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BCBA Reference
Manual

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1

Edited by:
Benjamin Theisen
Zachary Bird

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. This book contains material protected under International and Federal
Copyright Laws and Treaties. Any unauthorized reprint or use of this material is prohibited. No part of
this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without express
written permission from the author / publisher.

BCBA Reference Manual
TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1
Edited by Benjamin Theisen & Zachary Bird
Copyright©2015
ISBN13: 978-0-9856329-3-9
3 4 5 6 7 8 20 19 18 17 16
Bx Dynamic Press
SAN: 990-1396
5031 Fair Ave #424, N. Hollywood, CA 91601

iii

BCBA Reference Manual

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1
Edited by Benjamin Theisen and Zachary Bird

Table of Contents

SECTION ONE: Getting Started
1. Introduction
2. ABA Supervision Taxonomy
3. Refresher: Key Takeaways from the 8 Hour Supervisor Training Curriculum

1
3
7
25

SECTION TWO: Supervised Fieldwork Curriculum
4. Annotated 4th Edition Task List™

33
35

SECTION THREE: Submitting the Application and Beyond
5. Upon Completion

247
249

REFERENCES

251

About the Authors
Executive Editors

Ben Theisen founded TrainABA in January
2014 as an excuse to deliver supervision seminars. He is a BCBA and has worked in applied
behavior analysis since 2006.
Email: ben@trainaba.com

Cell: 1+310-801-5450

I hope the work Ben and I have done over
the last two years will result in a supervision
system you appreciate and can use every day.
If you don’t like it, or you don’t use a TrainABA product in your work or school every
day, please bombard Ben’s cell phone with
discouraging text messages.

Additional Editors

My name is Zachary Bird. I’m a BCBA and
a managing partner at TrainABA. You won’t
find my phone number here but I still share
the same vision you hear when Ben speaks
passionately about TrainABA.
I’m currently working on my PhD in Behavior Analysis at Simmons College. I used to
live near Los Angeles, but Boston was as far
away as my wife and I could get from Ben
without leaving the country.
I work hard each day to learn ways to advance the field of behavior analysis. ABA is
my greatest passion. Everyone who knows
me, knows this about me. I’ve spent time in
center-based programs, non-public schools,
in-home programs, and worked as a consultant internationally. TrainABA is a company
designed to provide tools for the behavior analytic community in general, whether it be in a
university setting, an ABA center, or in-home
ABA program.

Casey Clay is a BCBA-D. He earned his
Ph.D. in the Disability Disciplines program
at Utah State University and his Master of
Science in Applied Behavior Analysis from
Northeastern University. He has several years
of clinical experience at the New England
Center for Children and the Utah Behavior
Support Clinic. His research interests include
assessment and treatment of challenging behavior, social interaction and preference assessment methodologies, and training procedures in these areas. His work has been published in multiple peer-reviewed journals. He
has also served as a guest reviewer for the
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA)
and the Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions (JPBI).
Caleb Davis is a BCBA. Currently, he is a
PhD student in the Behavior Analysis program at Simmons College. He received his
Master of Science in Applied Behavior Analysis from Western New England University.
During graduate school he received his BCBA
supervision requirements while working at the
New England Center for Children. His research interests include the assessment and
treatment of severe problem behavior and errorless learning procedures. Caleb has presented his research at both national and regional conferences.

Contributing Authors

This book would not have been made possible
without contributions from a set of behavior
analysts. Their roles were crucial in developing
this book. The editors offer a special thank
you to Jason Zeigler for his extraordinary contributions to this project, which would not
have been completed without him.

Jason Zeigler is a BCBA currently working
for the Walpole Public School District in Walpole, Massachusetts. He received his Master’s
of Education with a concentration in autism
spectrum disorder and applied behavior analysis from Cambridge College in 2011. He has
worked in a variety of settings serving students of various age ranges and cognitive abilities. Previously, Jason had worked as a head
teacher at the Evergreen Center, an assistant
clinical director at the May Institute, and as a
BCBA in the Marlborough Public School district. This wide range of experiences has given
him a well-rounded professional outlook with
experience serving students with various disabilities as well as typically developed students
with behavioral issues. His research interests
include functional behavior assessment, behavioral skills training, sensory processing disorder, interventions for students with ADHD,
sensory deficits, and anxiety, and effective
training methodologies. Jason’s current position has him consulting, assessing, and
providing programming and behavioral support for a number of students ranging from
preschool to high school. He enjoys research,

training others in applied behavior analytic
principles, assessment, and problem solving
various maladaptive behavior concerns to create effective interventions for students on his
case load.

Additional Authors

Dalena Anzivino is a BCBA. She completed
her undergraduate degree from York University, a post-graduate certificate program from
George Brown College, and a Master’s of Applied Disabilities Studies with a Specialization
in ABA from Brock University, Canada. Her
studies at Brock University led to a publication as a contributing author of a chapter in a
handbook for ABA practitioners on genetic
syndromes and ABA. Over the past ten years,
she has worked with children and adolescents
diagnosed with autism, providing direct service, clinical supervision for both home based
and centre based Intensive Behavioural Intervention (IBI) programs, as well as facilitating
training workshops for direct support staff
and parents.
Candice Colón-Kwedor is a BCBA. She was
first introduced to behavior analysis as an undergraduate at Virginia Tech. She then received her Master of Science in Applied Behavior Analysis from Northeastern University
and fulfilled her graduate assistantship requirements and BCBA supervision requirements at the New England Center for Children. Her research interests include the treatment of automatically maintained behavior,
verbal behavior and the assessment and treatment of severe challenging behavior. Her research has been published in the Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) and has
been presented at national and regional conferences. She has also served as a guest reviewer for The Analysis of Verbal behavior
(TAVB) and Behavioral Interventions (BI).
She is currently a doctoral candidate in the Behavior Analysis Ph.D. program at Western

