public void arrangeFlowers() {
Flower f1 = new Rose();
Flower f2 = new Lily();
f1.fragrance();
}
}
a
The output of the code is
Flower
b
The output of the code is
Rose
c
The output of the code is
Lily
d
The code fails to compile.
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Answer: d
Explanation: Although the code seems to implement polymorphism using classes,
note that neither of the classes Rose or Lily extends the class Flower. Hence, a variable
of type Flower can’t be used to store objects of the classes Rose or Lily. The following
lines of code will fail to compile:
Flower f1 = new Rose();
Flower f2 = new Lily();
Q6-3. Examine the following code and select the correct method declaration to be
inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE:
interface Movable {
void move();
}
class Person implements Movable {
public void move() { System.out.println("Person move"); }
}
class Vehicle implements Movable {
public void move() { System.out.println("Vehicle move"); }
}
class Test {
// INSERT CODE HERE
movable.move();
}
}
a
b
c
d
void
void
void
void
walk(Movable movable) {
walk(Person movable) {
walk(Vehicle movable) {
walk() {
Answer: a, b, c
Explanation: You need to insert code in the class Test that makes the following line of
code work:
movable.move();
Hence, option (d) is incorrect. Because class Test doesn’t define any instance methods, the only way that the question’s line of code can execute is when a method
parameter movable is passed to the method walk.
Option (a) is correct. Because the interface Movable defines the method move, you
can pass a variable of its type to the method move.
Option (b) is correct. Because the class Person implements the interface Movable
and defines the method move, you can pass a variable of its type to the method walk.
With this version of the method walk, you can pass it an object of the class Person or
any of its subclasses.
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Option (c) is correct. Because the class Vehicle implements the interface Movable
and defines the method move, you can pass a variable of its type to the method walk.
With this version of method walk, you can pass it an object of the class Vehicle or any
of its subclasses.
Q6-4. Select the correct statements:
a
b
c
d
Only an abstract class can be used as a base class to implement polymorphism
with classes.
Polymorphic methods are also called overridden methods.
In polymorphism, depending on the exact type of object, the JVM executes the
appropriate method at compile time.
None of the above.
Answer: b
Option (a) is incorrect. To implement polymorphism with classes, either an abstract
class or a concrete class can be used as a base class.
Option (c) is incorrect. First of all, no code execution takes place at compile time.
Code can only execute at runtime. In polymorphism, the determination of the exact
method to execute is deferred until runtime and is determined by the exact type of
the object on which a method needs to be called.
Q6-5. Given the following code, select the correct statements:
class Person {}
class Employee extends Person {}
class Doctor extends Person {}
a
b
c
d
The code exhibits polymorphism with classes.
The code exhibits polymorphism with interfaces.
The code exhibits polymorphism with classes and interfaces.
None of the above.
Answer: d
Explanation: The given code doesn’t define any method in the class Person that is
redefined or implemented in the classes Employee and Doctor. Although the classes
Employee and Doctor extend the class Person, all three polymorphism concepts or
design principles are based on a method, which is missing in these classes.
Q6-6. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
Inheritance enables you to reuse existing code.
Inheritance saves you from having to modify common code in multiple classes.
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d
465
Polymorphism passes special instructions to the compiler so that the code can
run on multiple platforms.
Polymorphic methods can’t throw exceptions.
Answer: a, b
Explanation: Option (a) is correct. Inheritance can allow you to reuse existing code
by extending a class. In this way, the functionality that’s already defined in the base
class need not be defined in the derived class. The functionality offered by the base
class can be accessed in the derived class as if it were defined in the derived class.
Option (b) is correct. Common code can be placed in the base class, which can be
extended by all the derived classes. If any changes need to be made to this common
code, it can be modified in the base class. The modified code will be accessible to all
the derived classes.
Option (c) is incorrect. Polymorphism doesn’t pass any special instructions to the
compiler to make the Java code execute on multiple platforms. Java code can execute
on multiple platforms because the Java compiler compiles to virtual machine code,
which is platform neutral. Different platforms implement this virtual machine.
Option (d) is incorrect. Polymorphic methods can throw exceptions.
Q6-7. Given the following code, which of the options are true?
class Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
class Moon extends Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
class ArtificialSatellite extends Satellite {
void orbit() {}
}
a
b
c
d
The method orbit defined in the classes Satellite, Moon, and ArtificialSatellite is polymorphic.
Only the method orbit defined in the classes Satellite and ArtificialSatellite is polymorphic.
Only the method orbit defined in the class ArtificialSatellite is polymorphic.
None of the above.
Answer: a
Explanation: All these options define classes. When methods with the same method
signature are defined in classes that share an inheritance relationship, the methods
are considered polymorphic.
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Q6-8. Examine the following code:
class Programmer {
void print() {
System.out.println("Programmer - Mala Gupta");
}
}
class Author extends Programmer {
void print() {
System.out.println("Author - Mala Gupta");
}
}
class TestEJava {
Programmer a = new Programmer();
// INSERT CODE HERE
a.print();
b.print();
}
Which of the following lines of code can be individually inserted at //INSERT CODE
HERE so that the output of the code is as follows?
Programmer - Mala Gupta
Author - Mala Gupta
a
b
c
d
e
f
Programmer
Programmer
Author b =
Author b =
Programmer
Author b =
b = new Programmer();
b = new Author();
new Author();
new Programmer();
b = ((Author)new Programmer());
((Author)new Programmer());
Answer: b, c
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. This code will compile, but because both the reference variable and object are of type Programmer, calling print on this object will
print Programmer - Mala Gupta, not Author - Mala Gupta.
Option (d) is incorrect. This code will not compile. You can’t assign an object of a
base class to a reference variable of a derived class.
Option (e) is incorrect. This line of code will compile successfully, but it will fail at
runtime with a ClassCastException. An object of a base class can’t be cast to an
object of its derived class.
Option (f) is incorrect. The expression ((Author)new Programmer()) is evaluated
before it can be assigned to a reference variable of type Author. This line of code also
tries to cast an object of the base class, Programmer, to an object of its derived class,
Author. This code will also compile successfully but will fail at runtime with a ClassCastException. Using a reference variable of type Author won’t make a difference
here. What matters here is the type that follows the new operator.
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Answers to sample exam questions
467
Q6-9. Given the following code, which of the options, when applied individually, will
make it compile successfully?
Line1>
Line2>
Line3>
Line4>
Line5>
Line6>
Line7>
Line8>
Line9>
Line10>
a
b
c
d
interface Employee {}
interface Printable extends Employee {
String print();
}
class Programmer {
String print() { return("Programmer - Mala Gupta"); }
}
class Author extends Programmer implements Printable, Employee {
String print() { return("Author - Mala Gupta"); }
}
Modify the code on line 2 to interface Printable {
Modify the code on line 3 to public String print();
Define the accessibility of the print methods to public on lines 6 and 9.
Modify the code on line 8 so that it implements only the interface Printable.
Answer: c
Explanation: The methods in an interface are implicitly public. A non-abstract class
that implements an interface must implement all the methods defined in the interface. While overriding or implementing the methods, the accessibility of the implemented method must be public. An overriding method can’t be assigned a weaker
access privilege than public.
Option (a) is incorrect. There are no issues with the interface Printable extending
the interface Employee and the class Author implementing both of these interfaces.
Option (b) is incorrect. Adding the access modifier to the method print on line 3
won’t make any difference to the existing code. The methods defined in an interface
are implicitly public.
Option (d) is incorrect. There are no issues with a class implementing two interfaces when one of the interfaces extends the other interface.
Q6-10. What is the output of the following code?
class Base {
String var = "EJava";
void printVar() {
System.out.println(var);
}
}
class Derived extends Base {
String var = "Guru";
void printVar() {
System.out.println(var);
}
}
class QReference {
public static void main(String[] args) {
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Working with inheritance
Base base = new Base();
Base derived = new Derived();
System.out.println(base.var);
System.out.println(derived.var);
base.printVar();
derived.printVar();
}
}
a
EJava
EJava
EJava
Guru
b
EJava
Guru
EJava
Guru
c
EJava
EJava
EJava
EJava
d
EJava
Guru
Guru
Guru
Answer: a
Explanation: With inheritance, the instance variables bind at compile time and the
methods bind at runtime. The following line of code refers to an object of the class
Base, using a reference variable of type Base. Hence, both of the following lines of
code print EJava:
System.out.println(base.var);
base.printVar();
But the following line of code refers to an object of the class Derived using a reference variable of type Base:
Base derived = new Derived();
Because the instance variables bind at compile time, the following line of code
accesses and prints the value of the instance variable defined in the class Base:
System.out.println(derived.var);
// prints EJava
In derived.printVar(), even though the method printVar is called using a reference of type Base, the JVM is aware that the method is invoked on a Derived object
and so executes the overridden printVar method in the class Derived.
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Exception handling
Exam objectives covered in this chapter
What you need to know
[8.3] Describe the advantages of Exception
handling.
The need for and advantages of exception handlers.
[8.1] Differentiate among checked exceptions, unchecked exceptions, and Errors.
Differences and similarities between checked exceptions, RuntimeExceptions, and Errors.
Differences and similarities in the way these exceptions and errors are handled in code.
[8.2] Create a try-catch block and
determine how exceptions alter normal
program flow.
How to create a try-catch-finally block. Understand the flow of code when the enclosed code
throws an exception or error.
How to create nested try-catch-finally blocks.
[8.4] Create and invoke a method that
throws an exception.
How to create methods that throw exceptions.
Rules that cover when overriding or overridden methods throw or don’t throw exceptions.
How to determine the flow of control when an
invoked method throws an exception. How to apply
this to cases when one is thrown without a try
block and from a try block (with appropriate and
insufficient exception handlers).
The difference in calling methods that throw or don’t
throw exceptions.
[8.5] Recognize common exception classes
(such as NullPointerException, ArithmeticException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, ClassCastException)
How to recognize the code that can throw these
exceptions and handle them appropriately.
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CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
Imagine you’re about to board an airplane to Geneva to attend an important conference. At the last minute, you learn that the flight has been cancelled because the pilot
isn’t feeling well. Fortunately, the airline quickly arranges for an alternative pilot,
allowing the flight to take off at its originally scheduled time. What a relief!
This example illustrates how exceptional conditions can modify the initial flow of
an action and demonstrates the need to handle those conditions appropriately. In
Java, an exceptional condition (like the illness of a pilot) can affect the normal code
flow (airline flight operation). In this context, the arrangement for an alternative pilot
can be compared to an exception handler.
Depending on the nature of the exceptional condition, you may or may not be able
to recover completely. For example, would airline management have been able to get
your flight off the ground if, instead, an earthquake had damaged much of the airport?
In the exam, you’ll be asked similar questions with respect to Java code and exceptions. With that in mind, this chapter covers the following:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Understanding and identifying exceptions arising in code
Determining how exceptions alter the normal program flow
Understanding the need to handle exceptions separately in your code
Using try-catch-finally blocks to handle exceptions
Differentiating between checked exceptions, unchecked exceptions, and errors
Invoking methods that may throw exceptions
Recognizing common exception categories and classes
You might feel like we’re covering a lot in this chapter, but remember that we aren’t
going to delve into too much background information because I assume you already
know the definitions and uses of classes and methods, class inheritance, arrays, and
ArrayLists. Our focus in this chapter is on the exam objectives and what you need to
know about exceptions.
In this chapter, I won’t discuss a try statement with multiple catch clauses, automatic closing of resources with a try-with-resources statement, or the creation of custom exceptions. These topics are covered in the next level of Java certification (in the
OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam).
7.1
Exceptions in Java
[8.3] Describe the advantages of Exception handling
In this section, you’ll learn what exceptions are in Java, why you need to handle exceptions separately from the main code, and all about their advantages and disadvantages.
7.1.1
A taste of exceptions
In figure 7.1, do you think the code in bold in the classes ArrayAccess, OpenFile, and
MethodAccess has anything in common?
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public class ArrayAccess
{
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph", null};
System.out.println(students[5].length());
}
}
public class OpenFile {
public static void main(String args[]) {
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream("file.txt");
}
}
Examine these
lines of code.
public class MethodAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
myMethod();
}
public static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("myMethod");
myMethod();
}
}
Figure 7.1 Getting a taste of exceptions in Java
I’m sure, given this chapter’s title, that this question was easy to answer. Each of these
three statements is associated with throwing an exception or an error. Let’s look at
them individually:
■
Class ArrayAccess—Because the length of the array students is 3, trying to
access the element at array position 5 is an exceptional condition, as shown in
figure 7.2.
public class ArrayAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph", null};
System.out.println(students[5].length());
}
}
Throws
ArrayIndexOutofBoundsException
at runtime
Invalid array
position
0
Shreya
1
Joseph
2
null
Array
students
Figure 7.2 An example of ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
■
Class OpenFile—The constructor of the class FileInputStream throws a checked
exception, FileNotFoundException (as shown in figure 7.3). If you try to compile this code without enclosing it within a try block and catching it, or marking
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CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
it to be thrown by the method main (by using the throws statement), or catching this exception, your code will fail to compile. (I’ll discuss checked exceptions in detail in section 7.2.3.)
import java.io.*;
public class OpenFile {
public static void main(String args[]) {
FileInputStream fis = new
FileInputStream("file.txt");
}
}
Class fails
to compile
Checked exception, FileNotFoundException, thrown by
FileInputStream constructor, not “caught” by code
Figure 7.3 An example of FileNotFoundException
■
Class MethodAccess—As you can see in figure 7.4, the method myMethod calls
itself recursively, without specifying an exit condition. These recursive calls result
in a StackOverflowError at runtime.
public class MethodAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
myMethod();
}
public static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("myMethod");
myMethod();
}
}
Figure 7.4
Throws
StackOverflowError at
runtime
Calls itself recursively
without an exit condition
An example of StackOverflowError
These examples of exceptions are typical of what you’ll find on the OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I exam. Let’s move on and explore exceptions and their handling in Java
so that you can spot code that throws exceptions and handle them accordingly.
File I/O in Java
File I/O isn’t covered on this exam, but you may notice it mentioned in questions
related to exception handling. I’ll cover it quickly here just to the extent required for
this exam.
File I/O involves multiple classes that enable you to read data from and write it to a
source. This data source can be persistent storage, memory, or even network connections. Data can be read and written as streams of binary or character data. Some
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file I/O classes only read data from a source, some write data to a source, and some
do both.
In this chapter, you’ll work with three classes from the file I/O API: java.io.File,
java.io.FileInputStream, and java.io.FileOutputStream. File is an abstract
representation of file and directory pathnames. You can open a File and then read
from and write to it. A FileInputStream obtains input bytes using an object of the
class File. It defines the methods read to read bytes and close to close this
stream. A FileOutputStream is an output stream for writing data to a File. It
defines the methods write to write bytes and close to close this stream.
Creating an object of the class FileInputStream or FileOutputStream can throw
the checked exception java.io.FileNotFoundException. The methods read,
write, and close defined in classes FileInputStream and FileOutputStream can
throw the checked exception java.io.IOException. Note that FileNotFoundException subclasses IOException.
7.1.2
Why handle exceptions separately?
Imagine you want to post some comments on a blogging website. To make a comment, you must complete the following steps:
1
2
3
4
Access the blogging website.
Log into your account.
Select the blog you want to comment on.
Post your comments.
The preceding list might seem like an ideal set of steps. In actual conditions, you may
have to verify whether you’ve completed a previous step before you can progress with
the next step. Figure 7.5 modifies the previous steps.
Access the blogging website
if (website available) {
Log in to your account
if (login successful) {
Select the blog to be commented on
if (database error in accessing data) {
Try again later
}
else {
Post your comments
}
}
else {
Request for new password
}
}
else {
Try to access website again later
}
Expected code flow
lost in combating
exceptional
conditions
Figure 7.5 Expected code flow lost in combating exception conditions, without separate
exception handlers
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The modified logic (figure 7.5) requires the code to check conditions before a user
can continue with the next step. This checking of conditions at multiple places introduces new steps for users and also new paths of execution of the original steps. The
difficult part of these modified paths is that they may leave users confused about the
steps involved in the tasks they’re trying to accomplish. Figure 7.6 shows how exception handling can help.
try {
Access the blogging website
Log in to your account
Select the blog to be commented on
Post your comments
catch (WebsiteUnavailableException e) {
// define code to execute if website not available
catch (LoginUnsuccesfulException e) {
// code to execute if login is unsuccessful
catch (DatabaseAccessException e) {
// code to execute if data for particular
// post cannot be accessed
}
Required code
flows together.
Exception-handling
code is separate
from the regular
flow of code.
Figure 7.6 Defining exception-handling code separate from the main code logic
The code in figure 7.6 defines the original steps required to post comments to a blog,
along with some exception-handling code. Because the exception handlers are defined
separately, any confusion with what steps you need to accomplish to post comments
on the website has been clarified. In addition, this code doesn’t compromise on checking the completion of a step before moving on to the next step, courtesy of appropriate
exception handlers.
7.1.3
Does exception handling offer any other benefits?
Apart from separating concerns between defining the regular program logic and the
exception-handling code, exceptions also can help pinpoint the offending code (code
that throws an exception), together with the method in which it is defined, by providing a stack trace of the exception or error.
A stack trace is so called because it gives you a way to trace back the
stack—the sequence of method calls that generated the error (covered in
detail in section 7.2).
NOTE
Here’s an example:
public class Trace {
public static void main(String args[]) {
method1();
}
public static void method1() {
method2();
}
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//
//
//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
475
Categories of exceptions
public static void method2() {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph"};
System.out.println(students[5]);
}
}
//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
8
9
10
11
12
method2() tries to access the array element of students at index 5, which is an invalid
index for the array students, so the code throws the exception ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException at runtime. Figure 7.7 shows the stack trace when this exception is
thrown. It includes the runtime exception message and the list of methods that were
involved in calling the code that threw the exception, starting from the entry point of
this application, the main method. You can match the line numbers specified in the
stack trace in figure 7.7 to the line numbers in the code.
Exception in thread "main"
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 5
at Trace.method2(Trace.java:10)
at Trace.method1(Trace.java:6)
at Trace.main(Trace.java:3)
Offending code in method2 (line 10)
method2 called by method1 (line 6)
method1 called by main (line 3)
Figure 7.7 Tracing the line of code that threw an exception at runtime
The stack trace gives you a trace of the methods that were called when
the JVM encountered an unhandled exception. Stack traces are read from
the bottom up. In figure 7.7, the trace starts with the main method (the last
line of the stack trace) and continues up to the method containing the code
that threw the exception. Depending on the complexity of your code, a stack
trace can range from a few lines to hundreds of lines of code. A stack trace
works with handled and unhandled exceptions.
NOTE
Let’s move on and look at more details of exception propagation and at the creation
of try-catch-finally blocks to take care of exceptions in code.
Before diving into the details of exception handling, let’s look at the multiple flavors of exceptions.
7.2
Categories of exceptions
[8.1] Differentiate among checked exceptions, unchecked exceptions,
and Errors
The Java compiler and its runtime treat the exception categories in a different manner. This implies that separate rules exist to define methods that throw exceptions and
code that handles them.
In this section, you’ll learn about the categories of exceptions in Java: checked
exceptions, runtime exceptions, and errors.
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7.2.1
CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
Identifying exception categories
As depicted in figure 7.8, exceptions can be divided into three main categories:
■
■
■
Checked exceptions
Runtime exceptions
Errors
Checked
exceptions
Runtime
exceptions
Exceptions
Errors
Unchecked exceptions = Runtime exception + Errors
Figure 7.8 Categories of exceptions:
checked exceptions, runtime exceptions,
and errors
Runtime exceptions and errors are collectively referred to as unchecked
exceptions.
NOTE
Of these three types, checked exceptions require most of your attention when it comes
to coding and using methods. Runtime exceptions represent programming errors.
Checks should be inserted to prevent runtime exceptions from being thrown. There
are few options you can use for the errors, because they’re thrown by the JVM.
For the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam, it’s important to have a crystal-clear
understanding of these three categories of exceptions, including their similarities
and differences.
7.2.2
Class hierarchy of exception classes
Exception categories are related to each other; all extend the class java.lang.Throwable (as shown in the class hierarchy in figure 7.9).
Here’s the categorization of exceptions based on their class hierarchy:
■
■
■
Checked exceptions—java.lang.Exception and its subclasses (excluding java.lang
.RuntimeException and its subclasses)
Runtime exceptions—java.lang.RuntimeException and its subclasses
Errors—java.lang.Error and its subclasses
Let’s examine each of these categories in detail.
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477
java.lang.Object
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Error
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
7.2.3
Figure 7.9 Class hierarchies of
exception categories
Checked exceptions
When we talk about handling exceptions, checked exceptions take up most of our
attention.
What is a checked exception?
■
■
■
A checked exception is an unacceptable condition foreseen by the author of a
method but outside their immediate control. For an example, FileNotFoundException is a checked exception. This exception is thrown if the file that the
code is trying to access can’t be found. A method, say, readFile(), can declare
it to be thrown when it’s unable to access the target file.
Checked exceptions are so named because they’re checked during compilation. If a method call throws a checked exception, the compiler checks and
ensures that the calling method is either handling the exception or declaring it
to be rethrown.
A checked exception is a subclass of the class java.lang.Exception, but it’s
not a subclass of java.lang.RuntimeException. It’s interesting to note, however, that the class java.lang.RuntimeException itself is a subclass of the class
java.lang.Exception.
In this exam, you may have to select which type of reference variable to use to store the object of the thrown checked exception in a handler.
To answer such questions correctly, remember that a checked exception subclasses java.lang.Exception but not java.lang.RuntimeException.
EXAM TIP
A checked exception is part of the API and is well documented. For a quick example,
here’s the declaration of the constructor of the class java.io.FileInputStream in the
Java API:
public FileInputStream(File file)
throws FileNotFoundException
Checked exceptions are unacceptable conditions that a programmer foresees at the time
of writing a method. By declaring these exceptions as checked exceptions, the author of
the method makes its users aware of the exceptional conditions that can arise from its
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use. The user of a method with a checked exception must handle the exceptional condition accordingly.
7.2.4
Runtime exceptions
Although you’ll spend most of your time and energy combating checked exceptions,
the runtime exceptions will give you the most headaches. This is particularly true
when you’re preparing to work on real-life projects. Some examples of runtime exceptions are NullPointerException (the most common one), ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, and ClassCastException.
What is a runtime exception?
■
■
■
■
A runtime exception is a representation of a programming error. These occur
from inappropriate use of a piece of code. For example, NullPointerException
is a runtime exception that occurs when a piece of code tries to execute some
code on a variable that hasn’t been assigned an object and points to null.
Another example is ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, which is thrown when
a piece of code tries to access an array element at a nonexistent position.
A runtime exception is named so because it isn’t feasible to determine whether
a method call will throw a runtime exception until it executes.
A runtime exception is a subclass of java.lang.RuntimeException.
It’s optional to declare a runtime exception in the signature of a method. It’s
up to the person who writes the code to decide whether to declare it explicitly
or not.
EXAM TIP Together, runtime exceptions and errors are referred to as
unchecked exceptions.
7.2.5
Errors
Whether you’re preparing for this exam or your real-life projects, you need to know
when the JVM throws errors. These errors are considered to be serious exceptional
conditions and they can’t be directly controlled by your code.
What is an error?
■
■
■
■
An error is a serious exception thrown by the JVM as a result of an error in the
environment state that processes your code. For example, NoClassDefFoundError is an error thrown by the JVM when it’s unable to locate the .class file that
it’s supposed to run. StackOverflowError is another error thrown by the JVM
when the size of the memory required by the stack of a Java program is greater
than what the JRE has offered for the Java application. This error might also
occur as a result of infinite or highly nested loops.
An error is a subclass of class java.lang.Error.
An error need not be a part of a method signature.
An error can be caught by an exception handler, but it shouldn’t be.
Let’s move on to creating methods that throw exceptions.
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Creating a method that throws an exception
7.3
479
Creating a method that throws an exception
[8.4] Create and invoke a method that throws an exception
In this section, you’ll explore the need to create methods that throw exceptions.
You’ll also work with the throw and throws keywords to define methods that throw
exceptions.
Why do you need methods that throw exceptions? Imagine that you’re assigned
the task of finding a specific book and then reading and explaining its contents to a
class of students. The required sequence looks like the following:
1
2
3
Get the specified book.
Read aloud its contents.
Explain the contents to a class of students.
But what happens if you can’t find the specified book? You can’t proceed with the rest
of the actions without it, so you need to report back to the person who assigned the
task to you. This unexpected event (the missing book) prevents you from completing
your task. By reporting it, you want the originator of this request to take corrective or
alternate steps.
Let’s code the preceding task as the teachClass method, as shown in figure 7.10,
which uses the throw statement and throws clause. This example code is for demonstration purposes only, because it uses the BookNotFoundException exception and the
locateBook(), readBook(), and explainContents() methods, which aren’t defined.
The code in figure 7.10 is simple to follow. On execution of the code throw new
BookNotFoundException(), the execution of teachClass() halts. The JVM creates an
instance of BookNotFoundException and sends it off to the caller of teachClass() so
alternate arrangements can be made.
Keyword
throws
void teachClass() throws BookNotFoundException {
boolean bookFound = locateBook();
if (!bookFound)
throw new BookNotFoundException();
else {
readBook();
explainContents();
}
Keyword
throw
}
Figure 7.10
exceptions
Using throw and throws to create methods that can throw
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The throw statement is used to throw an instance of BookNotFoundException. The
throws statement is used in the declaration of the teachClass() method to signal
that it can throw BookNotFoundException.
Why does a method choose to throw an exception as opposed to handling it itself?
It’s a contract between the calling method and the called method. Referring to the
teachClass() method shown in figure 7.9, the caller of teachClass would like to be
informed if teachClass() is unable to find the specified book. The teachClass()
method doesn’t handle BookNotFoundException because its responsibilities don’t
include working around a missing book.
The preceding example helps identify a situation when you’d want a method to
throw an exception, rather than handling it itself. It shows you how to use and compare the statements throw and throws—to throw exceptions and to signal that a
method might throw an exception. The example also shows that a calling method can
define alternate code, when the called method doesn’t complete successfully and
throws an exception. Apart from testing this logic, the exam will test you on how to
create and use methods that throw checked or unchecked exceptions and errors,
along with several other rules.
7.3.1
Create a method that throws a checked exception
Let’s create a simple method that doesn’t handle the checked exception thrown by it,
by using the statements throw and throws. The class DemoThrowsException defines
the readFile() method, which includes a throws clause in its method declaration.
The actual throwing of an exception is accomplished by the throw statement:
The throws statement indicates the
method can throw FileNotFoundException
or one of its subclasses
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
class DemoThrowsException {
public void readFile(String file) throws FileNotFoundException
boolean found = findFile(file);
if (!found)
throw new FileNotFoundException("Missing file");
else {
//code to read file
}
}
boolean findFile(String file) {
//code to return true if file can be located
}
}
{
If file can’t be found,
code creates and
throws instance of
FileNotFoundException
by using the throw
statement
A method can have multiple comma-separated class names of exceptions in its
throws clause. Including runtime exceptions or errors in the method declaration isn’t
required. Including them in the documentation is the preferred way to mention
them. A method can still throw runtime exceptions or errors, without including them
in its throws clause.
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Creating a method that throws an exception
481
Syntactically, you don’t always need a combination of throw and
throws statements to create a method that throws an exception (checked or
unchecked). You can replace the throw statement with a method that throws
EXAM TIP
an exception.
7.3.2
Handle-or-declare rule
To use a method that throws a checked exception, you must do one of the following:
■
■
■
Handle the exception—Enclose the code within a try block and catch the thrown
exception.
Declare it to be thrown—Declare the exception to be thrown by using the throws
clause.
Handle and declare—Implement both of the preceding options together.
EXAM TIP The rule of either handling or declaring an exception is also
referred to as the handle-or-declare rule. To use a method that throws a checked
exception, you must either handle the exception or declare it to be thrown. But
this rule applies only to checked exceptions and not to unchecked exceptions.
7.3.3
Creating a method that throws runtime exceptions or errors
When creating a method that throws a runtime exception or error, including the
exception or error name in the throws clause isn’t required. A method that throws a
runtime exception or error isn’t subject to the handle-or-declare rule.
Let’s see this concept in action by modifying the preceding example so the readFile() method throws NullPointerException (a runtime exception) when a null
value is passed to it (code changes are shown in bold in this example and throughout
the rest of the chapter):
The throws clause indicates that this
method can throw FileNotFoundException
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
class DemoThrowsException {
public void readFile(String file) throws FileNotFoundException {
if (file == null)
throw new NullPointerException();
Code throws
boolean found = findFile(file);
NullPointerException,
if (!found)
but it’s not included
throw new FileNotFoundException("Missing file");
in the throws clause
else {
//code to read file
}
}
boolean findFile(String file) {
//code to return true if file can be located
}
}
The exam might trick you by including the names of runtime exceptions and errors in
one method’s declaration and leaving them out in another. (You can include the
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name of unchecked exceptions in the throws clause, but you don’t have to.) Assuming that the rest of the code remains the same, the following method declaration
is correct:
public void readFile(String file)
throws NullPointerException, FileNotFoundException {
//rest of the code remains same
}
Though not required, including runtime
exceptions in the throws clause is valid.
Adding runtime exceptions or errors to a method’s declaration
isn’t required. A method can throw a runtime exception or error irrespective
of whether its name is included in its throws clause.
EXAM TIP
7.3.4
A method can declare to throw all types of exceptions,
even if it doesn’t
In the following example, the class ThrowExceptions defines multiple methods,
which declare to throw different exception types. The class ThrowExceptions compiles successfully, even though its methods don’t include the code that might throw
these exceptions:
class ThrowExceptions {
void method1() throws
void method2() throws
void method3() throws
void method4() throws
void method5() throws
}
Error {}
Exception {}
Throwable {}
RuntimeException {}
FileNotFoundException {}
Although a try block can define a handler for unchecked exceptions not thrown by
it, it can’t do so for checked exceptions (other than Exception):
class HandleExceptions {
void method6() {
try {}
catch (Error e) {}
}
void method7() {
try {}
catch (Exception e) {}
}
void method8() {
try {}
catch (Throwable e) {}
}
void method9() {
try {}
catch (RuntimeException e) {}
}
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What happens when an exception is thrown?
void method10() {
try {}
catch (FileNotFoundException e) {}
}
Won’t
compile
}
In the preceding code, method6(), method7(), method8(), and method9() compile
even though their try block doesn’t define code to throw the exception being handled by its catch block. But method10() won’t compile.
A method can declare to throw any type of exception, checked or
unchecked, even if it doesn’t do so. But a try block can’t define a catch
block for a checked exception (other than Exception) if the try block
doesn’t throw that checked exception or use a method that declares to throw
that checked exception.
EXAM TIP
In the next section, we’ll detail what happens when an exception is thrown and how to
handle that.
7.4
What happens when an exception is thrown?
[8.2] Create a try-catch block and determine how exceptions alter normal
program flow
[8.4] Create and invoke a method that throws an exception
In this section, we’ll uncover what happens when an exception is thrown in Java. We’ll
work through several examples to understand how the normal flow of code is disrupted when an exception is thrown. We’ll also define an alternative program flow for
code that may throw exceptions using try-catch-finally blocks.
As with all other Java objects, an exception is an object. All types of exceptions subclass java.lang.Throwable. When a piece of code hits an obstacle in the form of an
exceptional condition, it creates an object of the class java.lang.Throwable (at runtime, an object of the most appropriate subtype is created), initializes it with the necessary information (such as its type, an optional textual description, and the offending
program’s state), and hands it over to the JVM. The JVM blows a siren in the form of
this exception and looks for an appropriate code block that can “handle” this exception. The JVM keeps account of all the methods that were called when it hit the
offending code, so to find an appropriate exception handler it looks through all the
tracked method calls.
Reexamine the class Trace and the ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException thrown by
it, as mentioned in section 7.1.3. Figure 7.11 illustrates the propagation of the exception ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException thrown by method2 through all the methods.
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b
c
Stack
pointer
Stack
pointer
main()
method1()
Start execution
of class Trace
main() calls method1()
main()
d
Stack
pointer
method2()
method1() calls method2()
method1()
main()
e
Stack
pointer
method2()
Throws ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Not handled by itself
method1()
Hands it over to method1()
main()
f
Stack
pointer
method1()
main()
g
Stack
pointer
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException not
handled by method1()
Hands it over to main()
main()
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
not handled by main()
Halts execution of class
Figure 7.11
Propagation of an exception through multiple method calls
To understand how an exception propagates through method calls, it’s important
to understand how method calls work. An application starts its execution with the
method main, and main may call other methods. When main calls another method,
the called method should complete its execution before main can complete its own
execution.
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485
An operating system (OS) keeps track of the code that it needs to execute using a
stack. A stack is a type of list in which the items that are added last to it are the first
ones to be taken off it—last in, first out. This stack uses a stack pointer to point to the
instructions that the OS should execute.
Now that you have this basic information under your belt, here’s a step-by-step discussion of exception propagation, as shown in figure 7.11:
1
2
3
4
5
6
When the method main starts its execution, its instructions are pushed onto
the stack.
The method main calls the method method1, and instructions for method1 are
pushed onto the stack.
method1 calls method2; instructions for method2 are pushed onto the stack.
method2 throws an exception: ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException. Because
method2 doesn’t handle this exception itself, it’s passed to the method that
called it—method1.
method1 doesn’t define any exception handler for ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, so it hands this exception over to its calling method—main.
There are no exception handlers for ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException in main.
Because there are no further methods that handle ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, execution of the class Trace stops.
You can use try-catch-finally blocks to define code to execute when an exception is
thrown, as discussed in the next section.
7.4.1
Creating try-catch-finally blocks
When you work with exception handlers, you often hear the terms try, catch, and
finally. Before you start to work with these concepts, I’ll answer three simple questions:
■
Try what?
First, you try to execute your code. If it doesn’t execute as planned, you handle
the exceptional conditions using a catch block.
■
Catch what?
You catch the exceptional event arising from the code enclosed within the try
block and handle the event by defining appropriate exception handlers.
■
What does finally do?
Finally, you execute a set of code, in all conditions, regardless of whether the
code in the try block throws any exceptions.
Let’s compare a try-catch-finally block with a real-life example. Imagine you’re going
river rafting on your vacation. Your instructor informs you that while rafting, you might
fall off the raft into the river while crossing the rapids. In such a condition, you should try
to use your oar or the rope thrown toward you to get back into the raft. You might also
drop your oar into the river while rowing your raft. In such a condition, you should not
panic and should stay seated. Whatever happens, you’re paying for this adventure sport.
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Compare this to Java code:
■
■
■
■
■
You can compare river rafting to a class whose methods might throw exceptions.
Crossing the rapids and rowing a raft are methods that might throw exceptions.
Falling off the raft and dropping your oar are the exceptions.
The steps for getting back into the raft and not panicking are the exception
handlers—code that executes when an exception arises.
The fact that you pay for the sport, whether you stay in the boat or not, can be
compared to the finally block.
Let’s implement the previous real-life examples by defining appropriate classes and
methods. To start with, here are two barebones exception classes—FallInRiverException and DropOarException—that can be thrown by methods in the class
RiverRafting:
class FallInRiverException extends Exception {}
class DropOarException extends Exception {}
You can create an exception of your own—a custom exception—by
extending the class Exception (or any of its subclasses). Although the creation of custom classes is not on this exam, you may see questions in the exam
that create and use custom exceptions. Perhaps these are included because
hardly any checked exceptions from the Java API are on this exam. Coding
questions on the exam may create and use custom exceptions.
NOTE
Following is a definition of class RiverRafting. Its methods crossRapid and rowRaft
may throw exceptions of type FallInRiverException and DropOarException:
class RiverRafting {
void crossRapid(int degree) throws FallInRiverException {
System.out.println("Cross Rapid");
if (degree > 10) throw new FallInRiverException();
}
void rowRaft(String state) throws DropOarException {
System.out.println("Row Raft");
if (state.equals("nervous")) throw new DropOarException();
}
}
b
Method crossRapid
may throw
FallInRiverException
c
Method rowRaft
may throw
DropOarException
The method crossRapid at B throws the exception FallInRiverException. When
you call this method, you should define an exception handler for this exception. Similarly, the method rowRaft at c throws the exception DropOarException. When you
call this method, you should define an exception handler for this exception.