New England University and is a Senior Clinical Director at the May Institute’s May Center
for Autism and Developmental Disabilities in
Randolph, Massachusetts.
Emma Martin graduated in 2007 from the
University of Bath with a Bachelor’s degree in
Psychology. Her Bachelors included a placement year and as such she spent a year working at the Institute of Child Health in London
with two research teams conducting research
on autism. She worked as a Lead Teacher at
the Jigsaw School in the UK, which is an Independent Day School for children with autism and severe learning difficulties. At that
time, she also completed a Master’s Degree in
Education with a concentration in high-incidence disabilities with Nicholls State University. In 2011, she moved to Bermuda and began work as a Senior Verbal Behavior Therapist for Tomorrow’s Voices, an Autism Early
Intervention Centre. She became a Board Certified Behavior Analyst in 2012.
Angela Pao-Johnson is a BCBA and has
been in the field since 2004. She was first introduced to applied behavioral analysis while
interning at UC San Diego’s Autism Center
for Excellence. Since then, she has worked
with a wide range of individuals ages 1 to 70
across a multitude of settings, which include
home, schools, clinics and adult group homes.
She has created protocols for several agencies,
designed and implemented social skills classes,
overseen the training of over 100 behavioral
interventionists and led a series of behaviorally based trainings for teachers across Los
Angeles School District. She currently resides
in Los Angeles with her loving husband, Mike
and their daughter Imogen.
Pamela Shea is currently the clinical supervisor of Behaviour Services at Ottawa Children’s Treatment Centre. She completed her
Masters in Applied Disabilities (Brock University), a Graduate Certificate in Behavior

vii

Analysis (University of North Texas), Behavioural Science Technology (St. Lawrence College), an Honours Degree in Psychology
(Queen’s University), and is a BCBA. She has
over 25 years of experience in the field of
ABA, has worked as a clinical supervisor, a behaviour consultant, senior therapist, a BCBA
supervisor and has taught at two colleges. She
has worked in community based behaviour
services and the provincial IBI within multidisciplinary teams, in residential, vocational,
home, day care and school environments. She
is a member of OCTC’s Ethics Advisory
Committee and has spearheaded the development of a Functional Analysis Ethical Review
Committee for medium and high severity
functional analyses and is a member of the
Christian Horizons Ethical Review Committee.
Carolyn E. Stephens has worked in the field
of autism and applied behavior analysis for
over 30 years. Her academic training includes
intervention in early childhood, learning disabilities, and moderate and severe intellectual
disabilities. She has completed single subject
research related to joint attention in children
with autism. As an assistant professor in special education she taught and supervised undergraduate and graduate students in special
education at the university level. She is currently working as a behavior analyst to design
and implement individual behavior support
plans for children and adults. To address the
gap between needs and behavior training
within public agency systems, she has designed and presented a year-long workshop to
introduce applied behavior analysis concepts
and skills to supervisors in an eight-county
area serving adults with developmental disabilities.
Sarah Teske grew up in a small, historic town
in New Hampshire. She studied Psychology
and English at the University of New Hampshire. She spent three years teaching at the

viii

New England Center for Children while she
acquired a master’s degree in applied behavior
analysis through Northeastern University. Sarah went on to receive her certification as a
BCBA and also obtained her special ed. teaching certification in the state of N.H. She has
been working in the field of autism for 15
years and currently works for William J. White
Educational and Behavioral Consulting Services Inc., consulting for schools in both
Maine and New Hampshire. In her spare time
Sarah likes to write children’s books and garden. She has been collaborating with other
professionals to enhance the field of ABA.
She currently lives on the seacoast of Maine
with her husband and two sons.
Kelly Workman, M.A., M.S., is a BCBA who
started her career in ABA in 2007. Her work
in ABA has focused on assessment and intervention programs for individuals with autism

and other developmental disabilities across
the lifespan in the home, school, workplace,
and group home settings. Kelly has also provided supervision, training, and consultation
for several years. Kelly has an avid interest in
clinical behavior analysis and is currently completing a doctoral program in clinical psychology at the University of La Verne, with the
goal of applying behavior analysis to chronic
and severe mental health issues. She received
extensive training in behavioral and cognitivebehavioral therapies including ACT, DBT,
CBT, and CBASP, and incorporates principles
of operant conditioning to facilitate behavior
change when treating individuals with mental
health concerns. Kelly is passionate about her
clinical work and is receiving specialized training in working with populations who present
with pervasive emotional dysregulation, lifethreatening suicidal and non-suicidal selfharming behavior, and trauma-related concerns.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank certain individuals
whose professional activities influenced the
development of this book in some way.
Brooke Mackenzie was contracted for administrative edits and worked expeditiously.
Natasha Harris helped organize legal and
administrative paperwork.
Rabeha Motiwala helped with early research in summer 2014.
Angie Bird provided feedback and great
ideas throughout the editing process.
Stephanie Ortega evaluated the logic of the
supervision system to help Ben and
Zach develop a conceptually-systematic
approach. Her razor-sharp analysis and
creativity was a tremendous help.
Christie Caccioppo, Vivienne Nelson,
and Sharon Noble provided insightful
feedback in an early stage collaboration
group in summer 2014.
Ellie Kazemi’s own work in supervision
curriculum is important to the ethical
practice of evidence-based supervision
and we encourage readers to explore
her resources. Ben had the privilege to
work with Dr. Kazemi at the Southern
California Consortium for Behavior
Analysis, which she founded. It helped
Ben understand the role project management played in helping service providers collaborate.
Gary Geer provided much-needed coaching
support for project management. When
the editors were fully immersed in the
messy writing process, Mr. Geer helped
us step back, prioritize, and focus.
Eduard S. Alterson generously provided his
economic genius and industry
knowledge in summer 2014, helping
Ben analyze the ABA supervision industry mathematically. Mr. Alterson’s
calculations helped create a financial
forecast for completing the book.

John Youngbauer coined the name of “Associated Aardvarks for Autism,” a fictitious behavioral service provider. Ben
borrowed the name for the case study
in the Supervisor book. Dr. Youngbauer’s lifelong contributions to behavior analysis could fill volumes of books
this size.
OBMNetwork is an excellent resource with
annual subscriptions available for the
price of one dinner. At the time of
publishing the first edition of this
book, there were 21,233 BACB certificants and only 236 members of the
OBMNetwork – a mere 1.11%.
Paula Braga-Kenyon provided support
throughout entire book writing/editing process whether she was aware of it
or not.
Olga Shapovalova provided insight and
support with initial stages and various
parts of editing. She inspires us with her
work in multiple languages while we
struggle to work in just one.
Carl Cheney contributed to our solid resource list on a few of the more difficult
to find topics.
Gregory Hanley provided and continues to
provide his vision for our field and
a simple call-to-action to behavior analysts everywhere: "Read JABA."
Michael Ballard contributed ideas, inspiration and support.
Bill Ahearn advocated and continues to advocate for taking a big-picture perspective on our field and promoting systems
to increase the quality of training in our
field.