When you execute methods that may throw checked exceptions (exceptions that
don’t extend the class RuntimeException), enclose the code within a try block.
catch blocks that follow a try block should handle all the checked exceptions
thrown by the code enclosed in the try block (checked exceptions are covered in
detail in section 7.2.3).
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What happens when an exception is thrown?
The code shown in figure 7.12 uses the class RiverRafting as defined previously
and depicts the flow of control when the code on line 3 (riverRafting.crossRapid(11);) throws an exception of type FallInRiverException.
1>
2>
3>
4>
5>
6>
7>
8>
9>
10>
11>
12>
13>
14>
15>
16>
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
try {
riverRafting.crossRapid(11);
riverRafting.rowRaft("happy");
System.out.println("Enjoy River Rafting");
}
catch (FallingRiverException e1) {
System.out.println("Get back in the raft");
}
catch (DropOarException e2) {
System.out.println("Do not panic");
}
finally {
System.out.println("Pay for the sport");
}
System.out.println("After the try block");
Figure 7.12
1. Execute code on line 3.
Code on lines 4 and 5 won't
execute if line 3 throws an
exception.
2. Combat exception thrown by
code on line 3. Execute exception
handler for
FallInRiverException.
3. finally block always
executes, whether line 3 throws any
exception or not.
4. Control transfers to the
statement following the
try-catch-finally block.
Modified flow of control when an exception is thrown
The example in figure 7.12 shows how exceptions alter the normal program flow. If
the code on line 3 throws an exception (FallInRiverException), the code on lines 4
and 5 won’t execute. In this case, control is transferred to the code block that handles
FallInRiverException. Then control is transferred to the finally block. After the
execution of the finally block, the code that follows the try-catch-finally block is
executed. The output of the previous code is as follows:
Cross Rapid
Get back in the raft
Pay for the sport
After the try block
If you modify the previous example code as follows, no exceptions are thrown by the
code on line 3 (modifications in bold):
class TestRiverRafting {
public static void main(String args[]) {
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
try {
riverRafting.crossRapid(7);
riverRafting.rowRaft("happy");
System.out.println("Enjoy River Rafting");
} catch (FallInRiverException e1) {
System.out.println("Get back in the raft");
} catch (DropOarException e2) {
System.out.println("Do not panic");
} finally {
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No exceptions
thrown by this
line of code
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CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
System.out.println("Pay for the sport");
}
System.out.println("After the try block");
}
}
The output of the previous code is as follows:
Cross Rapid
Row Raft
Enjoy River Rafting
Pay for the sport
After the try block
What do you think the output of the code would be if the method rowRaft threw an
exception? Try it for yourself!
The finally block executes regardless of whether the try block
throws an exception.
EXAM TIP
SINGLE TRY BLOCK, MULTIPLE CATCH BLOCKS, AND A FINALLY BLOCK
For a try block, you can define multiple catch blocks but only a single finally block.
Multiple catch blocks are used to handle different types of exceptions. A finally
block is used to define cleanup code—code that closes and releases resources, such as
file handlers and database or network connections.
When it comes to code, it makes sense to verify a concept by watching it in action.
Let’s work through a simple example so that you can better understand how to use the
try-catch-finally block.
In the following listing, the constructor of the class FileInputStream may throw a
FileNotFoundException, and calling the method read on an object of FileInputStream, such as fis, may throw an IOException.
Listing 7.1 Code flow with multiple catch statements and a finally block
import java.io.*;
public class MultipleExceptions {
public static void main(String args[]) {
FileInputStream fis = null;
try {
fis = new FileInputStream("file.txt");
System.out.println("File Opened");
fis.read();
System.out.println("Read File ");
} catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("File not found");
} catch (IOException ioe) {
System.out.println("I/O Exception");
} finally {
System.out.println("finally");
//code to close fis
}
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May throw
FileNotFoundException
May throw
IOException
Positioning of
catch and
finally blocks
can’t be
interchanged
What happens when an exception is thrown?
489
System.out.println("Next task..");
}
}
Table 7.1 compares the code output that occurs depending on whether the system is
able or unable to open (and read) file.txt.
Table 7.1 Output of code in listing 7.1 when the system is unable to open file.txt and when the system
is able to open file.txt but unable to read it
Output if the system is unable
to open file.txt
File not found
finally
Next task..
Output if the system is able to open file.txt but unable
to read it
File Opened
File Closing Exception
finally
Next task..
In either of the cases described in table 7.1, the finally block executes, and after its
execution, control is transferred to the statement following the try-catch block.
Here’s the output of the class MultipleExceptions if none of its code throws an
exception:
File Opened
Read File
finally
Next task..
It’s time now to attempt this chapter’s first Twist in the Tale exercise. When you execute the code in this exercise, you’ll understand what happens when you change the
placement of the exception handlers (answers are in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 7.1
Let’s modify the placement of the finally block in listing 7.1 and see what happens.
Given that file.txt doesn’t exist on your system, what is the output of the following code?
import java.io.*;
public class MultipleExceptions {
public static void main(String args[]) {
FileInputStream fis = null;
try {
fis = new FileInputStream("file.txt");
System.out.println("File Opened");
fis.read();
System.out.println("Read File");
} finally {
System.out.println("finally");
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} catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("File not found");
} catch (IOException ioe) {
System.out.println("File Closing Exception");
}
System.out.println("Next task..");
}
}
a
The code prints
File not found
finally
Next task..
b
The code prints
File Opened
File Closing Exception
finally
Next task..
c
d
7.4.2
The code prints File not found.
The code fails to compile.
Using a method that throws a checked exception
To use a method that throws a checked exception, you must follow the handle-or-declare
rule (section 7.3.2). In the following code, the method main in the class TestRiverRafting won’t compile because it doesn’t handle or declare the checked exception
FallInRiverException declared to be thrown by the method crossRapid:
class FallInRiverException extends Exception {}
FallInRiverException is
a checked exception
class RiverRafting {
void crossRapid(int degree) throws FallInRiverException {
System.out.println("Cross Rapid");
if (degree > 10) throw new FallInRiverException();
}
}
crossRapid
declares
to throw
FallInRiverException
class TestRiverRafting {
public static void main(String args[]) {
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
riverRafting.crossRapid(9);
}
Won’t compile; main neither handles
}
nor declares FallInRiverException
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What happens when an exception is thrown?
The main method in the classes Handle, Declare, and HandleAndDeclare compiles
successfully because they follow the handle-or-declare rule:
class Handle {
public static void main(String args[]) {
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
try {
riverRafting.crossRapid(9);
} catch (FallInRiverException e) {
System.out.println("Exception : " + e);
}
}
}
class Declare {
public static void main(String args[]) throws FallInRiverException {
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
riverRafting.crossRapid(9);
}
}
class HandleAndDeclare {
public static void main(String args[]) throws FallInRiverException {
RiverRafting riverRafting = new RiverRafting();
try {
riverRafting.crossRapid(9);
} catch (FallInRiverException e) {
System.out.println("Exception : " + e);
}
}
}
To use a method that throws a checked exception, you must follow the
handle-or-declare rule.
EXAM TIP
7.4.3
Using a method that throws a runtime exception
If a method throws a runtime exception, the exception name isn’t required to be
included in the method’s declaration (though it is allowed). To use a method that
throws a runtime exception, you don’t need to follow the declare-or-handle rule.
Here’s an example:
class FeelingHungryException extends RuntimeException {}
FeelingHungryException is a
runtime exception
class Trip {
void goTrekking(LocalTime startTime) {
// compare time now and start time
// throw FeelingHungryException if difference is > 2 hrs
int hrs = LocalTime.now().getHour() - startTime.getHour();
if (hrs >= 2) throw new FeelingHungryException();
}
}
class TestTrip {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Trip trip = new Trip();
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goTrekking
throws
FeelingHungryException
(without
including it
in the method
signature)
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trip.goTrekking(LocalTime.of(11,24));
}
}
Compiles successfully even though
main neither handles nor declares
FeelingHungryException
Here’s another example. Examine the following code, which throws a runtime exception (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException):
public class InvalidArrayAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph"};
System.out.println(students[5]);
System.out.println("All seems to be well");
}
}
students[5] tries to access
nonexistent array position;
exception thrown:
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
The preceding code doesn’t print output from System.out.println("All seems to
be well"). The code execution halts with the exception thrown by the code that tries
to output the value of students[5].
It’s possible to create an exception handler for the exception ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException thrown by the previous example code, as follows:
public class InvalidArrayAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph"};
try {
System.out.println(students[5]);
} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e){
System.out.println("Exception");
}
System.out.println("All seems to be well");
}
}
The output of the previous code is as follows:
Exception
All seems to be well
In the same way you can catch a checked exception, you can also catch a RuntimeException. On real projects, the preferred approach is to avoid runtime exceptions
by including appropriate checks. For example, in the previous code, you can prevent
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException from being thrown by using appropriate checks:
public class InvalidArrayAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] students = {"Shreya", "Joseph"};
int pos = 10;
if (pos > 0 && pos < students.length)
System.out.println(students[pos]);
}
}
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This line won’t execute
because pos is greater than
length of array students
What happens when an exception is thrown?
493
7.4.4
Using a method that throws an error
Errors are serious exceptions thrown by the JVM, such as when it runs out of stack
memory or can’t find the definition of a class. You shouldn’t define code to handle
errors. You should instead let the JVM handle the errors.
In the remainder of this section, we’ll look at some frequently asked questions on
try-catch-finally blocks that often overwhelm certification aspirants.
7.4.5
Will a finally block execute even if the catch block defines a
return statement?
Imagine the following scenario: a guy promises to buy diamonds for his girlfriend and
treat her to coffee. The girl inquires about what will happen if he meets with an exceptional condition during the diamond purchase, such as inadequate funds. To the girl’s
disappointment, the boy replies that he’ll still treat her to coffee.
You can compare the try block to the purchase of diamonds and the finally
block to the coffee treat. The girl gets the coffee treat regardless of whether the boy
successfully purchases the diamonds. Figure 7.13 shows this conversation.
Figure 7.13 A little humor to help you remember that a finally block executes regardless of
whether an exception is thrown
It’s interesting to note that a finally block will execute even if the code in the try
block or any of the catch blocks defines a return statement. Examine the code in figure 7.14 and its output, and note when the class ReturnFromCatchBlock is unable to
open file.txt.
As you can see from figure 7.14’s code output, the flow of control doesn’t return to
the method main when the return statement executes in the catch handler of FileNotFoundException. It continues with the execution of the finally block before control is transferred back to the main method. Note that control isn’t transferred to the
println statement "Next task.. " that follows the try block because the return
statement is encountered in the catch block, as mentioned previously.
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The return
statement does not
return the control to
the main method
before execution of
the finally block
completes.
Figure 7.14
statement.
import java.io.*;
public class ReturnFromCatchBlock {
public static void main(String args[]) {
openFile();
}
private static void openFile() {
FileInputStream fis = null;
try {
fis = new FileInputStream("file.txt");
}
catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("file not found");
return;
}
finally {
System.out.println("finally");
}
System.out.println("Next task..");
}
}
Code output:
file not found
finally
The finally block executes even if an exception handler defines a return
Going back to the example of the guy and his girlfriend, a few tragic conditions, such
as an earthquake or tornado, can cancel the coffee treat. Similarly, there are a few scenarios in Java in which a finally block does not execute:
■
■
Application termination—The try or the catch block executes System.exit,
which immediately terminates the application.
Fatal errors—A crash of the JVM or the OS occurs.
In the exam, you may be questioned on the correct order of two or more exception
handlers. Does order matter? See for yourself in section 7.4.9.
7.4.6
What happens if both a catch and a finally block define return
statements?
In the previous section, you saw that the finally block executes even if a catch block
defines a return statement. For a method that defines a try-catch-finally block,
what is returned to the calling method if both catch and finally return a value?
Here’s an example:
class MultipleReturn {
int getInt() {
try {
Throws
String[] students = {"Harry", "Paul"};
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
System.out.println(students[5]);
} catch (Exception e) {
return 10;
Returns value 10
} finally {
from catch block
return 20;
}
Returns value 20
}
from finally block
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public static void main(String args[]) {
MultipleReturn var = new MultipleReturn();
System.out.println(var.getInt());
}
}
The output of the preceding code is
20
If both the catch and finally blocks define return statements, the calling method
will receive a value from the finally block.
7.4.7
What happens if a finally block modifies the value returned from
a catch block?
If a catch block returns a primitive data type, the finally block can’t modify the
value being returned by it. Here’s an example:
class MultipleReturn {
int getInt() {
int returnVal = 10;
try {
Throws
String[] students = {"Harry", "Paul"};
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
System.out.println(students[5]);
} catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("About to return :" + returnVal);
Returns value 10
return returnVal;
from catch block
} finally {
returnVal += 10;
System.out.println("Return value is now :" + returnVal);
}
return returnVal;
}
Modifies value
of variable to
public static void main(String args[]) {
be returned in
MultipleReturn var = new MultipleReturn();
finally block
System.out.println("In Main:" + var.getInt());
}
}
The output of the preceding code is as follows:
About to return :10
Return value is now :20
In Main:10
Even though the finally block adds 10 to the variable returnVal, this modified value
is not returned to the method main. Control in the catch block copies the value of
returnVal to be returned before it executes the finally block, so the returned value
is not modified when finally executes.
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Will the preceding code behave in a similar manner if the method returns an
object? See for yourself:
class MultipleReturn {
StringBuilder getStringBuilder() {
StringBuilder returnVal = new StringBuilder("10");
try {
Throws
String[] students = {"Harry", "Paul"};
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
System.out.println(students[5]);
} catch (Exception e) {
Returns
StringBuilder
System.out.println("About to return :" + returnVal);
object value
return returnVal;
from catch
} finally {
block
returnVal.append("10");
System.out.println("Return value is now :" + returnVal);
}
return returnVal;
Modifies value
}
of variable to
public static void main(String args[]) {
be returned in
MultipleReturn var = new MultipleReturn();
finally block
System.out.println("In Main:" + var.getStringBuilder());
}
}
This is the output of the preceding code:
About to return :10
Return value is now :1010
In Main:1010
In this case, the catch block returns an object of the class StringBuilder. When the
finally block executes, it can access the value of the object referred to by the variable
returnVal and can modify it. The modified value is returned to the method main.
Remember that primitives are passed by value and objects are passed by reference.
EXAM TIP Watch out for code that returns a value from the catch block and
modifies it in the finally block. If a catch block returns a primitive data
type, the finally block can’t modify the value being returned by it. If a catch
block returns an object, the finally block can modify the state of the object
being returned by it.
7.4.8
Can a try block be followed only by a finally block?
Syntactically, you can define a try block that might only be followed by a finally block:
class NoCatchOnlyFinally {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String name = null;
try {
System.out.println("Try block : open resource 1");
System.out.println("Try block : open resource 2");
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System.out.println("in try : " + name.length());
System.out.println("Try block : close resources");
} finally {
System.out.println("finally : close resources");
}
}
}
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
Try block : open resource 1
Try block : open resource 2
finally : close resources
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException
at NoCatchOnlyFinally.main(NoCatchOnlyFinally.java:7)
Because main() in the preceding code throws an unchecked exception, NullPointerException, it compiles successfully. But if the code enclosed within a try block declares
to throw a checked exception, either it must be followed by a catch block, or the
method in which it is defined must declare to throw it.
7.4.9
Does the order of the exceptions caught in the catch
blocks matter?
Order doesn’t matter for unrelated classes. But it does matter for related classes sharing an IS-A relationship because catch blocks are checked from the top down to find
a suitable one to handle a given exception.
In the latter case, if you try to catch an exception of the base class before an exception of the derived class, your code will fail to compile. This behavior may seem
bizarre, but there’s a valid reason for it. As you know, an object of a derived class can
be assigned to a variable of a base class. Similarly, if you try to catch an exception of a
base class before its derived class, the exception handler for the derived class can
never be reached, so the code will fail to compile.
Examine the code in figure 7.15, which has been modified by defining the catch
block for IOException before the catch block for FileNotFoundException.
Figure 7.16 depicts an interesting way to remember that order matters. As you
know, a thrown exception looks for an appropriate exception handler, starting with
the first handler and working toward the last. Let’s compare a thrown exception to a
tiger and the exception handlers to doors that allow certain types of creatures to
enter. Like a thrown exception, the tiger should start with the first door and move on
to the rest of the doors until a match is found.
The tiger starts with the first door, which allows all animals to enter. Voilà! The
tiger enters the first door and never reaches the second door, which is meant specifically for tigers. In Java, when such a condition arises, the Java compiler refuses to compile the code because the later exception handler code will never execute. Java
doesn’t compile code if it contains unreachable statements.
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import java.io.*;
public class CaseBaseExceptionBeforeDerived {
public static void main(String args[]) {
FileInputStream fis = null;
try {
fis = new FileInputStream("file.txt");
fis.close();
}
catch (IOException ioe) {
System.out.println("IOException");
}
catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("file not found");
}
}
}
Exception class hierarchy
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.io.IOException
java.io.FileNotFoundException
Positions interchanged
Class fails to compile
Figure 7.15
The order of placement of exception handlers is important.
b
Door 1
Animals only
c
Figure 7.16
A visual way to remember
Door 2
that the order matters for exceptions
Tigers only caught in the catch blocks
RULES TO REMEMBER
Here are a few more rules you’ll need to answer the questions in the OCA Java SE 8
Programmer I exam:
■
■
■
■
■
A try block may be followed by multiple catch blocks, and the catch blocks
may be followed by a single finally block.
A try block may be followed by either a catch or a finally block or both. But
a finally block alone won’t suffice if code in the try block throws a checked
exception. In this case, you need to catch the checked exception or declare it to
be thrown by your method. Otherwise, your code won’t compile.
The try, catch, and finally blocks can’t exist independently.
The finally block can’t appear before a catch block.
A finally block always executes, regardless of whether the code throws an
exception.
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What happens when an exception is thrown?
7.4.10 Can I rethrow an exception or the error I catch?
You can do whatever you want with an exception. Rethrow it, pass it on to a method,
assign it to another variable, upload it to a server, send it in an SMS, and so on. Examine the following code:
import java.io.*;
public class ReThrowException {
FileInputStream soccer;
public void myMethod() {
try {
soccer = new FileInputStream("soccer.txt");
} catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
throw fnfe;
}
}
}
Use throw keyword to
throw exception caught
in exception handler
Oops! The previous code fails to compile, and you get the following compilation
error message:
ReThrowException.java:9: unreported exception java.io.FileNotFoundException;
must be caught or declared to be thrown
throw fnfe;
^
When you rethrow a checked exception, it’s treated like a regular thrown checked
exception, meaning that all the rules of handling a checked exception apply to it. In the
previous example, the code neither caught the rethrown FileNotFoundException
exception nor declared that the method myMethod would throw it using the throw
clause. Hence, the code failed to compile.
The following (modified) code declares that the method myMethod throws a FileNotFoundException, and it compiles successfully:
import java.io.*;
Throws
FileNotFoundException
public class ReThrowException {
FileInputStream soccer;
public void myMethod() throws FileNotFoundException {
try {
soccer = new FileInputStream("soccer.txt");
} catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
throw fnfe;
Exception
}
rethrown
}
}
Another interesting point to note is that the previous code doesn’t apply to a RuntimeException. You can rethrow a runtime exception, but you’re not required to catch it,
nor must you modify your method signature to include the throws clause. The simple
reason for this rule is that RuntimeExceptions aren’t checked exceptions, and they
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may not be caught or declared to be thrown by your code (exception categories are
discussed in detail in section 7.2).
7.4.11 Can I declare my methods to throw a checked exception instead
of handling it?
If a method doesn’t wish to handle the checked exceptions thrown by a method it
calls, it can declare to throw these exceptions using the throws clause in its own
method declaration. Examine the following example, in which the method myMethod
doesn’t include an exception handler; instead, it rethrows the IOException thrown by
a constructor of the class FileInputStream using the throws clause in its declaration:
import java.io.*;
myMethod throws
public class ReThrowException2 {
checked exception
public void myMethod() throws IOException {
FileInputStream soccer = new FileInputStream("soccer.txt");
soccer.close();
}
}
Any method that calls myMethod must now either catch the exception IOException or
declare that it will be rethrown in its method signature.
7.4.12 I can create nested loops, so can I create nested try-catch
blocks too?
The simple answer is yes, you can define a try-catch-finally block within another
try-catch-finally block. Theoretically, the levels of nesting for the try-catchfinally blocks have no limits.
In the following example, another set of try-catch blocks is defined in the try and
finally blocks of the outer try block:
import java.io.*;
public class NestedTryCatch {
FileInputStream players, coach;
public void myMethod() {
try {
players = new FileInputStream("players.txt");
try {
coach = new FileInputStream("coach.txt");
//.. rest of the code
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("coach.txt not found");
}
//.. rest of the code
}
catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("players.txt not found");
}
finally {
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Outer try
block
Inner try
block
Outer
catch
block
Outer finally
block
What happens when an exception is thrown?
try {
players.close();
coach.close();
} catch (IOException ioe) {
System.out.println(ioe);
}
501
Another Inner
try block
}
}
}
Now comes another Twist in the Tale exercise that’ll test your understanding of the
exceptions thrown and caught by nested try-catch blocks. In this one, an inner try
block defines code that throws a NullPointerException. But the inner try block
doesn’t define an exception handler for this exception. Will the outer try block catch
this exception? See for yourself (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 7.2
Given that players.txt exists on your system and that the assignment of players, shown
in bold, doesn’t throw any exceptions, what’s the output of the following code?
import java.io.*;
public class TwistInTaleNestedTryCatch {
static FileInputStream players, coach;
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
players = new FileInputStream("players.txt");
System.out.println("players.txt found");
try {
coach.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("coach.txt not found");
}
} catch (FileNotFoundException fnfe) {
System.out.println("players.txt not found");
} catch (NullPointerException ne) {
System.out.println("NullPointerException");
}
}
}
a
The code prints
players.txt found
NullPointerException
b
The code prints
players.txt found
coach.txt not found
c
d
The code throws a runtime exception.
The code fails to compile.
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7.4.13 Should I handle errors?
Although you can define code to handle errors, you shouldn’t. You should instead
let the JVM handle the errors. The following example shows how it’s possible to
catch an error:
public class CatchError {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
myMethod();
} catch (StackOverflowError s) {
System.out.println(s);
}
}
public static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("myMethod");
myMethod();
}
}
A class can catch and handle
an error, but it shouldn’t.
Though you shouldn’t handle errors in your code, what happens if you do? Will the
exception handler that handles the code execute? See for yourself by answering the question in the following Twist in the Tale exercise (answer in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 7.3
Will the code in the error-handling block execute? What do you think is the output of
the following code?
public class TwistInTaleCatchError {
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
myMethod();
} catch (StackOverflowError s) {
for (int i=0; i<2; ++i)
System.out.println(i);
}
}
public static void myMethod() {
myMethod();
}
}
a
0
b
java.lang.StackOverFlowError
c
0
1
d
0
1
2
java.lang.StackOverFlowError
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In the next section, you’ll work with specific exception classes and errors that are on
the exam.
7.5
Common exception classes and categories
[8.5] “Recognize common exception classes (such as NullPointerException,
ArithmeticException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException,
ClassCastException)”
In this section, we’ll take a look at common exception classes and categories of exceptions. You’ll also learn about the scenarios in which these exceptions are thrown and
how to handle them.
For this exam, you should be familiar with the scenarios that lead to these commonly
thrown exception classes and categories and how to handle them. Table 7.2 lists common errors and exceptions. Although the exam specifically lists four runtime exceptions, you might see the other common exception and error classes on the exam.
Table 7.2 Common errors and exceptions
Runtime exceptions
Errors
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
ExceptionInInitializerError
IndexOutOfBoundsException
StackOverflowError
ClassCastException
NoClassDefFoundError
IllegalArgumentException
OutOfMemoryError
ArithmeticException
NullPointerException
NumberFormatException
The OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam objectives require that you understand
which of the previously mentioned errors and exceptions are thrown by the JVM
and which should be thrown programmatically. From the discussion of errors earlier
in this chapter, you know that errors represent issues associated with the JRE, such
as OutOfMemoryError. As a programmer, you shouldn’t throw or catch these errors—
leave them for the JVM. The definition of runtime exceptions notes that these are
the kinds of exceptions that are thrown by the JVM, which shouldn’t be thrown by
you programmatically.
Let’s review each of these in detail.
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CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException and IndexOutOfBoundsException
As shown in figure 7.17, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException and IndexOutOfBoundsException are runtime exceptions, which share an IS-A relationship. IndexOutOfBoundsException is subclassed by ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.IndexOutOfBoundsException
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Figure 7.17 Class hierarchy of
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
An ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown when a piece of code tries to
access an array out of its bounds (either an array is accessed at a position less than 0
or at a position greater than or equal to its length). An IndexOutOfBoundsException
is thrown when a piece of code tries to access a list, like an ArrayList, using an illegal index.
Assume that an array and list have been defined as follows:
String[] season = {"Spring", "Summer"};
ArrayList exams = new ArrayList<>();
exams.add("SCJP");
exams.add("SCWCD");
The following lines of code will throw an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException:
System.out.println(season[5]);
System.out.println(season[-9]);
Can’t access position
>= array length
Can’t access array at
negative position
The following lines of code will throw an IndexOutOfBoundsException:
System.out.println(exams.get(-1));
System.out.println(exams.get(4));
Can’t access list at
negative position
Can’t access list at
position >= its size
Why do you think the JVM has taken the responsibility on itself to throw this exception? One of the main reasons is that this exception isn’t known until runtime and
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depends on the array or list position that’s being accessed by a piece of code. Most
often, a variable is used to specify this array or list position, and its value may not be
known until runtime.
NOTE When you try to access an invalid array position, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown. When you try to access an invalid ArrayList
position, IndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown.
You can avoid these exceptions from being thrown if you check whether the index
position you’re trying to access is greater than or equal to 0 and less than the size of
your array or ArrayList.
7.5.2
ClassCastException
Before I start discussing the example I’ll use for this exception, take a quick look at
figure 7.18 to review the class hierarchy of this exception.
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.ClassCastException
Figure 7.18 Class hierarchy of
ClassCastException
Examine the code in the next listing, where the line of code that throws the ClassCastException is shown in bold.
Listing 7.2 An example of code that throws ClassCastException
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class ListAccess {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList inks = new ArrayList();
inks.add(new ColorInk());
inks.add(new BlackInk());
Ink ink = (BlackInk)inks.get(0);
Throws
}
ClassCastException
}
class Ink{}
class ColorInk extends Ink{}
class BlackInk extends Ink{}
A ClassCastException is thrown when an object fails an IS-A test with the class type to
which it’s being cast. In the preceding example, class Ink is the base class for classes
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ColorInk and BlackInk. The JVM throws a ClassCastException in the previous case
because the code in bold tries to explicitly cast an object of ColorInk to BlackInk.
Note that this line of code avoided the compilation error because the variable inks
defines an ArrayList of type Ink, which can store objects of type Ink and all its subclasses. The code then correctly adds the permitted objects: one each of BlackInk and
ColorInk. If the code had defined an ArrayList of type BlackInk or ColorInk, the
code would have failed the compilation, as follows:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class Invalid {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList inks = new ArrayList();
inks.add(new ColorInk());
Ink ink = (BlackInk)inks.get(0);
Compilation
}
issues
}
class Ink{}
class ColorInk extends Ink{}
class BlackInk extends Ink{}
Here’s the compilation error thrown by the previously modified piece of code:
Invalid.java:6: inconvertible types
found
: ColorInk
required: BlackInk
Ink ink = (BlackInk)inks.get(0);
^
You can use the instanceof operator to verify whether an object can be cast to another
class before casting it. Assuming that the definition of classes Ink, ColorInk, and
BlackInk are the same as defined in the previous example, the following lines of code
will avoid the ClassCastException:
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class AvoidClassCastException {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList inks = new ArrayList();
inks.add(new ColorInk());
inks.add(new BlackInk());
if (inks.get(0) instanceof BlackInk) {
BlackInk ink = (BlackInk)inks.get(0);
}
}
}
No
ClassCastException
In the previous example, the condition (inks.get(0)instanceofBlackInk) evaluates
to false, so the then part of the if statement doesn’t execute.
In the following Twist in the Tale exercise, I’ll introduce an interface used in the
casting example in listing 7.2 (answer in the appendix).
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Twist in the Tale 7.4
Let’s introduce an interface used in listing 7.2 and see how it behaves. Following is the
modified code. Examine the code and select the correct options:
class Ink{}
interface Printable {}
class ColorInk extends Ink implements Printable {}
class BlackInk extends Ink{}
class TwistInTaleCasting {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Printable printable = null;
BlackInk blackInk = new BlackInk();
printable = (Printable)blackInk;
}
}
c
printable = (Printable)blackInk will throw compilation error
printable = (Printable)blackInk will throw runtime exception
printable = (Printable)blackInk will throw checked exception
d
The following line of code will fail to compile:
a
b
printable = blackInk;
7.5.3
IllegalArgumentException
As the name of this exception suggests, IllegalArgumentException is thrown to specify that a
method has passed illegal or inappropriate arguments. Its class hierarchy is shown in figure 7.19.
Even though it’s a runtime exception, programmers usually use this exception to validate
the arguments that are passed to a method. The
exception constructor is passed a descriptive
message, specifying the exception details. Examine the following code:
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.IllegalArgumentException
Figure 7.19 Class hierarchy of
IllegalArgumentException
public void login(String username, String pwd, int maxLoginAttempt) {
if (username == null || username.length() < 6)
throw new IllegalArgumentException
("Login:username can’t be shorter than 6 chars");
if (pwd == null || pwd.length() < 8)
throw new IllegalArgumentException
("Login: pwd cannot be shorter than 8 chars");
if (maxLoginAttempt < 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException
("Login: Invalid loginattempt val");
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//.. rest of the method code
}
The previous method validates the various method parameters passed to it and throws
an appropriate IllegalArgumentException if they don’t meet the requirements of
the method. Each object of the IllegalArgumentException is passed a different
String message that briefly describes it.
7.5.4
NullPointerException
The NullPointerException, shown in figure 7.20,
is the quintessential exception.
I imagine that almost all Java programmers
have had a taste of this exception, but let’s look at
an explanation for it.
This exception is thrown by the JVM if you try
to access a non-static method or a variable through
a null value. The exam can have interesting code
combinations to test you on whether a particular
piece of code will throw a NullPointerException.
The key is to ensure that the reference variable
has been assigned a non-null value. In particular,
I’ll address the following cases:
■
■
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.NullPointerException
Figure 7.20 Class hierarchy of
NullPointerException
Accessing members of a reference variable that is explicitly assigned a null
value
Using an uninitialized local variable, which may seem to throw a NullPointerException
■
■
Attempting to access nonexistent array positions
Using members of an array element that are assigned a null value
Let’s get started with the first case, in which a variable is explicitly assigned a null value:
import java.util.ArrayList;
class ThrowNullPointerException {
static ArrayList list = null;
public static void main(String[] args) {
list.add("1");
}
}
list is null
Attempt to call method
add on list throws
NullPointerException
The preceding code tries to access the method add on the variable list, which has
been assigned a null value. It throws an exception, as follows:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException
at ThrowNullPointerException.main(ThrowNullPointerException.java:5)
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By default, the static and instance variables of a class are assigned a null value. In
the previous example, the static variable list is assigned an explicit null value. To
help you clarify the code and avoid any possible doubt, list is assigned an explicit
null value. When the method main tries to execute the method add on the variable
list, it calls a method on a null value. This call causes the JVM to throw a NullPointerException (which is a RuntimeException). If you define the variable list as
an instance variable and don’t assign an explicit value to it, you’ll get the same result
(NullPointerException being thrown at runtime). Because the static method main
can’t access the instance variable list, you’ll need to create an object of the class
ThrowNullPointerException to access it:
import java.util.ArrayList;
list is implicitly
class ThrowNullPointerException {
assigned a null value
ArrayList list;
public static void main(String[] args) {
ThrowNullPointerException obj = new ThrowNullPointerException();
obj.list.add("1");
Attempt to call method
}
add on list throws
}
NullPointerException
You can prevent a NullPointerException from being thrown by checking whether an
object is null before trying to access its member:
import java.util.ArrayList;
class ThrowNullPointerException {
static ArrayList list;
public static void main(String[] args) {
if (list!=null)
list.add("1");
}
}
Ascertain that
list is not null
What happens if you modify the previous code as follows? Will it still throw a NullPointerException?
import java.util.ArrayList;
class ThrowNullPointerException {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList list;
if (list!=null)
list.add("1");
Fails to
}
compile
}
Interestingly, the previous code fails to compile. list is defined as a local variable
inside the method main, and by default local variables aren’t assigned a value—not
even a null value. If you attempt to use an uninitialized local variable, your code will
fail to compile. Watch out for similar questions in the exam.
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Another set of conditions when code may throw the NullPointerException
involves the use of arrays:
class ThrowAnotherNullPointerException {
static String[] oldLaptops;
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(oldLaptops[1]);
}
}
Throws
NullPointerException
In the preceding code, the static variable oldLaptops is assigned a null value by
default. Its array elements are neither initialized nor assigned a value. The code that
tries to access the array’s second element throws a NullPointerException.
In the following code, two array elements of the variable newLaptops are initialized
and assigned a default value of null. If you call the method toString on the second
element of the variable newLaptops, it results in a NullPointerException being
thrown:
class ThrowNullPointerException {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String[] newLaptops = new String[2];
System.out.println(newLaptops[1].toString());
}
}
b
Throws
NullPointerException
If you modify the code at B as follows, it won’t throw an exception—it’ll print the value
null. This is because the object-based System.out.println() overload calls the objectbased String.valueOf() overload, which itself checks whether the object to “print” is
null, in which case it will output null without calling any toString() method:
System.out.println(newLaptops[1]);
No RuntimeException; prints “null”
In the exam, watch out for code that tries to use an uninitialized
local variable. Because such variables aren’t initialized with even a null value,
you can’t print their value using the System.out.println method. Such code
won’t compile.
EXAM TIP
Let’s modify the previous code that uses the variable oldLaptops and check your
understanding of NullPointerExceptions. Here’s another Twist in the Tale hands-on
exercise for you (answers in the appendix).
Twist in the Tale 7.5
Let’s check your understanding of the NullPointerException. Here’s a code snippet.
Examine the code and select the correct answers.
class TwistInTaleNullPointerException {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String[][] oldLaptops =
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{ {"Dell", "Toshiba", "Vaio"}, null,
{"IBM"}, new String[10] };
System.out.println(oldLaptops[0][0]);
System.out.println(oldLaptops[1]);
System.out.println(oldLaptops[3][6]);
System.out.println(oldLaptops[3][0].length());
System.out.println(oldLaptops);
}
}
a
b
c
d
7.5.5
//
//
//
//
//
line
line
line
line
line
1
2
3
4
5
Code on line 1 will throw NullPointerException
Code on lines 1 and 3 will throw NullPointerException
Only code on line 4 will throw NullPointerException
Code on lines 3 and 5 will throw NullPointerException
ArithmeticException
When the JVM encounters an exceptional mathematical condition, like dividing an integer by zero,
it throws ArithmeticException (the class hierarchy
shown in figure 7.21). Note that division by 0 is not
the same as division by 0.0. In this section, we’ll
cover the results of division of integers and decimals by 0 and 0.0.
The following summarizes the cause of an
ArithmeticException:
■
■
■
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.AritmeticException
Figure 7.21 Class hierarchy of
ArithmeticException
A division will be performed as an integer
division as long as only integers are involved.
As soon as there’s a floating-point number, then everything is computed in
floating-point arithmetic (true for all arithmetic operations, by the way).
An integer division by zero throws an ArithmeticException.
A floating-point division by zero won’t throw any exception but rather will
return ±Infinity or NaN, depending on the first operand.
DIVISION OF AN INTEGER VALUE BY 0
Although it might seem simple to spot an occurrence of this exception, assumptions
can be wrong. Let’s start with a simple and explicit example (which is easy to spot):
class ThrowArithmeticEx {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(77/0);
}
}
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Division
by 0
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On execution, the previous code will throw an ArithmeticException with a similar
message:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArithmeticException: / by zero
at ThrowArithmeticEx.main(ThrowArithmeticEx.java:3)
Here’s an example of comparatively complex code that you might see on the exam.