Foreward
Imagine my surprise when I returned to
applied behavior analysis from a 3-year sabbatical in 2013. How different could things
be? It was night and day. In less than a presidential term, the BACB® had doubled its
membership, supervision had guidelines, and
universities had ABA master’s degrees
online. My MBA no longer met the degree
requirements. ABA students were talking
about SAFMEDs. What the heck were SAFMEDs?
That was around the time I leaned back in
an old squeaky chair at a school startup outside Los Angeles, manding to Zach Bird, my
new colleague, from across the hall. “Zach,”
I said, waiting for him to unpeel his eyes
from the computer screen. Zach’s desk contained a red pen, no papers, and a week’s
worth of vegetarian meal replacement bars,
some of which were opened. “Yeah?” he responded. He blinked a few times to let me
know he was ready. I put my hands behind
my head and stretched my heels onto the
Craigslist desk. “What’s a SAFMED?”
Zach looked at me like I had two heads.
Then, he gave me a full explanation. Zach
was different than any BCBA® I had met.
He had just left New England Center for
Children, where new BCBAs provided direct
care, and arrived in Southern California,
where every BCBA® was made an automatic
manager. Here, exam pass rates were around
40% at popular schools and negative reinforcement was occasionally defined as taking
away a preferred item to decrease behavior.
Our differences were what brought us together.
Zach was hands-down the biggest behavior analysis geek I had ever met. Yet there
was something lovable about the way he answered my questions that made me keep asking. As I write these words, I can hear his

voice in my mind saying, “Reinforcement,
Ben.”
What was so reinforcing about talking
ABA with Zach? We talked philosophy, private events, things Skinner said, and, of
course, anything by Patrick Friman. I introduced Zach to some of my non-ABA friends
and they thought he was the most interesting
person they had ever met. He was bright, enthusiastic, and incredibly humble.
Zach and I cared deeply about the same
thing – the future of ABA. My approach was
through business and marketing, hoping to
see a world where ABA organizations ran
like clockwork and other industries would
want to know our secrets. Zach was into
technology and research.
We agreed that behavior analysts would
benefit globally if supervisors had resources
at a molecular level. This book may not look
like much but it took us a very long time to
make, not to mention our countless webchats, whiteboard sessions, Elon Musk blogs,
and epic plans to change the world. We envisioned a world where behavior analysts could
focus on supervision instead of spending
time figuring out how to supervise. This
book was a step in the right direction.
Yet we walked those steps slowly. Months
passed. We made slow progress. And then
there was Jason. Mr. Jason Zeigler was a Boston-area BCBA and absolute powerhouse.
We worked with Jason 10 months before
meeting him face-to-face, filming Registered
Behavior Technician training videos at our
“studio” (my tiny 1-bedroom apartment in
the North Hollywood Arts District of Los
Angeles). Jason was charismatic, fun, and
cool.
Gary Geer, my longtime mentor and partner in TrainABA, had a good joke about Jason. He said, “Did you see his Cooper book,
Ben?” I said, “Yeah. Lots of underlining and
margin notes, right?” Gary laughed. “He
could use a black highlighter, if you know
what I mean,” Gary said, playfully. “Yeah,

xii

because he has the whole thing memorized
so he doesn’t need to see the words,” I replied. “Exactly,” Gary said. From that day
forward, whenever I thought of Jason I imagined him blacking out the Cooper text after memorizing each section. I was grateful
that Jason lended his talents to finishing this
book. He is an outstanding resource and
gifted presenter, full of passion and creativity.
At the time this book was finished, we had
plans to launch a mobile app version that
would forever change the field of ABA. Buying this book was like voting with your dollars. With this purchase, you voted for TrainABA’s vision – to save time. It was a vote for
Zach and me to keep being ambitious, humble social entrepreneurs trying to bring the

world more ABA. We thank you for buying
this book – even if you have no idea who we
are – and we look forward to seeing you
someday soon. Launching this book is the
biggest thing we have ever done. Thank you
for sharing the moment with us. We appreciate you so much.
Here’s to a better field. We will keep working hard to save you time. I hope this book
helps you find a few hours to do something
you love.
Ben Theisen, Editor

SECTION ONE
Getting Started

The TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system
took two years of full time effort to develop.
There were only 3,000 BACB®-exam candidates
in 2013. Even if Ben sold books to 25% of them,
he would have made less than minimum wage. It
was a pet project that Ben took way too seriously.
Zach joined in to help, probably because he felt
sorry for Ben and also realized Ben would finish
the project but did not know enough ABA literature to do it justice. They made slow progress until Jason Zeigler joined the party. That guy was a
powerhouse. (Other contributors are mentioned
in the About the Authors section.) The result was
the overly sophisticated TrainABA system that
you hold today. We hope it keeps you organized
and saves you time while the ABA profession develops.
In the coming years, we will see a more perfect
ABA world. It will be beautiful. We are privileged
to have a front row seat to the development of
our field. We are honored to take this journey
with you.
Okay, enough storytelling. Thank you for purchasing the system. Here is what you bought:

Chapter 1
Introduction
Thank you for purchasing this book as part of
the TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system. It will
save you dozens of hours – enough to plan a nice
vacation for yourself or find extra time throughout the week to jump on Facebook, search
Google, add Ben on Twitter, or catch up on Netflix.
The system was built in response to two things
happening at the same time – like weather when
warm air mixes with a cold front and creates a
storm. The warm air was the developing industry
of applied behavior analysis (ABA) professional
services, marked by variability in university training and fieldwork that resulted in low Behavior
Analyst Certification Board® (BACB®) exam
pass rates. The cold front was the shock of Ben’s
15-month old niece dying from Sudden Unexplained Death of a Child in 2012. At the wake, her
father urged parents to, “read one more story” or
“give one more piggy back ride.” Time was precious.
Ben was deeply affected. In the months that
followed, he ran supervision webinars and was
struck by how many unpaid hours BCBAs completed at home. “We have to,” some would say,
“There’s no time to do it at work.” Supervisors
described reading emails during family dinners
and writing reports with a laptop from the bleachers at soccer practice. It made Ben sad to think of
what his brother-in-law said at the wake. Time
was precious. If his sister had worked through
dinner the night before his niece died, they may
have regretted it forever. Ben knew the industry
would eventually correct itself but it could take
decades before supervision was structured.
Ben pondered the warm and cold weather conditions, metaphorically, and used his economics
training to calculate when and who would create
standardized supervision curriculum. Private
agency supervisors created makeshift solutions
but stopped developing them once the systems
met their minimum needs. Universities focused on
their own practicum programs.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum includes the
items below.
1.
2.
3.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum:
BCBA Reference Manual
TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Independent Fieldwork (this book)
TrainABA Supervision Curriculum:
RBT Credential

The TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system helps
you:
a.
b.

d.
e.
f.
3

Grow your company’s management team
with less stress on the system
Get from start to finish with a page-bypage, week-by-week program (supervision
contract  fieldwork  BACB® application)
Find systems to help you track supervision
hours and signature forms to email to the
BACB®
Use Individual and Group meeting agendas
Save dozens of hours by not reinventing
the wheel
Check pre-assigned homework

g.
h.
i.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Track ongoing progress on the 4th Edition
Task List™ assessment
Prepare for BACB®-exam with test topics
built into fieldwork
Organize essential supervision materials
and meetings in one place, accessible by
phone or computer

TrainABA is a BACB®-Approved Continuing
Education (ACE) provider. We specialize in responding to supervision-related problems that are
global in scope and too complex or time-consuming for other organizations and universities to
solve.
The 4th Edition Task List™ face sheets are organized by “segments” (more about those later) to
make it easier to complete and check homework
assignments.
TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Independent
Fieldwork contains exercises for the supervisee to
complete in a week-by-week progression that
cover all 168 items on the 4th Edition Task List
with the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Individual meeting agendas
Group meeting agendas
Ongoing homework assignments
4th Edition Task List™ assessment

The hours are not tracked in the book as a safeguard in case the book was lost. Keep your signature forms on a storage cloud online and in a paper file for seven years.

Introduction

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Chapter 2
Supervision Taxonomy
1. What is ABA supervision?
2. A Taxonomy of ABA supervision
3. BACB® Influence in the Development of Formal Behavior Analysis Supervision
What is ABA Supervision?
What is "supervision"? Most definitions indicate that it is the act of providing supervision or oversight, involving directing in relation to execution and performance.

Direct vs. Indirect ABA Supervision
One might also describe ABA supervision
as, "Overseeing direct implementation" or
"following the procedures. An ABA subordinate may be evaluated on procedural integrity,
procedural drift, and other direct measures of
staff performance. The client's progress may
be a direct measure of the subordinate's performance. However, client progress is an indirect measure of supervision efficacy.

Supervision in Management
"Supervision" is most used in relation to
business administration, in the realm of management. Human supervisors are employed to
supervise humans and systems.
Supervision of Humans and Systems
It would be unusual to use the term "supervisor" to describe a machine that monitors information (including that generated by a human), or to describe a human that oversees information generated solely by a machine. The
typical use of the word, "supervisor" implies a
human to human interaction related to execution or performance.

Increase of Management Problems in ABA Organizations
The proliferation of autism behavior services has accompanied the rise in management problems at private practice ABA agencies, centers, and special education school settings. Management at such organizations have
not widely adopted management practices to
solve the repetitive problems occurring at the
workplace in daily operations.

Supervision in ABA Settings
The words, "execution" and "performance"
are commonly used in business settings and
could be used within the context of behavior
analysis. However, more precise language further locates "supervision" in the field of applied behavior analysis. A manager at a typical
business corporation "supervises" an employee to monitor performance and execution
of tasks. In ABA settings, managers would
more likely say they, "supervise staff to measure how effectively they implement a behavioral plan."

The primary reasons include:
1. Decision makers are unaware of how
to identify the problem
2. Unaware of how to solve it
3. Have made unsuccessful attempts to
solve it in the past and believe they either exhausted possible solutions or
that the problem cannot be solved
4. Lack resources in behavior analytic literature and have come to view the
problem as a non-issue because it does
not seem to be covered in ABA
7

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The above reasons are potential barriers if
all resources are equal. However, more important barriers include time constraints, lack
of money to pay consultants, and a tendency
to focus on work that is expressly billable as
opposed to management strategies, which require time, creativity, and a willingness to
gather and analyze data over time to find
"what works" at a particular organization using an experimental approach.

What Is Being Done
It is perhaps surprising that behavior analysis professionals are not leading the managerial movement to solve such problems, given
the curious nature of behavior analysis professionals and their propensity for solving problems in the world around them.
A Taxonomy of ABA Supervision
In the 8 Hour Supervisor Training workshops, TrainABA moderators generally introduce the supervision taxonomy by addressing
the “big picture” of policy-level issues governing the professional practice of applied behavior analysis. The presenter posits that such
policy both necessitated and helped define
how ABA supervision would be practiced.
Policy varies across countries, states, and
provinces, and various funding sources share
properties with specific differences.
As such, we acknowledge that no single
“source”, whether an academic, private, or
government model created ABA supervision.
It has evolved with the proliferation of professional behavior analytic services for individuals with developmental disabilities,
namely autism. ABA supervision existed prior
to the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® (BACB®) in 1999. However, the BACB® has grown. It has served as
the primary centralized regulatory organization for professional ABA services.
After introductions, the workshop presenter often asks the following set of questions:
How Does Policy Influence How Funding Sources
Choose Providers?
And

How do funding source requirements influence the professional practice of applied behavior analysis services?
In the USA, the answer is generally that policy is written and a licensing body enforces
compliance. However, the professional practice of behavior analysis is currently experiencing an early stage developmental period.
More states are passing legislation. Some
states are still in the process of licensure for
ABA professionals.
Generally, the process involves policy language for licensure that acknowledges the
BACB® certification credential and identifies
an established licensing board to regulate
practitioners. Other practices, such as psychology, have their own licensing boards and
may opt to include behavior analysts within
their board.
Other service delivery professions, such as
psychology, have similar requirements as the
BACB®, such as required education, supervised experience (1500 hours), ethical compliance code, continuing education requirements, etc.
As states adapt to the growing demand for
professional behavior analytic services, many
have acknowledged the BACB® certification
as a requirement for billing. The BACB® is
not a licensing body but serves as the central
regulatory body for certified professional behavior analysts. It is the authoritative body for
certification and credentialing in professional
ABA services around the world. The BACB®
is an influential global organization. Its international impact has been possible, in part, because it is not bound by a specific state or federal government. Such would not be the case
if the BACB® was created as a licensing organization in Florida, its state of origin. The
BACB® is currently headquartered in Littleton, Colorado, USA. Its strong influence in
shaping the practice of professional behavior
analysis services merits a prominent role in a
taxonomy for ABA supervision today.
•
•