Do you think it will throw an ArithmeticException? Also, do you think that the
answer seems obvious like in the preceding code?
class ThrowArithmeticEx {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a = 10;
int y = a++;
int z = y--;
int x1 = a - 2*y - z;
int x2 = a - 11;
int x = x1/ x2;
System.out.println(x);
}
}
The preceding code throws ArithmeticException for the operation x1/x2 because
the value of x2 is 0. With the initialization of the variable y, the value of variable a is
incremented by 1, from 10 to 11 (due to the post-fix increment operator). The variable x2 is initialized with a value that’s equal to 11 and less than a, which is 0.
In the exam, watch out for division with integers. If the divisor is 0,
the integer value that’s being divided doesn’t matter. Such an operation will
throw an ArithmeticException.
EXAM TIP
What do you think would be the answer if you divide 0 by 0? What do you think is the
output of the following code: 1, 0, or ArithmeticException?
class ThrowArithmeticEx {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int x = (int)(7.3/10.6);
int y = (int)(100.76/123.87);
int z = x/y;
System.out.println(x);
}
}
Division of an integer number by 0 will result in an ArithmeticException. So the preceding code will also throw an ArithmeticException.
EXAM TIP
Division of a negative or positive integer value by 0 will result in an
ArithmeticException.
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Here’s an explicit example of dividing 0 by 0:
System.out.println(0/0);
EXAM TIP
Throws ArithmeticException
Division of 0 by 0 results in an ArithmeticException.
DIVISION OF A DECIMAL VALUE BY 0
If you divide a positive decimal number by 0, the answer is Infinity:
class DivideDecimalNumberByZero {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(77.0/0);
}
}
Outputs
Infinity
If you divide a negative decimal number by 0, the answer is -Infinity:
class DivideNegativeDecimalNumberByZero {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(-77.0/0);
}
}
Outputs
-Infinity
If you divide a positive decimal value by 0, the result is Infinity. If
you divide a negative decimal value by 0, the result is -Infinity.
EXAM TIP
Here’s an interesting question: what do you think is the result of division of 0.0 by 0?
Here’s a quick code snippet:
System.out.println(0.0/0);
EXAM TIP
Outputs NaN
Division of 0.0 by 0 results in NaN (Not a Number).
Any mathematical operation with a NaN results in NaN.
DIVISION OF INTEGERS OR DECIMALS BY 0.0
Dividing by 0 and dividing by 0.0 don’t give you the same results. Let’s revisit the previous examples, starting with the modified version of the first example in this section:
class DivideIntegerByZeroPointZero {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(77/0.0);
System.out.println(77.0/0.0);
}
}
Outputs
Infinity
The preceding code doesn’t throw an ArithmeticException. It outputs Infinity.
When a positive integer or decimal value is divided by 0.0, the
result is Infinity.
EXAM TIP
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Here’s another modified example:
class DivideByZeroPointZero {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a = 10;
int y = a++;
int z = y--;
int x1 = a - 2*y - z;
int x2 = a - 11;
double x3 = x2;
double x = x1/ x3;
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(x1);
System.out.println(x3);
}
}
Here’s the output of the preceding code:
-Infinity
-17
0.0
The preceding code doesn’t throw an ArithmeticException. The variable x1 is
assigned a negative integer value, that is, -17. The variable x2 is assigned the value 0.
When the variable x3 of type double is initialized with the value of x2, it’s promoted to
a double value, assigning 0.0 to x3. When a negative integer value is divided by 0.0,
the result is –Infinity.
When a negative integer or decimal value is divided by 0.0, the
result is –Infinity.
EXAM TIP
7.5.6
NumberFormatException
What happens if you try to convert “87” and
“9m#” to numeric values? The former value is
OK, but you can’t convert the latter value to a
numeric value unless it’s an encoded value,
straight from a James Bond movie, that can be
converted to anything.
As shown in figure 7.22, NumberFormatException is a runtime exception. It’s thrown
to indicate that the application tried to convert
a string (with an inappropriate format) to one
of the numeric types.
Multiple classes in the Java API define parsing methods. One of the most frequently used
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Exception
java.lang.RuntimeException
java.lang.IllegalArgumentException
java.lang.NumberFormatException
Figure 7.22 Class hierarchy of
NumberFormatException
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methods is parseInt from the class Integer. It’s used to parse a String argument as a
signed (negative or positive) decimal integer. Here are some examples:
Valid String
values that
can be
converted
to numeric
values
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("-123"));
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("123"));
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("+123"));
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("123_45"));
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("12ABCD"));
Will throw NumberFormatException.
Use of underscores in string values
isn’t allowed.
Will throw NumberFormatException.
Characters ABCD can’t be converted
to integers in base 10.
Starting in Java 7, you can use underscores (_) in numeric literal values. But you can’t
use them in String values passed to the method parseInt. The letters ABCD aren’t
used in the decimal number system, but they can be used in the hexadecimal number
system, so you can convert the hexadecimal literal value "12ABCD" to the decimal
number system by specifying the base of the number system as 16:
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("123ABCD", 16));
Prints 19114957
Note that the argument 16 is passed to the method parseInt, not to the method
println. The following will not compile:
System.out.println(Integer.parseInt("123ABCD"), 16);
Won’t compile
You may throw NumberFormatException from your own method to indicate that
there’s an issue with the conversion of a String value to a specified numeric format
(decimal, octal, hexadecimal, binary), and you can add a customized exception message. One of the most common candidates for this exception is methods that are
used to convert a command-line argument (accepted as a String value) to a numeric
value. Please note that all command-line arguments are accepted in a String array as
String values.
The following is an example of code that throws a NumberFormatException
programmatically:
public class ThrowNumberFormatException {
In the exception handler,
public static int convertToNum(String val) {
creates and throws new
int num = 0;
NumberFormatException
try {
with a custom message
num = Integer.parseInt(val, 16);
} catch (NumberFormatException e) {
throw new NumberFormatException(val+
" cannot be converted to hexadecimal number");
}
return num;
}
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public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(convertToNum("16b"));
System.out.println(convertToNum("65v"));
}
}
The conversion of the hexadecimal literal 16b to the decimal number system is successful. But the conversion of the hexadecimal literal 65v to the decimal number system fails, and the previous code will give the following output:
363
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NumberFormatException: 65v cannot be
converted to hexadecimal number
at
ThrowNumberFormatException.convertToNum(ThrowNumberFormatException.java:8)
at ThrowNumberFormatException.main(ThrowNumberFormatException.java:14)
Now let’s take a look at some of the common errors that are covered on this exam.
7.5.7
ExceptionInInitializerError
The ExceptionInInitializerError error
java.lang.Throwable
is typically thrown by the JVM when a static
initializer in your code throws any type of
java.lang.Error
RuntimeException. Figure 7.23 shows the
class hierarchy of ExceptionInInitializerjava.lang.LinkageError
Error.
A static initializer block is defined
java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
using the keyword static, followed by curly
braces, in a class. This block is defined Figure 7.23 Class hierarchy of
ExceptionInInitializerError
within a class but not within a method. It’s
usually used to execute code when a class
loads for the first time. Runtime exceptions
arising from any of the following will throw this error:
■
■
■
Execution of an anonymous static block
Initialization of a static variable
Execution of a static method (called from either of the previous two items)
The static initializer block of the class defined in the following example will throw a
NumberFormatException, and when the JVM tries to load this class, it’ll throw an
ExceptionInInitializerError:
public class DemoExceptionInInitializerError {
static {
int num = Integer.parseInt("sd", 16);
}
}
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Following is the error message when the JVM tries to load the class DemoExceptionInInitializerError:
java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
Caused by: java.lang.NumberFormatException: For input string: "sd"
at
java.lang.NumberFormatException.forInputString(NumberFormatException.jav
a:48)
at java.lang.Integer.parseInt(Integer.java:447)
at
DemoExceptionInInitializerError.(DemoExceptionInInitializerError
.java:3)
Beware of code that seems to be simple in the OCA Java SE 8 Programmer I exam. The class DemoExceptionInInitializerError (mentioned
previously) seems deceptively simple, but it’s a good candidate for an exam
question. As you know, this class throws the error ExceptionInInitializerError when the JVM tries to load it.
EXAM TIP
In the following example, initialization of a static variable results in a NullPointerException being thrown. When this class is loaded by the JVM, it throws an ExceptionInInitializerError:
public class DemoExceptionInInitializerError1 {
static String name = null;
static int nameLength = name.length();
}
The error message when the JVM tries to load the DemoExceptionInInitializerError1
class is as follows:
java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
Caused by: java.lang.NullPointerException
at
DemoExceptionInInitializerError1.(DemoExceptionInInitializerErro
r1.java:3)
Exception in thread "main"
Now let’s move on to the exception thrown by a static method, which may be called
by the static initializer block or to initialize a static variable. Examine the following
code, in which MyException is a user-defined RuntimeException:
public class DemoExceptionInInitializerError2 {
static String name = getName();
static String getName() {
throw new MyException();
MyException is a
}
runtime exception.
}
class MyException extends RuntimeException{}
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This is the error thrown by the class DemoExceptionInInitializerError2:
java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
Caused by: MyException
at
DemoExceptionInInitializerError2.getName(DemoExceptionInInitializerError
2.java:4)
at
DemoExceptionInInitializerError2.(DemoExceptionInInitializerErro
r2.java:2)
Did you notice that the error ExceptionInInitializerError can be caused only by a
runtime exception? This happens for valid reasons, of course.
If a static initializer block throws an error, it doesn’t recover from it to come back
to the code to throw an ExceptionInInitializerError. This error can’t be thrown if
a static initializer block throws an object of a checked exception because the Java
compiler is intelligent enough to determine this condition and doesn’t allow you to
throw an unhandled checked exception from a static initialization block.
ExceptionInInitializerError can be caused by an object of
RuntimeException only. It can’t occur as the result of an error or checked
EXAM TIP
exception thrown by the static initialization block.
7.5.8
StackOverflowError
The StackOverflowError error extends VirtualMachineError (as shown in figure 7.24). As its name
suggests, you should leave it to be managed by the
JVM.
This error is thrown by the JVM when a Java
program calls itself so many times that the memory
stack allocated to execute the Java program “overflows” (overflows means that the stack exceeds a
certain size). Examine the following code, in which
a method calls itself recursively without an exit
condition:
public class DemoStackOverflowError{
static void recursion() {
recursion();
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
recursion();
}
}
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Error
java.lang.VirtualMachineError
java.lang.StackOverflowError
Figure 7.24 Class hierarchy of
StackOverflowError
Calls itself recursively,
without exit condition
The following error is thrown by the previous code:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
at DemoStackOverflowError.recursion(DemoStackOverflowError.java:3)
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7.5.9
NoClassDefFoundError
What would happen if you failed to set your classpath and, as a result, the JVM was unable to load
the class that you wanted to access or execute? Or
what would happen if you tried to run your application before compiling it (and so no .class file
would be found for the class you were trying to
use)? In both these conditions, the JVM would
throw a NoClassDefFoundError (the class hierarchy shown in figure 7.25).
This is what the Java API documentation says
about this error:
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Error
java.lang.LinkageError
java.lang.NoClassDefFoundError
Figure 7.25 Class hierarchy of
NoClassDefFoundError
Thrown if the Java Virtual Machine or a ClassLoader instance tries to load in the
definition of a class (as part of a normal method call or as part of creating a new instance
using the new expression) and no definition of the class could be found.1
Because this particular error isn’t a coding issue, I don’t have a coding example for
you. As you can see from the error hierarchy diagram in figure 7.25, this is a linkage
error arising from a missing class file definition at runtime. Like every system error,
this error shouldn’t be handled by the code and should be left to be handled exclusively by the JVM.
NOTE Don’t confuse the exception thrown by Class.forName(), used to
load the class, and NoClassDefFoundError, thrown by the JVM. Class.forName() throws ClassNotFoundException.
7.5.10 OutOfMemoryError
What happens if you create and use a lot of objects
in your application—for example, if you load a large
chunk of persistent data to be processed by your
application? In such a case, the JVM may run out of
memory on the heap, and the garbage collector may
not be able to free more memory for the JVM. In
this case, the JVM is unable to create any more
objects on the heap. An OutOfMemoryError will be
thrown (the class hierarchy shown in figure 7.26).
You’ll always work with a finite heap size, no matter what platform you work on, so you can’t create
1
java.lang.Throwable
java.lang.Error
java.lang.VirtualMachineError
java.lang.OutOfMemoryError
Figure 7.26 Class hierarchy of
OutOfMemoryError
The NoClassDefFoundError documentation can be found in the Javadoc: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/
8/docs/api/java/lang/NoClassDefFoundError.html.
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and use an unlimited number of objects in your application. To get around this error,
you need to either limit the number of resources or objects that your application creates or increase the heap size on the platform you’re working with.
A number of tools are available (which are beyond the scope of this book) that can
help you monitor the number of objects created in your application.
7.6
Summary
In this chapter, we discussed the need for exception handling, as well as the advantages of defining the exception-handling code separately from the program logic. You
saw how this approach helps separate concerns about defining the regular program
logic and exception-handling code. We also looked at the code syntax, specifically trycatch-finally blocks, for implementing exception-handling code. Code that throws
an exception should be enclosed within a try block that’s immediately followed by a
catch and/or a finally block. A try block can be followed by multiple catch blocks
but only a single finally block. A finally block can’t be placed before a try block. A
try block must be followed by at least one catch or finally block. The try, catch,
and finally blocks can’t exist independently.
Next, we delved into the different categories of exceptions: checked exceptions,
runtime or unchecked exceptions, and errors. Checked exceptions are subclasses of
the class java.lang.Exception. Unchecked exceptions are subclasses of the class
java.lang.RuntimeException, which itself is a subclass of the class java.lang.Exception. Errors are subclasses of java.lang.Error. All of these exceptions are subclasses of
java.lang.Throwable.
A checked exception is an unacceptable condition foreseen by the author of a
method but outside the immediate control of the code. A runtime exception represents a programming error—these occur because of inappropriate use of another
piece of code. Errors are serious exceptions, thrown by the JVM, as a result of an error
in the environment state that processes your code.
In the final sections of this chapter, we covered commonly occurring exceptions
and errors, such as NullPointerException, IllegalArgumentException, StackOverflowError, and more. For each of these errors and exceptions, I explained the conditions in which they may be thrown in code and whether they should be explicitly
handled in exception handlers.
7.7
Review notes
This section lists the main points of all the sections covered in this chapter.
Why handle exceptions separately:
■
■
Handling exceptions separately enables you to define the main logic of your
code together.
Without the use of separate exception handlers, the main logic of your code
would be lost in combating the exceptional conditions. (See figure 7.5 for an
example.)
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■
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Exception handlers separate the concerns of defining regular program logic
from exception-handling code.
Exceptions help pinpoint the offending code, together with the method in
which it’s defined, by providing a stack trace of the exception or error.
The JVM may send the stack trace of an unhandled exception to the Java
console.
Categories of exceptions:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Exceptions are divided into three categories: checked exceptions, runtime (or
unchecked exceptions), and errors. These three categories share IS-A relationships (inheritance).
Subclasses of the class java.lang.RuntimeException are categorized as runtime exceptions.
Subclasses of the class java.lang.Error are categorized as errors.
Subclasses of the class java.lang.Exception are categorized as checked exceptions if they’re not subclasses of the class java.lang.RuntimeException.
The class java.lang.RuntimeException is a subclass of the class java.lang
.Exception.
The class java.lang.Exception is a subclass of the class java.lang.Throwable.
The class java.lang.Error is also a subclass of the class java.lang.Throwable.
The class java.lang.Throwable inherits the class java.lang.Object.
Checked exceptions:
■
■
■
A checked exception is an unacceptable condition foreseen by the author of a
method but outside the immediate control of the code.
A checked exception is a subclass of the java.lang.Exception class but not a
subclass of java.lang.RuntimeException. It’s interesting to note, however,
that the class java.lang.RuntimeException itself is a subclass of the class java
.lang.Exception.
If a method calls another method that may throw a checked exception, either it
must be enclosed within a try-catch block, or the method should declare this
exception to be thrown in its method signature.
Runtime exceptions:
■
■
Runtime exceptions represent programming errors. These occur from inappropriate use of another piece of code. For example, NullPointerException is a
runtime exception that occurs when a piece of code tries to execute some code
on a variable that hasn’t been assigned an object and points to null. Another
example is ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, which is thrown when a piece of
code tries to access an array of list elements at a nonexistent position.
A runtime exception is a subclass of java.lang.RuntimeException.
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■
■
A runtime exception might not be a part of the method signature, even if a
method may throw it.
A runtime exception may not necessarily be caught by a try-catch block.
Errors:
■
■
■
■
■
An error is a serious exception, thrown by the JVM as a result of an error in the
environment state, which processes your code. For example, NoClassDefFoundError is an error thrown by the JVM when it’s unable to locate the .class file it’s
supposed to run.
StackOverflowError is another error, thrown by the JVM when the size of the
memory required by the stack of the Java program is greater than what the JRE
has offered for the Java application. This error usually occurs as a result of infinite or highly nested loops.
An error is a subclass of the class java.lang.Error.
An error need not be a part of a method signature.
Although you can handle errors syntactically, there’s little that you can do
when these errors occur. Usually, ordinary programs aren’t expected to recover
from errors.
Creating a method that throws an exception:
■
■
■
■
■
A method uses a throw statement to throw an exception or error.
A method uses a throws clause in its signature to declare that it might throw an
exception.
A method can have multiple comma-separated class names of exceptions in its
throws clause. Including runtime exceptions or errors in the method declaration isn’t required.
Syntactically, you don’t always need a combination of throw and throws statements to create a method that throws an exception (checked or unchecked).
You can replace the throw statement with a method that throws an exception.
To use a method that throws a checked exception, you must do one of the
following:
– Handle the exception—Enclose the code within a try block and catch the
thrown exception.
– Declare it to be thrown—Declare the exception to be thrown by using the
throws clause.
– Handle and declare—Implement both of the preceding options together.
■
■
While creating a method that throws a runtime exception or error, including
the exception or error name in the throws clause isn’t required.
A method that throws a runtime exception or error isn’t subject to the handleor-declare rule.