Licensing body standardizes practitioner KSAs, ethics, practice (medicine, psychology, counseling, etc.).
If no licensing body available, some
authoritative body for certification

or credentialing assumes that role
(BACB in 1998).
BACB® Influence in the Development of
Formal Behavior Analysis Supervision
In recent years, the BACB® has established
a model for the professional delivery of behavior analytic services for insurance providers. It involved a hierarchy upon which a
BCBA or BCBA-D oversees a BCaBA, who
supervises a behavior technician. It is common practice for companies to omit the
BCaBA. In such cases, the BCBA or BCBAD may oversee the behavior technicians directly.
Individuals with BACB® certification are
not required to supervise. Some certified practitioners work directly with clients, particularly
in group home settings and other consulting
situations where monthly hours are low and
hiring a direct implementation professional
would not be appropriate. However, the
global rise in autism diagnoses has warranted
a high demand for appropriate structure of
professional behavior analytic services that
serve children with autism. Such services are
delivered in homes, schools, and centers. Applied behavior analysis practitioners typically
train and supervise professionals who implement behavior analytic programming directly
with staff.
Generally, the certificant acts as a supervisor who analyzes data, conducts most or all
elements of the assessment, designs and develops behavioral programming, and reports
on progress. It is typical for ABA certificants

Supervision Taxonomy

to function in a supervisory role under such a
service delivery model. However, not every
certificant supervises staff.
Most, but not all certificants, supervise clinical staff.
Some work directly with clients or in research roles.
The BACB® established the BCBA,
BCBA-D and BCaBA credentials in its early
years. However, the organization has grown
from roughly 200 members in 2000 to over
19,200 active participants at the time this book
was published.
In the summer 2014, the BACB® introduced the Registered Behavior Technician
(RBT) Credential. This was a standardized
credential for individuals who provided direct
implementation of behavior analysis programs.
It should be noted that some confusion
over terminology has arisen among practitioners as the RBT credential is becoming more
common.
A rule-of-thumb:
“Certification” is for Supervisors and “credentialing” is for Direct Implementation staff.
The ABA Supervision taxonomy, therefore,
applies to individuals who either hold or are
candidates for BACB® certification. RBT
Credentialees are supervised by individuals
who hold a BACB® certification. However,
credentialees do not supervise.
We draw this distinction to help define and
locate the meaning of an ABA supervisor. The
following chart identifies the basic difference
in requirements for supervisors – ABA certification – versus those they supervise – RBT
credentialees.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

(This book is for developing supervisors.)

(This book is NOT for developing behavior technicians.)

Directors and
Supervisors

Behavior Technicians

ABA Certification

ABA Credential

Training

Ongoing Quality Assurance

• BCBA-D
• BCBA
• BCaBA*

•
•
•
•

•
•

University diploma
University hours (270)
Supervised Experience
Certification exam

Ethical/Disciplinary Standards
*Ongoing Supervision for
BCaBAs
Continuing Education Units
8 Hour Supervisor Training
Workshop

• RBT

•
•
•
•

•
•

*BCaBAs require ongoing supervision from a BCBA or BCBA-D

High school diploma
RBT 40 hour Training
RBT Assessment
Fingerprints/RBT application

Ethical/Disciplinary Standards
Ongoing supervision

Supervision Taxonomy

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The following chart depicts the typical arrangement for ABA service delivery for an organization whose staff hold BACB® credentials.

BCBA
BCaBA
RBT

RBT

In the above chart, where is the candidate –
the intern who is accruing hours toward satisfaction of her or his credential application criteria?
Suppose the position is called the supervisor
intern. Is the supervisor intern billable? Herein lies
the problem – or solution – for many ABA
professionals around the world.
Consider the supervisor intern. Such a position
is occasionally covered by policy or funding
source, especially when a unique negotiation
has been reached. The problem is simple: how
can you bill for supervision hours if your supervisor does not hold a credential? The answer is often complicated by economic conditions of supply and demand for autism intervention services. Autism is a public health crisis that is difficult to solve because there are
far more people with autism than credentialed
behavior analysts to serve them. The challenge
at the policy-level is to provide enough legislation to safeguard clients with qualified service providers. Legislation that is too rigid
makes it difficult for companies to “keep the
lights on,” or meet minimum expenses to turn
a profit. Often, practitioners assume that a
company is making a lot of money because
they see clients, employees, laptops, trainings,

RBT

catered lunches, and office space. Yet organizations in the ABA industry must exercise restraint and deliberation for their business
practices. For example, what happens when a
company can only be paid for services provided by a BCBA, yet all the BCBAs in the
area are gainfully employed?
Let’s say a local university observes the
growing demand for professional behavior analysts has increased. That university creates a
certification program as a hybrid or
standalone master’s degree that satisfies the
university hours required by the BACB. A few
years pass. The university has graduated its
first class. Yet the university does not have a
practicum and it is the responsibility of the
graduates to complete their supervised experience hours. What would the students do?
They would reach out to local companies for
employment – after all, it will soon be time to
repay student loans – in hopes that a company
can provide a training system for the individual.
The recent graduate may face a mixed landscape, shaped by the contingencies the company faces for promoting and/or billing for
that supervisor intern. There are a few common
scenarios:

Supervision Taxonomy

• Two local funding sources reimburses
companies ONLY for supervision
hours performed by a BCBA.
o One source formally allows the
agency to have the supervision hours

performed at the rate of a Behavior
Technician (lower rate).
o The other source does not reimburse
work performed by a non-credentialed
supervisor. They will discontinue services unless all supervisor hours are
performed by a credential holder.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Case Study: Associated Aardvarks for

Supervision Taxonomy

Associated Aardvarks for Autism (AAA)
was a fictitious ABA agency. Their directory
was tasked with deciding whether to offer an
internship program for university graduates of
a local ABA master’s program. AAA would
select one intern to pilot the program. The internship was meant to fulfill the 1,500 hours
of supervised experience toward the BCBA®
credential. AAA hoped the program would result in developing a new supervisor who could
be on the AAA team, rising from the ranks of
the company. This supervisor would, AAA
presumed, be more loyal to AAA in appreciation for the internship. Also, the intern would
have learned how to get things done at AAA.
These were attractive characteristics that were
almost impossible to find from outside
BCBA®s, which were in scarce supply anyway.

of “administrative” hours. They could not be
counted toward the intern’s credentialing
hours.
The accountant knew that at least half of
the intern’s hours needed to be clinical but
could not be direct implementation of behavioral programming. For that reason, the accountant only calculated 15 hours per week of
billable work for the intern to serve as a behavior technician. He knew the other half included program development, report writing,
parent education, and staff training. The company had one funding source that allowed interns to bill for these services. However, two
other funding sources required the full credential for reimbursement. For that reason,
the accountant described the “other 50%”, as
he called it, as a gray area category that may or
may not be billable. But how could he help
offset more of the cost of internship, so the
company would not have to pay so much
money out of pocket?