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A method can declare to throw all types of exceptions, even if it doesn’t. But a
try block can’t define a catch block for a checked exception (other than
Exception) if the try block doesn’t throw that checked exception or use a
method that declares to throw that checked exception.
What happens when an exception is thrown:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
An exception is an object of the class java.lang.Throwable.
When a piece of code hits an obstacle in the form of an exceptional condition,
it creates an object of subclass java.lang.Throwable, initializes it with the necessary information (such as its type and optionally a textual description and the
offending program’s state), and hands it over to the JVM.
Enclose the code that may throw an exception within a try block.
Define catch blocks to include alternative code to execute when an exceptional
condition arises.
A try block can be followed by one or more catch blocks.
The catch blocks must be followed by zero or one finally block.
The finally block executes regardless of whether the code in the try block
throws an exception.
The order in which the catch blocks are placed matters. If the caught exceptions have an inheritance relationship, the base class exceptions can’t be caught
before the derived class exceptions. An attempt to do this will result in compilation failure.
A finally block will execute even if a try or catch block defines a return
statement.
If both catch and finally blocks define return statements, the calling method
will receive the value from the finally block.
If a catch block returns a primitive data type, a finally block can’t modify the
value being returned by it.
If a catch block returns an object, a finally block can modify the value being
returned by it.
A finally block alone won’t suffice with a try block if code in the try block
throws a checked exception. In this case, you’ll need to catch the checked
exception or define in the method signature that the exception is thrown, or
your code won’t compile.
None of the try, catch, and finally blocks can exist independently.
The finally block can’t appear before a catch block.
You can rethrow an error that you catch in an exception handler.
You can either handle an exception or declare it to be thrown by your method.
In the latter case, you need not handle the exception in your code. This applies
to checked exceptions.
You can create nested exception handlers.
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■
A try, catch, or finally block can define another try-catch-finally block.
Theoretically, there’s no limit on the allowed level of nesting of try-catchfinally blocks.
Commonly occurring exceptions, categories, and classes:
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
In typical programming conditions, the ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
shouldn’t be thrown programmatically.
One of the main reasons for the JVM taking the responsibility on itself for
throwing this exception is that this exception isn’t known until runtime and
depends on the array or list position that’s being accessed by a piece of code.
Most often, a variable is used to specify this array or list position, and its value
may not be known until runtime.
ClassCastException is a runtime exception. java.lang.ClassCastException
extends java.lang.RuntimeException.
ClassCastException is thrown when an object fails an IS-A test with the class
type it is being cast to.
You can use the operator instanceof to verify whether an object can be cast to
another class before casting it.
IllegalArgumentException is a runtime exception. java.lang.IllegalArgumentException extends java.lang.RuntimeException.
An IllegalArgumentException is thrown to specify that a method has been
passed illegal or inappropriate arguments.
Even though IllegalArgumentException is a runtime exception, programmers
usually use this exception to validate the arguments that are passed to a method,
and the exception constructor is passed a descriptive message specifying the
exception details.
As a programmer, you can throw an IllegalStateException to signal to the
calling method that the method that’s being requested for execution isn’t ready
to start its execution or is in a state in which it can’t execute.
NullPointerException is a runtime exception. The class java.lang.NullPointerException extends java.lang.RuntimeException.
A NullPointerException is thrown by the JVM if you try to access a method or
variable of an uninitialized reference variable.
When the JVM encounters an exceptional mathematical condition, like dividing a number by zero, it throws an ArithmeticException.
In division with integers, if the divisor is 0, the integer value that’s being divided
doesn’t matter. Such an operation will throw an ArithmeticException.
Division of a negative or positive integer value by 0 will result in an ArithmeticException.
Division of 0 by 0 results in an ArithmeticException.
If you divide a positive decimal value by 0, the result is Infinity. If you divide a
negative decimal value by 0, the result is -Infinity.
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Division of 0.0 by 0 results in NaN (Not a Number).
When a positive integer or decimal value is divided by 0.0, the result is Infinity.
When a negative integer or decimal value is divided by 0.0, the result is –Infinity.
NumberFormatException is a runtime exception. java.lang.NumberFormatException extends java.lang.IllegalArgumentException. java.lang.IllegalArgumentException extends java.lang.RuntimeException.
You can throw a NumberFormatException from your own method to indicate
that there’s an issue with the conversion of a String value to a specified numeric
format (decimal, octal, hexadecimal, or binary).
Runtime exceptions arising from any of the following may throw an ExceptionInInitializerError:
– Execution of an anonymous static block
– Initialization of a static variable
– Execution of a static method (called from either of the previous two items)
The error ExceptionInInitializerError can be thrown only by an object of a
runtime exception.
ExceptionInInitializerError can’t be thrown if a static initializer block
throws an object of a checked exception, because the Java compiler is intelligent enough to determine this condition, and it doesn’t allow you to throw an
unhandled checked exception from a static initialization block.
StackOverflowError is an error. java.lang.StackOverflowError extends
java.lang.VirtualMachineError.
Because StackOverflowError extends VirtualMachineError, it should be left
to be managed by the JVM.
The StackOverflowError error is thrown by the JVM when a Java program calls
itself so many times that the memory stack allocated to execute the Java program “overflows.”
NoClassDefFoundError is an Error. java.lang.NoClassDefFoundError extends
java.lang.LinkageError. java.lang.LinkageError extends java.lang.Error.
A NoClassDefFoundError is thrown by the JVM or a ClassLoader when it’s
unable to load the definition of a class required to create an object of the class.
Don’t confuse the exception thrown by Class.forName(), used to load the
class, and NoClassDefFoundError, thrown by the JVM. Class.forName() throws
a ClassNotFoundException.
An OutOfMemoryError is thrown by the JVM when it’s unable to create objects
on the heap and the garbage collector may not be able to free more memory
for the JVM.
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CHAPTER 7 Exception handling
Sample exam questions
Q7-1. What is the output of the following code:
class Course {
String courseName;
Course() {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Oracle";
}
}
class EJavaGuruPrivate {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
a
b
c
d
The code will print Java.
The code will print Oracle.
The code will not compile.
The code will throw an exception or an error at runtime.
Q7-2. Select the correct option(s):
a
b
c
d
e
You cannot handle runtime exceptions.
You should not handle errors.
If a method throws a checked exception, it must be either handled by the
method or specified in its throws clause.
If a method throws a runtime exception, it may include the exception in its
throws clause.
Runtime exceptions are checked exceptions.
Q7-3. Examine the following code and select the correct option(s):
class EJavaGuruExcep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJavaGuruExcep var = new EJavaGuruExcep();
var.printArrValues(args);
}
void printArrValues(String[] arr) {
try {
System.out.println(arr[0] + ":" + arr[1]);
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("NullPointerException");
} catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("IndexOutOfBoundsException");
} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException");
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}
}
}
a
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
NullPointerException:
java EJavaGuruExcep
b
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
IndexOutOfBoundsException:
java EJavaGuruExcep
c
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException:
java EJavaGuruExcep one
d
The code will fail to compile.
Q7-4. What is the output of the following code?
class EJava {
void method() {
try {
guru();
return;
} finally {
System.out.println("finally 1");
}
}
void guru() {
System.out.println("guru");
throw new StackOverflowError();
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJava var = new EJava();
var.method();
}
}
a
guru
finally 1
b
guru
finally 1
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
c
guru
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
d
guru
e
The code fails to compile.
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Q 7-5. What is the output of the following code?
class Quest5 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int arr[] = new int[5];
arr = new int[]{1,2,3,4};
int x = arr[1]-- + arr[0]-- /arr[0] * arr[4];
System.out.println(x);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
The code outputs a value.
The code outputs a value followed by an exception.
ArithmeticException
NullPointerException
IndexOutOfBoundsException
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Compilation error
None of the above
Q7-6. Which of the following methods will not compile?
a
private void method1(String name) {
if (name.equals("star"))
throw new IllegalArgumentException(name);
}
b
private void method2(int age) {
if (age > 30)
throw Exception();
}
c
public Object method3(boolean accept) {
if (accept)
throw new StackOverflowError();
else
return new StackOverflowError();
}
d
protected double method4() throws Exception {
throw new Throwable();
}
e
public double method5() throws Exception {
return 0.7;
}
Q7-7. What is the output of the following code?
class TryFinally {
int tryAgain() {
int a = 10;
try {
++a;
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529
} finally {
a++;
}
return a;
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(new TryFinally().tryAgain());
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
10
11
12
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Q7-8. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaBase {
void myMethod() throws ExceptionInInitializerError {
System.out.println("Base");
}
}
class EJavaDerived extends EJavaBase {
void myMethod() throws RuntimeException {
System.out.println("Derived");
}
}
class EJava3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJavaBase obj = new EJavaDerived();
obj.myMethod();
}
}
a
Base
b
Derived
c
Derived
Base
d
Base
Derived
e
Compilation error
Q7-9. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
A user-defined class may not throw an IllegalStateException. It must be
thrown only by Java API classes.
System.out.println will throw a NullPointerException if an uninitialized
instance variable of type String is passed to it to print its value.
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c
d
NumberFormatException is thrown by multiple methods from the Java API
when invalid numbers are passed on as Strings to be converted to the specified
number format.
ExceptionInInitializerError may be thrown by the JVM when a static initializer in your code throws a NullPointerException.
Q7-10. What is the output of the following code?
class EJava {
void foo() {
try {
String s = null;
System.out.println("1");
try {
System.out.println(s.length());
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("inner");
}
System.out.println("2");
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("outer");
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJava obj = new EJava();
obj.foo();
}
}
7.9
a
1
inner
2
outer
b
1
outer
c
1
inner
d
1
inner
2
Answers to sample exam questions
Q7-1. What is the output of the following code:
class Course {
String courseName;
Course() {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Oracle";
}
}
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class EJavaGuruPrivate {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c = new Course();
c.courseName = "Java";
System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
a
b
c
d
The code will print Java.
The code will print Oracle.
The code will not compile.
The code will throw an exception or an error at runtime.
Answer: d
Explanation: This class will throw a StackOverflowError at runtime. The easiest way
to look for a StackOverflowError is to locate recursive method calls. In the question’s
code, the constructor of the class Course creates an object of the class Course, which
will call the constructor again. Hence, this becomes a recursive call and ends up
throwing a StackOverflowError at runtime. (As you know, an exception or an error
can be thrown only at runtime, not compile time.)
Q7-2. Select the correct option(s):
a
b
c
d
e
You cannot handle runtime exceptions.
You should not handle errors.
If a method throws a checked exception, it must be either handled by the
method or specified in its throws clause.
If a method throws a runtime exception, it may include the exception in its
throws clause.
Runtime exceptions are checked exceptions.
Answer: b, c, d
Explanation: Option (a) is incorrect. You can handle runtime exceptions the way you
can handle a checked exception in your code: using a try-catch block.
Option (b) is correct. You shouldn’t try to handle errors in your code. Or, to put it
another way, you can’t do much when an error is thrown by your code. Instead of trying to handle errors in your code, you should resolve the code that results in these
errors. For example, StackOverflowError is an error that will be thrown by your code
if your code executes a method recursively without any exit condition. This repetition
will consume all the space on the stack and result in a StackOverflowError.
Option (c) is correct. If you fail to implement either of these options, your code
won’t compile.
Option (d) is correct. It isn’t mandatory for runtime exceptions to be included in
a method’s throws clause. Usually this inclusion is unnecessary, but if you do include
it, your code will execute without any issues.
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Option (e) is incorrect. A runtime exception and all its subclasses are not checked
exceptions.
Q7-3. Examine the following code and select the correct option(s):
class EJavaGuruExcep {
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJavaGuruExcep var = new EJavaGuruExcep();
var.printArrValues(args);
}
void printArrValues(String[] arr) {
try {
System.out.println(arr[0] + ":" + arr[1]);
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("NullPointerException");
} catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("IndexOutOfBoundsException");
} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
System.out.println("ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException");
}
}
}
a
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
NullPointerException:
java EJavaGuruExcep
b
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
IndexOutOfBoundsException:
java EJavaGuruExcep
c
If the class EJavaGuruExcep is executed using the following command, it prints
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException:
java EJavaGuruExcep one
d
The code will fail to compile.
Answer: d
Explanation: The key to answering this question is to be aware of the following two facts:
■
■
Exceptions are classes. If an exception’s base class is used in a catch block, it
can catch all the exceptions of its derived class. If you try to catch an exception
from its derived class afterward, the code won’t compile.
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is a derived class of IndexOutOfBoundsException.
The rest of the points try to trick you into believing that the question is based on the
arguments passed to a main method.
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533
Q7-4. What is the output of the following code?
class EJava {
void method() {
try {
guru();
return;
} finally {
System.out.println("finally 1");
}
}
void guru() {
System.out.println("guru");
throw new StackOverflowError();
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJava var = new EJava();
var.method();
}
}
a
guru
finally 1
b
guru
finally 1
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
c
guru
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
d
guru
e
The code fails to compile.
Answer: b
Explanation: No compilation errors exist with the code.
The method guru throws StackOverflowError, which is not a checked exception.
Even though your code shouldn’t throw an error, it is possible syntactically. Your code
will compile successfully.
The call to the method guru is immediately followed by the keyword return, which is
supposed to end the execution of the method method. But the call to guru is placed
within a try-catch block, with a finally block. Because guru doesn’t handle the error
StackOverflowError itself, the control looks for the exception handler in the method
method. This calling method doesn’t handle this error but defines a finally block. The
control then executes the finally block. Because the code can’t find an appropriate
handler to handle this error, it propagates to the JVM, which abruptly halts the code.
Q 7-5. What is the output of the following code?
class Quest5 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int arr[] = new int[5];
arr = new int[]{1,2,3,4};
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int x = arr[1]-- + arr[0]-- /arr[0] * arr[4];
System.out.println(x);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
The code outputs a value.
The code outputs a value followed by an exception.
ArithmeticException
NullPointerException
IndexOutOfBoundsException
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Compilation error
None of the above
Answer: c
Explanation: Apart from testing your exception-handling skills, this question also tests
you in operator precedence. The code throws an ArithmeticException in an attempt
to evaluate the following expression:
int x = arr[1]-- + arr[0]-- /arr[0] * arr[4];
Before execution of the preceding line of code, arr[1] stores value 2, arr[0] stores
value 1, and arr[4] isn’t initialized. So an attempt to access arr[4] would result in an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException.
In an arithmetic operation, post- and pre-increment operators have the highest
precedence. So the first pass reduces this equation to
int x = 2 + 1 /0 * undefined;
Both * and / have equal precedence level here. What matters beyond operator precedence is reading the same-level operations from left to right. This is why / is computed before * in the present expression. So an attempt to execute 1/0 throws an
ArithmeticException.
Q7-6. Which of the following methods will not compile?
a
private void method1(String name) {
if (name.equals("star"))
throw new IllegalArgumentException(name);
}
b
private void method2(int age) {
if (age > 30)
throw Exception();
}
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c
public Object method3(boolean accept) {
if (accept)
throw new StackOverflowError();
else
return new StackOverflowError();
}
d
protected double method4() throws Exception {
throw new Throwable();
}
e
public double method5() throws Exception {
return 0.7;
}
535
Answer: b, d
Explanation: Methods that compile successfully might not be implemented correctly.
This question only asks about the methods that will follow the syntax rules so that they
compile successfully.
Option (a) code compiles successfully. Because IllegalArgumentException is a
runtime exception, method1() can throw it without declaring it to be thrown in its
throws statement.
Option (b) code won’t compile. method2() throws a checked exception, that is,
Exception, without declaring it to be thrown in its throws statement.
Although the code in option (c) makes little sense, it will compile successfully. A
method can throw a StackOverflowError (an unchecked exception) without including it in the throws clause of its method declaration.
Option (d) code won’t compile. If a method declares to throw a checked exception, its body can’t throw a more general exception in its body. method4() declares to
throw Exception but throws Throwable, which is not allowed (Exception subclasses
Throwable).
Option (e) code will compile successfully. If a method declares to throw Exception,
it might not actually throw it. This only applies to Exception (because RuntimeException subclasses it), runtime exceptions, and errors.
Q7-7. What is the output of the following code?
class TryFinally {
int tryAgain() {
int a = 10;
try {
++a;
} finally {
a++;
}
return a;
}
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public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(new TryFinally().tryAgain());
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
10
11
12
Compilation error
Runtime exception
Answer: c
Explanation: The try block executes, incrementing the value of variable a to 11. This
step is followed by execution of the finally block, which also increments the value of
variable a by 1, to 12. The method tryAgain returns the value 12, which is printed by
the method main.
There are no compilation issues with the code. A try block can be followed by a
finally block without any catch blocks. Even though the try block doesn’t throw
any exceptions, it compiles successfully. The following is an example of a try-catch
block that won’t compile because it tries to catch a checked exception that’s never
thrown by the try block:
try {
++a;
} catch (java.io.FileNotFoundException e) {
}
Q7-8. What is the output of the following code?
class EJavaBase {
void myMethod() throws ExceptionInInitializerError {
System.out.println("Base");
}
}
class EJavaDerived extends EJavaBase {
void myMethod() throws RuntimeException {
System.out.println("Derived");
}
}
class EJava3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJavaBase obj = new EJavaDerived();
obj.myMethod();
}
}
a
Base
b
Derived
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c
Derived
Base
d
Base
Derived
e
Compilation error
537
Answer: b
Explanation: The rule that if a base class method doesn’t throw an exception, an overriding method in the derived class can’t throw an exception applies only to checked
exceptions. It doesn’t apply to runtime (unchecked) exceptions or errors. A base or
overridden method is free to throw any error or runtime exception.
Q7-9. Which of the following statements are true?
a
b
c
d
A user-defined class may not throw an IllegalStateException. It must be
thrown only by Java API classes.
System.out.println will throw a NullPointerException if an uninitialized
instance variable of type String is passed to it to print its value.
NumberFormatException is thrown by multiple methods from the Java API
when invalid numbers are passed on as Strings to be converted to the specified
number format.
ExceptionInInitializerError may be thrown by the JVM when a static initializer in your code throws a NullPointerException.
Answer: c, d
Option (a) is incorrect. A user-defined class can throw any exception from the Java
API.