AAA’s Accountant
AAA’s director asked the accounting department to create Table 2.1, which summarized cashflow for the internship. The accountant assumed they would hire the intern
at $45,000. That included a 50-week year at 30
hour/week, for which half of the hours were
to be provided as direct implementation of behavioral programming. The engagement culminated in a complete 1,500-hour internship,
satisfying the requirements toward the
BACB®’s credentialing application.
The 30 hours per week led to the quickest
possible completion of the supervised experience hours for the ABA credential internship.
The accountant interviewed the clinical director and was informed that the BACB® permitted up to 50% of intern hours for direct
implementation. What were the other hours?
The accountant asked about scheduling meetings, billing, drive-time, and planning meetings that were not clinical. Unfortunately,
those things were considered “non-clinical”

Funding Sources
The accountant considered the types of reimbursement contingencies the company
faced. The most lenient funding sources allowed the company to bill for the intern’s program development and report writing, generally under the supervision of a credentialed individual. Other funding sources will not pay
for any supervisor hours performed by a noncredentialed ABA professional. The most
conservative funding sources only reimburse
for supervision performed in the presence of
the client by a credentialed ABA professional.
In the AAA Company for Table 2.1, the
funding source allowed only direct implementation hours to be billed by the intern. These
hours are performed by a behavior technician
and take the form of direct service.
The accountant recommended AAA to
minimize the out-of-pocket expense of the internship by assigning a salaried individual as
the supervisor for the 75 hours a supervisor
would need to spend supervising that intern.

Autism (AAA)

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The director asked how much money that
would save.

Estimating Supervision Costs
The accountant created Table 2.2 to estimate costs if the intern’s supervisor would
have been paid hourly. The table reflected $45
per hour for the supervisor wage. It was a safe
estimate considering the BACB® and Association of Professional Behavior Analysts
(APBA) 2012 study which showed that most
supervisor hours were reimbursed $40-$50
per hour. The accountant found those data in
a BACB® newsletter from 2012. The director
forwarded those emails to him regularly. He
was glad to have the opportunity to show he
had read them.
Billing for Parent Education Groups
AAA also recognized that the intern could
run Parent Education Groups as part of their
50% of non-direct implementation hours.
Fortunately, AAA could be reimbursed for
these hours. It was not a huge savings, but it
neutralized some of the costs of the intern’s
hourly rate. The Parent Education Groups
only added 4 hours per week to the Intern’s
workload.
Consulting the Clinical Director
The accountant approached the clinical director for ideas on the rest of the internship
hours. It looked like AAA needed to meet the
30 hours per week in the agreement but they
were short. Adding 1.5 hours per week of supervision, 4 hours for parent education, and
15 hours of direct implementation left a deficit pf 9.5 hours to fill. The company met those
hours by scheduling the intern for staff training, along with program development and report writing for clients on the intern’s direct
implementation caseload.
Putting It Together
As a result, the intern was able to satisfy a
requirement toward the BACB® credential

application and was paid $45,000 for the year.
Admittedly, it was not a huge amount of
money for someone with a master’s degree.
The intern felt it was fair because she was only
asked to work 30 hours per week. There were
some travel time hours and expenses, which
were handled separately in compliance with
law. The company ultimately lost $12,750 for
the year.
AAA knew they would lose the money this
year but hoped the intern would pass the credentialing exam soon and stay with AAA, billing at a full supervisor rate. That would allow
AAA to earn a higher reimbursement rate for
the hours the supervisor worked. More importantly, it meant AAA could add some clients from their waiting list, placing these clients on the new supervisor’s caseload.
A Risk for the Company
AAA recognized that the main incentive for
a company to sponsor an intern was the possibility of serving more clients once the intern
earned the credential. It was a gamble for
AAA. Not every intern passed the credentialing exam. In this case, they requested transcripts from the possible interns they were
considering. They wanted an intern with the
highest possible grades because they believed
previous academic performance suggested a
history of work habits and a higher likelihood
of having acquired the skills needed to pass
the credential exam.
Final Decision
AAA knew that other ABA agencies in the
area were using contracts to keep interns at
their companies for long enough to recoup
the cost of the internship. They weighed the
pros and cons of contracts but chose to revisit
that issue at a later date.
Ultimately, they were ambivalent about the
internship. The director said, “If someone
told you to pay $12,750 today and there was
only a 58% you could get that money back in
2 years, would you invest?” She was referring

to passing rates on the exam. The clinical director looked up the university pass rates for
graduates of that local program and found
that 60% of graduates passed the exam on the
first try.
These data did not impress the director.
The decision was made to offer the internship
as a trial. The clinical director selected a salaried supervisor and put pressure on her to
make sure the intern learned the BACB® 4th
Edition Task List fully. “If she doesn’t pass

Supervision Taxonomy

the exam, I’m holding you responsible,” said
the clinical director. The supervisor accepted
the challenge and implemented the procedures in Section 2 of the TrainABA supervised experience book. Years later, the intern
had passed the exam on her first attempt and
was successfully managing a caseload of 12 clients. She was a success story. AAA realized
that not all internship stories have happy endings.

See the following pages for Table 2.1 and 2.2 to see what the accountant gave the director at
AAA.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Supervision Taxonomy

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Resources for the Supervised Experience Process

Items in Bold are required by the BACB® for credentialing. Non-bold items are supplemental materials.

Supervisee
1.
2.

3.
4.

Contract
BACB.com module
a. "Registration" (See page 23)
Clients (generally)
4th Ed. Task List

5.
6.
7.

Experience Verification Forms
Supplementary Materials
Homework

Supervisor
1.
2.

3.
4.

Contract
BACB.com module

Clients
4th Ed. Task List
a. Assessment
b. Meeting agendas
5. Experience Verification Forms
6. Supplementary Materials
7. Homework
8. Create Performance Management
Plan
a. Personal Development
b. Modeled after IEP, BSP, PBIP
9. Ongoing Payment
a. Company
b. University
c. Private pay
10. Time Retainer
11. Technology
a. Journals, online videos,
etc.
12. Communication
a. Synchronous: Phone, streaming webcam, video chat
b. Asynchronous: Email, recorded audio/video

Supervision Taxonomy

Beyond the Taxonomy
Have you located yourself as an ABA supervisor in the taxonomy? Can you write the
steps of the Supervised Experience Process?
If not, please review the charts above. The
goal of this chapter was to identify the type of

supervision you offer, or plan to offer, as a supervisor in the field of applied behavior analysis.
The next chapter identifies pre-requisites
needed for supervising certification candidates. It includes checklists to identify the requirements.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Rules and Guidelines for Supervision of BACB® Experience
Hours

This document reflects the BACB®’s recent supervision standards, effective January 1, 2015.