Option (b) is incorrect. An uninitialized instance variable of type String will be
assigned a default value of null. When you pass this variable to System.out.println
to print it, it will print null. If you try to access any non-static member (variable or
method) of this null object, then a NullPointerException will be thrown.
Q7-10. What is the output of the following code?
class EJava {
void foo() {
try {
String s = null;
System.out.println("1");
try {
System.out.println(s.length());
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("inner");
}
System.out.println("2");
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} catch (NullPointerException e) {
System.out.println("outer");
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJava obj = new EJava();
obj.foo();
}
}
a
1
inner
2
outer
b
1
outer
c
1
inner
d
1
inner
2
Answer: d
Explanation: First of all, nested try-catch statements don’t throw compilation errors.
Because the variable s hasn’t been initialized, an attempt to access its method
length() will throw a NullPointerException. The inner try-catch block handles
this exception and prints inner. The control then moves on to complete the remaining code in the outer try-catch block, printing 2. Because the NullPointerException
was already handled in the inner try-catch block, it’s not handled in the outer trycatch block.
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Full mock exam
This chapter covers
■
Complete mock exam with 77 questions
■
Answers to all mock exam questions with
extensive explanations and the subobjective on
which each exam question is based
On the real exam, each question displays the count of correct options that you
should select. The exam engine won’t allow you to select more answer options than
are specified by this number. If you try to do so, a warning will be displayed. The
questions in this mock exam also specify the correct number of answer options to
align it more closely with the real exam.
8.1
Mock exam
ME-Q1) Given the following definition of the classes Animal, Lion, and Jumpable,
select the correct combinations of assignments of a variable that don’t result in
compilation errors or runtime exceptions (select 2 options).
interface Jumpable {}
class Animal {}
class Lion extends Animal implements Jumpable {}
539
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CHAPTER 8
a
b
c
d
e
f
Full mock exam
Jumpable var1 = new Jumpable();
Animal var2 = new Animal();
Lion var3 = new Animal();
Jumpable var4 = new Animal();
Jumpable var5 = new Lion();
Jumpable var6 = (Jumpable)(new Animal());
ME-Q2) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace /* INSERT CODE
HERE */, will make the code print 1? (Select 1 option.)
try {
String[][] names = {{"Andre", "Mike"}, null, {"Pedro"}};
System.out.println (names[2][1].substring(0, 2));
} catch (/*INSERT CODE HERE*/) {
System.out.println(1);
}
a
b
c
d
IndexPositionException e
NullPointerException e
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e
ArrayOutOfBoundsException e
ME-Q3) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10; String name = null;
try {
a = name.length();
a++;
} catch (NullPointerException e){
++a;
return;
} catch (RuntimeException e){
a--;
return;
} finally {
System.out.println(a);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
//line1
//line2
5
6
10
11
12
Compilation error
No output
Runtime exception
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541
ME-Q4) Given the following class definition,
class Student { int marks = 10; }
what is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Result {
public static void main(String... args) {
Student s = new Student();
switch (s.marks) {
default: System.out.println("100");
case 10: System.out.println("10");
case 98: System.out.println("98");
}
}
}
a 100
10
98
b 10
98
c 100
d 10
ME-Q5) Given the following code, which code can be used to create and initialize an
object of the class ColorPencil? (Select 2 options.)
class Pencil {}
class ColorPencil extends Pencil {
String color;
ColorPencil(String color) {this.color = color;}
}
a
b
c
d
ColorPencil
ColorPencil
ColorPencil
Pencil var4
var1 = new ColorPencil();
var2 = new ColorPencil(RED);
var3 = new ColorPencil("RED");
= new ColorPencil("BLUE");
ME-Q6) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Doctor {
protected int age;
protected void setAge(int val) { age = val; }
protected int getAge() { return age; }
}
class Surgeon extends Doctor {
Surgeon(String val) {
specialization = val;
}
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Full mock exam
String specialization;
String getSpecialization() { return specialization; }
}
class Hospital {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Surgeon s1 = new Surgeon("Liver");
Surgeon s2 = new Surgeon("Heart");
s1.age = 45;
System.out.println(s1.age + s2.getSpecialization());
System.out.println(s2.age + s1.getSpecialization());
}
}
a 45Heart
0Liver
b 45Liver
0Heart
c 45Liver
45Heart
d 45Heart
45Heart
e
Class fails to compile.
ME-Q7) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class RocketScience {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a = 0;
while (a == a++) {
a++;
System.out.println(a);
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
The while loop won’t execute; nothing will be printed.
The while loop will execute indefinitely, printing all numbers, starting from 1.
The while loop will execute indefinitely, printing all even numbers, starting
from 0.
The while loop will execute indefinitely, printing all even numbers, starting
from 2.
The while loop will execute indefinitely, printing all odd numbers, starting
from 1.
The while loop will execute indefinitely, printing all odd numbers, starting
from 3.
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543
ME-Q8) Given the following statements,
■
■
■
com.ejava is a package
class Person is defined in package com.ejava
class Course is defined in package com.ejava
which of the following options correctly import the classes Person and Course in the
class MyEJava? (Select 3 options.)
a import com.ejava.*;
class MyEJava {}
b import com.ejava;
class MyEJava {}
c import com.ejava.Person;
import com.ejava.Course;
class MyEJava {}
d import com.ejava.Person;
import com.ejava.*;
class MyEJava {}
ME-Q9) Given that the following classes Animal and Forest are defined in the same
package, examine the code and select the correct statements (select 2 options).
line1>
line2>
line3>
line4>
line5>
class Animal {
public void printKing() {
System.out.println("Lion");
}
}
line6>
line7>
line8>
line9>
line10>
line11>
class Forest {
public static void main(String... args) {
Animal anAnimal = new Animal();
anAnimal.printKing();
}
}
a
b
The class Forest prints Lion.
If the code on line 2 is changed as follows, the class Forest will print Lion:
private void printKing() {
c
If the code on line 2 is changed as follows, the class Forest will print Lion:
void printKing() {
d
If the code on line 2 is changed as follows, the class Forest will print Lion:
default void printKing() {
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ME-Q10) Given the following code,
class MainMethod {
public static void main(String... args) {
System.out.println(args[0]+":"+ args[2]);
}
}
what is its output if it’s executed using the following command? (Select 1 option.)
java MainMethod 1+2 2*3 4-3 5+1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
java:1+2
java:3
MainMethod:2*3
MainMethod:6
1+2:2*3
3:3
6
1+2:4-3
31
4
ME-Q11) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
interface Moveable {
int move(int distance);
}
class Person {
static int MIN_DISTANCE = 5;
int age;
float height;
boolean result;
String name;
}
public class EJava {
public static void main(String arguments[]) {
Person person = new Person();
Moveable moveable = (x) -> Person.MIN_DISTANCE + x;
System.out.println(person.name + person.height + person.result
+ person.age + moveable.move(20));
}
}
a
b
c
d
null0.0false025
null0false025
null0.0ffalse025
0.0false025
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f
g
h
i
j
k
545
0false025
0.0ffalse025
null0.0true025
0true025
0.0ftrue025
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q12) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace /* INSERT CODE
HERE */, will make the code print the value of the variable pagesPerMin? (Select 1
option.)
class Printer {
int inkLevel;
}
class LaserPrinter extends Printer {
int pagesPerMin;
public static void main(String args[]) {
Printer myPrinter = new LaserPrinter();
System.out.println(/* INSERT CODE HERE */);
}
}
a
b
c
d
(LaserPrinter)myPrinter.pagesPerMin
myPrinter.pagesPerMin
LaserPrinter.myPrinter.pagesPerMin
((LaserPrinter)myPrinter).pagesPerMin
ME-Q13) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
interface Keys {
String keypad(String region, int keys);
}
public class Handset {
public static void main(String... args) {
double price;
String model;
Keys varKeys = (region, keys) ->
{if (keys >= 32)
return region; else return "default";};
System.out.println(model + price + varKeys.keypad("AB", 32));
}
}
a
b
c
d
null0AB
null0.0AB
null0default
null0.0default
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0
0.0
g
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Full mock exam
ME-Q14) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
public class Sales {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int salesPhone = 1;
System.out.println(salesPhone++ + ++salesPhone +
++salesPhone);
}
}
a
b
c
d
5
6
8
9
ME-Q15) Which of the following options defines the correct structure of a Java class
that compiles successfully? (Select 1 option.)
a package com.ejava.guru;
package com.ejava.oracle;
class MyClass {
int age = /* 25 */ 74;
}
b import com.ejava.guru.*;
import com.ejava.oracle.*;
package com.ejava;
class MyClass {
String name = "e" + "Ja /*va*/ v";
}
c class MyClass {
import com.ejava.guru.*;
}
d class MyClass {
int abc;
String course = //this is a comment
"eJava";
}
e
None of the above
ME-Q16) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class OpPre {
public static void main(String... args) {
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
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int z = 30;
if (x+y%z > (x+(-y)*(-z))) {
System.out.println(x + y + z);
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
60
59
61
No output.
The code fails to compile.
ME-Q17) Select the most appropriate definition of the variable name and the line number on which it should be declared so that the following code compiles successfully
(choose 1 option).
class EJava {
// LINE 1
public EJava() {
System.out.println(name);
}
void calc() {
// LINE 2
if (8 > 2) {
System.out.println(name);
}
}
public static void main(String... args) {
// LINE 3
System.out.println(name);
}
}
a
b
c
d
Define static
Define String
Define String
Define String
String name; on line 1.
name; on line 1.
name; on line 2.
name; on line 3.
ME-Q18) Examine the following code and select the correct statement (choose 1 option).
line1>
line2>
line3>
line4>
line5>
line6>
line7>
line8>
line9>
line10>
class Emp {
Emp mgr = new Emp();
}
class Office {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Emp e = null;
e = new Emp();
e = null;
}
}
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b
c
d
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The object referred to by object e is eligible for garbage collection on line 8.
The object referred to by object e is eligible for garbage collection on line 9.
The object referred to by object e isn’t eligible for garbage collection because
its member variable mgr isn’t set to null.
The code throws a runtime exception and the code execution never reaches
line 8 or line 9.
ME-Q19) Given the following,
long result;
which options are correct declarations of methods that accept two String arguments
and an int argument and whose return value can be assigned to the variable result?
(Select 3 options.)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Short myMethod1(String str1, int str2, String str3)
Int myMethod2(String val1, int val2, String val3)
Byte myMethod3(String str1, str2, int a)
Float myMethod4(String val1, val2, int val3)
Long myMethod5(int str2, String str3, String str1)
Long myMethod6(String... val1, int val2)
Short myMethod7(int val1, String... val2)
ME-Q20) Which of the following will compile successfully? (Select 3 options.)
a
b
c
d
e
int eArr1[]
int[] eArr2
int[] eArr3
int[] eArr4
int eArr5[]
=
=
=
=
=
{10, 23, 10, 2};
new int[10];
new int[] {};
new int[10] {};
new int[2] {10, 20};
ME-Q21) Assume that Oracle has asked you to create a method that returns the concatenated value of two String objects. Which of the following methods can accomplish this job? (Select 2 options.)
a public String add(String 1, String 2) {
return str1 + str2;
}
b private String add(String s1, String s2) {
return s1.concat(s2);
}
c protected String add(String value1, String value2) {
return value2.append(value2);
}
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d String subtract(String first, String second) {
return first.concat(second.substring(0));
}
ME-Q22) Given the following,
int ctr = 10;
char[] arrC1 = new char[]{'P','a','u','l'};
char[] arrC2 = {'H','a','r','r','y'};
//INSERT CODE HERE
System.out.println(ctr);
which options, when inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE, will output 14? (Choose 2 options.)
a for (char c1 : arrC1) {
for (char c2 : arrC2) {
if (c2 == 'a') break;
++ctr;
}
}
b for (char c1 : arrC1)
for (char c2 : arrC2) {
if (c2 == 'a') break;
++ctr;
}
c for (char c1 : arrC1)
for (char c2 : arrC2)
if (c2 == 'a') break;
++ctr;
d for (char c1 : arrC1) {
for (char c2 : arrC2) {
if (c2 == 'a') continue;
++ctr;
}
}
ME-Q23) Given the following definitions of the class ChemistryBook, select the statements that are correct individually (choose 2 options).
import java.util.ArrayList;
class ChemistryBook {
public void read() {}
//METHOD1
public String read() { return null; }
//METHOD2
ArrayList read(int a) { return null; }
//METHOD3
}
a
b
Methods marked with //METHOD1 and //METHOD2 are correctly overloaded
methods.
Methods marked with //METHOD2 and //METHOD3 are correctly overloaded
methods.
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Methods marked with //METHOD1 and //METHOD3 are correctly overloaded
methods.
All the methods—methods marked with //METHOD1, //METHOD2, and //METHOD3—
are correctly overloaded methods.
ME-Q24) Given the following,
final class Home {
String name;
int rooms;
//INSERT CONSTRUCTOR HERE
}
which options, when inserted at //INSERT CONSTRUCTOR HERE, will define valid overloaded constructors for the class Home? (Choose 3 options.)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Home() {}
Float Home() {}
protected Home(int rooms) {}
final Home() {}
private Home(long name) {}
float Home(int rooms, String name) {}
static Home() {}
ME-Q25) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace // INSERT CODE
HERE, will make the code print numbers that are completely divisible by 14? (Select 1
option.)
for (int ctr = 2; ctr <= 30; ++ctr) {
if (ctr % 7 != 0)
//INSERT CODE HERE
if (ctr % 14 == 0)
System.out.println(ctr);
}
a
b
c
d
continue;
exit;
break;
end;
ME-Q26) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
import java.util.function.Predicate;
public class MyCalendar {
public static void main(String arguments[]) {
Season season1 = new Season();
season1.name = "Spring";
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Season season2 = new Season();
season2.name = "Autumn";
Predicate aSeason = (s) -> s == "Summer" ?
season1.name : season2.name;
season1 = season2;
System.out.println(season1.name);
System.out.println(season2.name);
System.out.println(aSeason.test(new String("Summer")));
}
}
class Season {
String name;
}
a String
Autumn
false
b Spring
String
false
c Autumn
Autumn
false
d Autumn
String
true
e
f
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q27) What is true about the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Shoe {}
class Boot extends Shoe {}
class ShoeFactory {
ShoeFactory(Boot val) {
System.out.println("boot");
}
ShoeFactory(Shoe val) {
System.out.println("shoe");
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class ShoeFactory has a total of two overloaded constructors.
The class ShoeFactory has three overloaded constructors, two user-defined
constructors, and one default constructor.
The class ShoeFactory will fail to compile.
The addition of the following constructor will increment the number of constructors of the class ShoeFactory to 3:
private ShoeFactory (Shoe arg) {}
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ME-Q28) Given the following definitions of the classes ColorPencil and TestColor,
which option, if used to replace //INSERT CODE HERE, will initialize the instance variable color of the reference variable myPencil with the String literal value "RED"?
(Select 1 option.)
class ColorPencil {
String color;
ColorPencil(String color) {
//INSERT CODE HERE
}
}
class TestColor {
ColorPencil myPencil = new ColorPencil("RED");
}
a
b
c
d
this.color = color;
color = color;
color = RED;
this.color = RED;
ME-Q29) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class EJavaCourse {
String courseName = "Java";
}
class University {
public static void main(String args[]) {
EJavaCourse courses[] = { new EJavaCourse(), new EJavaCourse() };
courses[0].courseName = "OCA";
for (EJavaCourse c : courses) c = new EJavaCourse();
for (EJavaCourse c : courses) System.out.println(c.courseName);
}
}
a Java
Java
b OCA
Java
c OCA
OCA
d
None of the above
ME-Q30) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Phone {
static void call() {
System.out.println("Call-Phone");
}
}
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class SmartPhone extends Phone{
static void call() {
System.out.println("Call-SmartPhone");
}
}
class TestPhones {
public static void main(String... args) {
Phone phone = new Phone();
Phone smartPhone = new SmartPhone();
phone.call();
smartPhone.call();
}
}
a Call-Phone
Call-Phone
b Call-Phone
Call-SmartPhone
c Call-Phone
null
d null
Call-SmartPhone
ME-Q31) Given the following code, which of the following statements are true? (Select 3
options.)
class MyExam {
void question() {
try {
question();
} catch (StackOverflowError e) {
System.out.println("caught");
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
new MyExam().question();
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
The code will print caught.
The code won’t print caught.
The code would print caught if StackOverflowError were a runtime exception.
The code would print caught if StackOverflowError were a checked exception.
The code would print caught if question() throws the exception NullPointerException.
ME-Q32) A class Student is defined as follows:
public class Student {
private String fName;
private String lName;
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public Student(String first, String last) {
fName = first; lName = last;
}
public String getName() { return fName + lName; }
}
The creator of the class later changes the method getName as follows:
public String getName() {
return fName + " " + lName;
}
What are the implications of this change? (Select 2 options.)
a
b
c
d
The classes that were using the class Student will fail to compile.
The classes that were using the class Student will work without any compilation issues.
The class Student is an example of a well-encapsulated class.
The class Student exposes its instance variable outside the class.
ME-Q33) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class ColorPack {
int shadeCount = 12;
static int getShadeCount() {
return shadeCount;
}
}
class Artist {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ColorPack pack1 = new ColorPack();
System.out.println(pack1.getShadeCount());
}
}
a
b
c
d
10
12
No output
Compilation error
ME-Q34) Paul defined his Laptop and Workshop classes to upgrade his laptop’s memory. Do you think he succeeded? What is the output of this code? (Select 1 option.)
class Laptop {
String memory = "1 GB";
}
class Workshop {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Laptop life = new Laptop();
repair(life);
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System.out.println(life.memory);
}
public static void repair(Laptop laptop) {
laptop.memory = "2 GB";
}
}
a
b
c
d
1 GB
2 GB
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q35) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
public class Application {
public static void main(String... args) {
double price = 10;
String model;
if (price > 10)
model = "Smartphone";
else if (price <= 10)
model = "landline";
System.out.println(model);
}
}
a
b
c
d
landline
Smartphone
No output
Compilation error
ME-Q36) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class EString {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String eVal = "123456789";
System.out.println(eVal.substring(eVal.indexOf("2"),
➥ eVal.indexOf("0")).concat("0"));
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
234567890
34567890
234456789
3456789
Compilation error
Runtime exception
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ME-Q37) Examine the following code and select the correct statements (choose
2 options).
class Artist {
Artist assistant;
}
class Studio {
public static void main(String... args) {
Artist a1 = new Artist();
Artist a2 = new Artist();
a2.assistant = a1;
a2 = null;
// Line 1
}
// Line 2
}
a
b
c
d
e
At least two objects are garbage collected on line 1.