BACB® Rules for Supervision
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Each supervisee must have a valid supervision contract. Multiple exemplars and
comprehensive guidelines are available at bacb.com®
Each supervisor must have completed both of the following by December 31, 2014.
Complete 8 Hour Supervisor Training from a BACB® ACE provider (Available from
TrainABA as a live webinar)
Complete an online, competency-based supervision module on BACB.com
Complete 3 CEUs for supervision for every recertification cycle
Each supervision period is 2 consecutive weeks
Ratio of Independent Fieldwork to Direct Supervision must be no less than 5% by
the end of the 2 week period (You MUST provide Direct Supervision 5% or more of
their Independent Fieldwork by the end of each 2-week period.)
Per 2 week supervision period, no more than 50% of supervision can be direct care.
The other 50%+ must be behavior analytic in nature
Start/end dates may not be more than 5 years apart.
Supervision must be face to face. Real-time video is okay. Think of Google Hangouts,
FaceTime, Skype, etc.
5% of 1500 hours = 75 hours of independent fieldwork experience
Supervision hours may be counted toward total experience hours
No more than 50% of supervision (per 2-week period) can be in a group format
Group maximum = 10 supervisees
You do not need to provide Direct Supervision every week
Must meet at least once for every 2 week period
Content must be behavior analytic (Do not discuss billing, travel time, non-clinical
scheduling, etc.)

Mathematical Assumptions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Supervisors must provide 5% of 1,500 Independent Fieldwork hours = 75 hours
Supervision period is two weeks in duration
(75 hours total) DIVIDED BY (maximum of 3 hours per 2-week period) = 25 meetings, one per 2 weeks
Up to 50% of supervised experience hours can be delivered in group format
Therefore, deliver group supervision meetings that are 1.5 hours in duration, once per
2 week period
Also provide individual supervision for 1.5 hours in duration for each 2 week period
Given the math above, Train ABA recommends you make group supervision meetings
1.5 hours long (90 minutes) for full time staff. We built the agendas around the 90
minute model

Supervision Taxonomy

•

If your supervisees do not work 30 hours per week during both weeks of the 2-week
supervision period, you will need to adjust the math to provide exactly 5% of the hours
they provided. See rules below.

Rules for Calculating How Many Hours Your Supervisee Has Completed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Your supervisee must work at least 10 and up to 30 hours during both weeks of each
2-week supervision period
You must provide supervision for 5% of these hours
You do not need to provide exactly 50% of group supervision every 2-week period,
but we use that model for this protocol because it makes the math easier
When your supervisee works less than the expected amount of hours for a week or 2week period, adjust your supervision hours to equal 5% of their hours worked
If they work more than 30 hours in one week, the company can pay wages but the
BACB® will not recognize extra hours

Registration Process

There is a new BACB® requirement for supervisees to “register” before beginning Experience Hours. It was first mentioned in the
BACB®’s September 2012 Newsletter. The
Supervisor must complete the module immediately if she has not already done so. All supervisees must complete the process at the
outset of the supervised fieldwork.
The registration process has two steps:
1. Create a login at bacb.com®
2. In that login, complete the same Supervision Policies Module required by individuals who wish to supervise those accruing

Experience Hours. In plain English, your
supervisees must complete the same supervision module as you. Additionally,
they are expected to do it at the outset of
supervision. Some supervises may not
know of this requirement. Please advise
your supervisees to complete this module
immediately. It takes approximately 1.5
hours and is available free of charge.
NOTE: Supervisees need only complete the module
once, regardless of how many approved supervisors with
whom they have completed Supervised Experience.

Train ABA is not endorsed by the BACB. The information presented is not meant to represent the opinion of the BACB
and any references to the BACB or bacb.com are used with respect to their copyrights.

Chapter 3
Refresher: Key Takeaways from the 8-Hour Supervisor Training Workshop
The BACB® 8-Hour Supervisor Training Workshop curriculum has 6 sections:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Part 1 – Purpose of Supervision
Part 2 – Features of Supervision
Part 3 – Behavioral Skills Training
Part 4 – Delivering Performance Feedback
Part 5 – Evaluating the Effects of Supervision
Part 6 – Ongoing Professional Feedback

These sections are summarized briefly in visuals and charts below. This chapter is meant to
serve as a refresher for the concepts presented in the 8-Hour Supervisor Training workshop. It
is not a substitute for the workshop. These materials are taken from the TrainABA 8-Hour
Supervisor Training Workshop. For more information, or to sign up a colleague for the workshop, visit:

http://trainaba.com

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Purpose of Supervision

“The purpose of supervision is to improve and maintain the behavior-analytic, professional and ethical repertoires of the supervisee and facilitate
the delivery of high-quality services to
his/her clients.”
--BACB® 8-Hour Curriculum Training Outline, 2012

Improve

Facilitate highquality
services

Ethical
repertoires

Maintain

Behavior- analytic &
professional

Features of Supervision
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Refresher

Appropriate Supervision Activities
Focus on developing new ABA skills
Use BACB® Fourth Edition Task List
Follow 7 Dimensions of Behavior Analysis (BATCAGE) (Baer, Wolf, & Risley,
1968)
Give supervisees multiple sites, varied experiences, different supervisors
Conducting assessments to determine the need for behavioral intervention
Designing, implementing, & systematically monitoring skill-acquisition and behaviorreduction programs
Oversee implementation of behavior-analytic programs by others
Training, designing behavioral systems, and performance management
Using behavioral skills training to Model and rehearse various behavior analytic skills
and procedures.
Engaging in role-play scenarios in natural and contrived situations for various skills
Other items directly related to ABA
Inappropriate Supervision Activities
(Non-examples of content for group supervision meetings)

•
•
•
•

Attending meetings with little or no behavior-analytic content
Scheduling, travel time, billing
Using unproven or non-behavior analytic interventions
Non-behavioral administrative activities, non-behavioral assessments (diagnostic or
intellectual assessments)
Features of Supervision