At least one object is garbage collected on line 1.
No objects are garbage collected on line 1.
The number of objects that are garbage collected on line 1 is unknown.
At least two objects are eligible for garbage collection on line 2.
ME-Q38) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Book {
String ISBN;
Book(String val) {
ISBN = val;
}
}
class TestEquals {
public static void main(String... args) {
Book b1 = new Book("1234-4657");
Book b2 = new Book("1234-4657");
System.out.print(b1.equals(b2) +":");
System.out.print(b1 == b2);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
true:false
true:true
false:true
false:false
Compilation error—there is no equals method in the class Book.
Runtime exception.
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ME-Q39) Which of the following statements are correct? (Select 2 options.)
a
b
c
d
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder() will create a StringBuilder
object with no characters but with an initial capacity to store 16 characters.
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder(5*10) will create a StringBuilder
object with a value of 50.
Unlike the class String, the concat method in StringBuilder modifies the
value of a StringBuilder object.
The insert method can be used to insert a character, number, or String at
the start or end or a specified position of a StringBuilder.
ME-Q40) Given the following definition of the class Animal and the interface Jump,
select the correct array declarations and initialization (choose 3 options).
interface Jump {}
class Animal implements Jump {}
a
b
c
d
e
Jump eJump1[]
Jump[] eJump2
Jump[] eJump3
Jump[] eJump4
Jump[] eJump5
=
=
=
=
=
{null, new Animal()};
new Animal()[22];
new Jump[10];
new Animal[87];
new Jump()[12];
ME-Q41)What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
import java.util.*;
class EJGArrayL {
public static void main(String args[]) {
ArrayList seasons = new ArrayList<>();
seasons.add(1, "Spring"); seasons.add(2, "Summer");
seasons.add(3, "Autumn"); seasons.add(4, "Winter");
seasons.remove(2);
for (String s : seasons)
System.out.print(s + ", ");
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
Spring, Summer, Winter,
Spring, Autumn, Winter,
Autumn, Winter,
Compilation error
Runtime exception
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ME-Q42) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class EIf {
public static void main(String args[]) {
bool boolean = false;
do {
if (boolean = true)
System.out.println("true");
else
System.out.println("false");
}
while(3.3 + 4.7 > 8);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
f
The class will print true.
The class will print false.
The class will print true if the if condition is changed to boolean == true.
The class will print false if the if condition is changed to boolean != true.
The class won’t compile.
Runtime exception.
ME-Q43) How many Fish did the Whale (defined as follows) manage to eat? Examine
the following code and select the correct statements (choose 2 options).
class Whale {
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean hungry = false;
while (hungry=true) {
++Fish.count;
}
System.out.println(Fish.count);
}
}
class Fish {
static byte count;
}
a
b
c
d
The code doesn’t compile.
The code doesn’t print a value.
The code prints 0.
Changing ++Fish.count to Fish.count++ will give the same results.
ME-Q44) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace /* REPLACE CODE
HERE */, will make the code print the name of the phone with the position at which
it’s stored in the array phones? (Select 1 option.)
class Phones {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String phones[]= {"BlackBerry", "Android", "iPhone"};
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Mock exam
for (String phone : phones)
/* REPLACE CODE HERE */
}
}
f
System.out.println(phones.count + ":" + phone);
System.out.println(phones.counter + ":" + phone);
System.out.println(phones.getPosition() + ":" + phone);
System.out.println(phones.getCtr() + ":" + phone);
System.out.println(phones.getCount() + ":" + phone);
System.out.println(phones.pos + ":" + phone);
g
None of the above
a
b
c
d
e
ME-Q45) Given the following code,
Byte b1 = (byte)100;
Integer i1 = (int)200;
Long l1 = (long)300;
Float f1 = (float)b1 + (
0int)l1;
// 4
String s1 = 300;
if (s1 == (b1 + i1))
s1 = (String)500;
else
f1 = (int)100;
System.out.println(s1 + ":" + f1);
// 1
// 2
// 3
//
//
//
//
//
//
5
6
7
8
9
10
what is the output? Select 1 option.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Code fails compilation at line numbers 1, 3, 4, 7.
Code fails compilation at line numbers 6, 7.
Code fails compilation at line numbers 7, 9.
Code fails compilation at line numbers 4, 5, 6, 7, 9.
No compilation error—outputs 500:300.
No compilation error—outputs 300:100.
Runtime exception.
ME-Q46) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Book {
String ISBN;
Book(String val) {
ISBN = val;
}
public boolean equals(Object b) {
if (b instanceof Book) {
return ((Book)b).ISBN.equals(ISBN);
}
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else
return false;
}
}
class TestEquals {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Book b1 = new Book("1234-4657");
Book b2 = new Book("1234-4657");
LocalDate release = null;
release = b1.equals(b2) ? b1 == b2? LocalDate.of(2050,12,12):
LocalDate.parse("2072-02-01"):LocalDate.parse("9999-09-09");
System.out.print(release);
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
2050-12-12
2072-02-01
9999-09-09
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q47) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
int a = 10;
for (; a <= 20; ++a) {
if (a%3 == 0) a++; else if (a%2 == 0) a=a*2;
System.out.println(a);
}
a 11
13
15
17
19
b 20
c 11
14
17
20
d 40
e
Compilation error
ME-Q48) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace // INSERT CODE
HERE, will define an overloaded rideWave method? (Select 1 option.)
class Raft {
public String rideWave() { return null; }
//INSERT CODE HERE
}
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a
b
c
d
561
public String[] rideWave() { return null; }
protected void riceWave(int a) {}
private void rideWave(int value, String value2) {}
default StringBuilder rideWave (StringBuffer a) { return null; }
ME-Q49) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace // INSERT CODE
HERE, will correctly calculate the sum of all the even numbers in the array num and
store it in the variable sum? (Select 1 option.)
int num[] = {10, 15, 2, 17};
int sum = 0;
for (int number : num) {
//INSERT CODE HERE
sum += number;
}
a if (number % 2 == 0)
continue;
b if (number % 2 == 0)
break;
c if (number % 2 != 0)
continue;
d if (number % 2 != 0)
break;
ME-Q50) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Op {
public static void main(String... args) {
int a = 0;
int b = 100;
Predicate compare = (var) -> var++ == 10;
if (!b++ > 100 && compare.test(a)) {
System.out.println(a+b);
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
e
100
101
102
Code fails to compile.
No output is produced.
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ME-Q51) Choose the option that meets the following specification: Create a wellencapsulated class Pencil with one instance variable model. The value of model should
be accessible and modifiable outside Pencil. (Select 1 option.)
a class Pencil {
public String model;
}
b class Pencil {
public String model;
public String getModel() { return model; }
public void setModel(String val) { model = val; }
}
c class Pencil {
private String model;
public String getModel() { return model; }
public void setModel(String val) { model = val; }
}
d class Pencil {
public String model;
private String getModel() { return model; }
private void setModel(String val) { model = val; }
}
ME-Q52) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Phone {
void call() {
System.out.println("Call-Phone");
}
}
class SmartPhone extends Phone{
void call() {
System.out.println("Call-SmartPhone");
}
}
class TestPhones {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Phone phone = new Phone();
Phone smartPhone = new SmartPhone();
phone.call();
smartPhone.call();
}
}
a Call-Phone
Call-Phone
b Call-Phone
Call-SmartPhone
c Call-Phone
null
d null
Call-SmartPhone
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ME-Q53) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Phone {
String keyboard = "in-built";
}
class Tablet extends Phone {
boolean playMovie = false;
}
class College2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Phone phone = new Tablet();
System.out.println(phone.keyboard + ":" + phone.playMovie);
}
}
d
in-built:false
in-built:true
null:false
null:true
e
Compilation error
a
b
c
ME-Q54) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
public class Wall {
public static void main(String args[]) {
double area = 10.98;
String color;
if (area < 5)
color = "red";
else
color = "blue";
System.out.println(color);
}
}
a
b
c
d
red
blue
No output
Compilation error
ME-Q55) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Diary {
int pageCount = 100;
int getPageCount() {
return pageCount;
}
void setPageCount(int val) {
pageCount = val;
}
}
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class ClassRoom {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println(new Diary().getPageCount());
new Diary().setPageCount(200);
System.out.println(new Diary().getPageCount());
}
}
a 100
200
b 100
100
c 200
200
d
Code fails to compile.
ME-Q56) How many times do you think you can shop with the following code (that is,
what’s the output of the following code)? (Select 1 option.)
class Shopping {
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean bankrupt = true;
do System.out.println("enjoying shopping"); bankrupt = false;
while (!bankrupt);
}
}
a
b
c
d
The code prints enjoying shopping once.
The code prints enjoying shopping twice.
The code prints enjoying shopping in an infinite loop.
The code fails to compile.
ME-Q57) Which of the following options are valid for defining multidimensional
arrays? (Choose 4 options.)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
String ejg1[][] =
String ejg2[][] =
String ejg3[][] =
String ejg4[][] =
{new String()}};
String ejg5[][] =
String ejg6[][] =
String ejg7[][] =
new
new
new
new
String[1][2];
String[][] { {}, {} };
String[2][2];
String[][]{{null},new String[]{"a","b","c"},
new String[][2];
new String[][]{"A", "B"};
new String[]{{"A"}, {"B"}};
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ME-Q58) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Laptop {
String memory = "1GB";
}
class Workshop {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Laptop life = new Laptop();
repair(life);
System.out.println(life.memory);
}
public static void repair(Laptop laptop) {
laptop = new Laptop();
laptop.memory = "2GB";
}
}
a
b
c
d
1 GB
2 GB
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q59) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace //INSERT CODE
HERE, will enable a reference variable of type Roamable to refer to an object of the
Phone class? (Select 1 option.)
interface Roamable{}
class Phone {}
class Tablet extends Phone implements Roamable {
//INSERT CODE HERE
}
a
b
c
d
Roamable var = new Phone();
Roamable var = (Roamable)Phone();
Roamable var = (Roamable)new Phone();
Because the interface Roamable and the class Phone are unrelated, a reference variable of type Roamable can’t refer to an object of the class Phone.
ME-Q60) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class Paper {
Paper() {
this(10);
System.out.println("Paper:0");
}
Paper(int a) { System.out.println("Paper:1"); }
}
class PostIt extends Paper {}
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class TestPostIt {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Paper paper = new PostIt();
}
}
a Paper:1
b Paper:0
c Paper:0
Paper:1
d Paper:1
Paper:0
ME-Q61) Examine the following code and select the correct statement (choose 1
option).
line1> class StringBuilders {
line2>
public static void main(String... args) {
line3>
StringBuilder sb1 = new StringBuilder("eLion");
line4>
String ejg = null;
line5>
ejg = sb1.append("X").substring(sb1.indexOf("L"),
sb1.indexOf("X"));
line6>
System.out.println(ejg);
line7>
}
line8> }
a
b
c
The code will print LionX.
The code will print Lion.
The code will print Lion if line 5 is changed to the following:
ejg = sb1.append("X").substring(sb1.indexOf('L'), sb1.indexOf('X'));
d
The code will compile only when line 4 is changed to the following:
StringBuilder ejg = null;
ME-Q62) Given the following code,
interface Jumpable {
int height = 1;
default void worldRecord() {
System.out.print(height);
}
}
interface Moveable {
int height = 2;
static void worldRecord() {
System.out.print(height);
}
}
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class Chair implements Jumpable, Moveable {
int height = 3;
Chair() {
worldRecord();
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Jumpable j = new Chair();
Moveable m = new Chair();
Chair c = new Chair();
}
}
what is the output? Select 1 option.
a
b
c
d
e
f
111
123
333
222
Compilation error
Runtime exception
ME-Q63) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace /* INSERT CODE
HERE */, will enable the class Jungle to determine whether the reference variable
animal refers to an object of the class Lion and print 1? (Select 1 option.)
class Animal{ float age; }
class Lion extends Animal { int claws;}
class Jungle {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Animal animal = new Lion();
/* INSERT CODE HERE */
System.out.println(1);
}
}
a
b
c
d
if
if
if
if
(animal
(animal
(animal
(animal
instanceof Lion)
instanceOf Lion)
== Lion)
= Lion)
ME-Q64) Given that the file Test.java, which defines the following code, fails to compile, select the reasons for the compilation failure (choose 2 options).
class Person {
Person(String value) {}
}
class Employee extends Person {}
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class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Employee e = new Employee();
}
}
a
b
c
d
The class Person fails to compile.
The class Employee fails to compile.
The default constructor can call only a no-argument constructor of a base
class.
The code that creates the object of the class Employee in the class Test did
not pass a String value to the constructor of the class Employee.
ME-Q65) Examine the following code and select the correct statements (choose 2
options).
class Bottle {
void Bottle() {}
void Bottle(WaterBottle w) {}
}
class WaterBottle extends Bottle {}
a
b
c
d
A base class can’t pass reference variables of its defined class as method
parameters in constructors.
The class compiles successfully—a base class can use reference variables of its
derived class as method parameters.
The class Bottle defines two overloaded constructors.
The class Bottle can access only one constructor.
ME-Q66) Given the following code, which option, if used to replace /* INSERT CODE
HERE */, will cause the code to print 110? (Select 1 option.)
class Book {
private int pages = 100;
}
class Magazine extends Book {
private int interviews = 2;
private int totalPages() { /* INSERT CODE HERE */ }
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(new Magazine().totalPages());
}
}
a
b
c
return super.pages + this.interviews*5;
return this.pages + this.interviews*5;
return super.pages + interviews*5;
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d
return pages + this.interviews*5;
e
None of the above
569
ME-Q67) Given the following code,
class NoInkException extends Exception {}
class Pen{
void write(String val) throws NoInkException {
int c = (10 - 7)/ (8 - 2 - 6);
}
void article() {
//INSERT CODE HERE
}
}
which of the options, when inserted at //INSERT CODE HERE, will define a valid use of
the method write in the method article? (Select 2 options.)
a try {
new Pen().write("story");
} catch (NoInkException e) {}
b try {
new Pen().write("story");
} finally {}
c try {
write("story");
} catch (Exception e) {}
d try {
new Pen().write("story");
} catch (RuntimeException e) {}
ME-Q68) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class EMyMethods {
static String name = "m1";
void riverRafting() {
String name = "m2";
if (8 > 2) {
String name = "m3";
System.out.println(name);
}
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
EMyMethods m1 = new EMyMethods();
m1.riverRafting();
}
}
c
m1
m2
m3
d
The code fails to compile.
a
b
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ME-Q69) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class EBowl {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String eFood = "Corn";
System.out.println(eFood);
mix(eFood);
System.out.println(eFood);
}
static void mix(String foodIn) {
foodIn.concat("A");
foodIn.replace('C', 'B');
}
}
a Corn
BornA
b Corn
CornA
c Corn
Born
d Corn
Corn
ME-Q70) Which statement is true for the following code? (Select 1 option.)
class SwJava {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String[] shapes = {"Circle", "Square", "Triangle"};
switch (shapes) {
case "Square": System.out.println("Circle"); break;
case "Triangle": System.out.println("Square"); break;
case "Circle": System.out.println("Triangle"); break;
}
}
}
a
b
c
d
The code prints Circle.
The code prints Square.
The code prints Triangle.
The code prints
Circle
Square
Triangle
e
The code prints
Triangle
Circle
Square
f
The code fails to compile.
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571
ME-Q71) Given the following definition of the classes Person, Father, and Home,
which option, if used to replace //INSERT CODE HERE, will cause the code to compile
successfully? (Select 3 options.)
class Person {}
class Father extends Person {
public void dance() throws ClassCastException {}
}
class Home {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Person p = new Person();
try {
((Father)p).dance();
}
//INSERT CODE HERE
}
}
a catch (NullPointerException e) {}
catch (ClassCastException e) {}
catch (Exception e) {}
catch (Throwable t) {}
b catch (ClassCastException e) {}
catch (NullPointerException e) {}
catch (Exception e) {}
catch (Throwable t) {}
c catch (ClassCastException e) {}
catch (Exception e) {}
catch (NullPointerException e) {}
catch (Throwable t) {}
d catch (Throwable t) {}
catch (Exception e) {}
catch (ClassCastException e) {}
catch (NullPointerException e) {}
e finally {}
ME-Q72) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
import java.time.*;
class Camera {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int hours;
LocalDateTime now = LocalDateTime.of(2020, 10, 01, 0 , 0);
LocalDate before = now.toLocalDate().minusDays(1);
LocalTime after = now.toLocalTime().plusHours(1);
while (before.isBefore(after) && hours < 4) {
++hours;
}
System.out.println("Hours:" + hours);
}
}
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a
b
c
d
Full mock exam
The code prints Camera:null.
The code prints Camera:Adjust settings manually.
The code prints Camera:.
The code will fail to compile.
ME-Q73) The output of the class TestEJavaCourse, defined as follows, is 300:
class Course {
int enrollments;
}
class TestEJavaCourse {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Course c1 = new Course();
Course c2 = new Course();
c1.enrollments = 100;
c2.enrollments = 200;
System.out.println(c1.enrollments + c2.enrollments);
}
}
What will happen if the variable enrollments is defined as a static variable? (Select
1 option.)
a
b
c
d
No change in output. TestEJavaCourse prints 300.
Change in output. TestEJavaCourse prints 200.
Change in output. TestEJavaCourse prints 400.
The class TestEJavaCourse fails to compile.
ME-Q74) What is the output of the following code? (Select 1 option.)
String ejgStr[] = new String[][]{{null},new String[]{"a","b","c"},{new
String()}}[0] ;
String ejgStr1[] = null;
String ejgStr2[] = {null};
System.out.println(ejgStr[0]);
System.out.println(ejgStr2[0]);
System.out.println(ejgStr1[0]);
a null
NullPointerException
b null
null
NullPointerException
c NullPointerException
d null
null
null
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ME-Q75) Examine the following code and select the correct statement (choose 1 option).
import java.util.*;
class Person {}
class Emp extends Person {}
class TestArrayList {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList Source Exif Data:
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