Effective January 1st, 2015, the BACB® will only permit
individuals who completed a training experience to
supervise individuals pursuing BCBA® or BCaBA®
credentials.
– 8-hour workshop
– Modules on BACB.com
– 3-hours Supervision CEs
--BACB®, 2012 newsletter

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Recertification Requirements Before January 1, 2015

3
years

36
CEUs
3 in
ethics

Recertification

Recertification Requirements After January 1, 2015

2
years

32
CEUs

Recertification

Using Behavioral Skills Training

Refresher

Why is Behavioral Skills Training (BST) popular in ABA supervision now?
In 2012, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® created a document called the “Supervision Training Curriculum Outline”. It contained the required topics for Approved-Continuing
Education (ACE) providers who would provide the 8-Hour Supervisor Training curriculum.
Section (3) of this (6) section document was titled, “Behavioral Skills Training (BST)”.
BST is found in various JABA articles and books by behavior analysts. Perhaps the best example of BST is found in Raymond Miltenberger’s 2011 textbook, “Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures.”
An 8-step BST procedure is outlined on the following page.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Behavioral Skills Training

1.
2.
3.
4.

7.
8.

Provide a rationale for why the target skills are to be trained
Provide a succinct, written description (instructions) of the target skills
a. Scripts are included in this document. Be sure to provide a script to employees.
Provide a detailed, vocal description (instructions) of the target skills
a. Trainer reads script aloud to trainee
Demonstrate (model) each of the target skills
a. Trainer is first to role play, demonstrating correct behavior for trainee
b. Include examples and non-examples
c. If training scenario is a non-example, trainer deviates from script and scenario is terminated with positive feedback.
Require trainee to practice (rehearse) each target skill
a. Trainee role plays scenarios from the list
b. Include examples and non-examples
c. If training scenario is a non-example, trainee deviates from script and scenario is terminated with positive feedback
Provide positive and corrective feedback to supervisee
a. Provide it vocally, immediately following trainee role play
b. Deliver positive feedback to trainee throughout training, aiming for 4:1 ratio
c. Deliver corrective feedback directly.
Repeat the previous step until supervisee performs each target skill correctly
Assess application and generalization of skills to new targets, clients, and settings,
when appropriate

Delivering Performance Feedback
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Refresher

Corrective Feedback

Provide an empathy statement
Describe ineffective performance
Provide a rationale for desired change in performance
Provide instructions and demonstration for how to improve designated performance
Provide opportunities to practice the desired performance
Provide immediate feedback

Evaluating the Effects of Supervision

Evaluate supervision with evidence-based, intervention specific criteria for:
•
•
•

Client performance
Staff performance
Supervisory behavior

Ongoing Professional Development

1.03 Professional Development (+RBT)
Behavior analysts who engage in assessment, therapy, teaching, research,
organizational consulting, or other professional activities maintain a reasonable level of awareness of current scientific and professional information in their fields of activity, and undertake ongoing efforts to maintain competence in the skills they use by reading the appropriate literature, attending conferences and conventions, participating in workshops,
and/or obtaining Behavior Analyst Certification Board certification.
--BACB Professional and Ethical Compliance Code, Ver. 9/23/2014
The supervisor should be able to describe the following methods for his/her ongoing professional development as a supervisor
• Creating a continuous learning community to enhance supervisory and training behavior
• Regular review of resources and research for best practices in supervision
The supervisor should be able to describe the following methods for his/her ongoing professional development as a supervisor and to the supervisee:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Supervisory study groups
Attending conferences
Seeking peer review
Seeking mentorship
Regular review of resources and research relevant to supervisee’s area of practice
Seeking consultation when necessary
31

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

SECTION TWO
Supervised Fieldwork Curriculum

Chapter 4
Annotated 4th Edition Task List™

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-01 Measure Frequency

Definition:
Frequency - “A ratio of count per observation time; often expressed as count per standard unit of time and calculated by dividing the
number of responses recorded by the number
of standard units of time in which observations were conducted (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 85)”*
Example:
• Hand Raising - A student is sitting in
an hour long class. The student
raises his hand 3 times to ask and answer questions during the class. The
bell rings once and the student goes
to his next class. Frequency of hand
raising is 3 per hour.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to identify the
frequency of hand raising above.
• Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own.
• Have supervisee measure a frequency of a behavior on the job or
in a role play.
• Have supervisee graph the frequency measured on the job or in a
role play.

Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.).
Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis.
Related Lessons:
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
Footnotes:
* Alternatively, frequency is not always defined synonymously with rate throughout the
discipline of behavior analysis. Catania (2013,
p. 443) defines frequency as “total responses
over a fixed time, over a session of variable
duration or, in trial procedure, over a fixed
number of trials.” Cooper, Heron, & Heward
(2007) functionally defines “count” as Catania
defines “frequency”.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-02 Measure Rate
Definition:
Rate - “A ratio of count per observation time;
often expressed as count per standard unit of
time and calculated by dividing the number of
responses recorded by the number of number
of standard units of time in which observations were conducted (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 85).”*
Examples:
•

•

Eating Chips
o Example: A young child is
sitting at a table where
there is a bag of potato
chips. They eat 8 chips,
stand up, and walk to the
living room to watch TV
for the rest of the hour.
Rate of chip eating is 8 per
hour.
Basketball Dribbles
o Example: Child is playing
basketball for 30 minutes.
Dribbles 7 times and then
practices foul shots. He
shoots 15 times and between each shot he dribbles 3 times. Frequency of
dribbling is 52 dribbles per
30 minutes.

Assessment:
•

Ask your supervisee to identify the
frequency of chip eating or basketball dribbles in examples.

•

Have supervisee measure a frequency of a behavior on the job or
in a role play.

Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.).
Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., &
Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior
analysis.
Related Lessons:
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
Footnotes:
* Alternatively, rate is not always defined synonymously with frequency throughout the
discipline of behavior analysis. Catania (2013)
defines rate as “responses per unit time” (p.
458) but frequency as “total responses over a
fixed time, over a session of variable duration
or, in trial procedure, over a fixed number of
trials” (p. 443) Cooper, Heron, & Heward
(2007) functionally defines “count” whereas
Catania defines “frequency”.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-03 Measure Duration

•

Definition:
Duration – “A measure of the total extent of
time in which a behavior occurs” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 79).

•

Examples:
• Sarah gets a fancy new piece of furniture from one of those Swedish
companies. When it arrives, Sarah
realizes that it is not assembled. She
reads the complicated set of directions and begins putting it together
at 2:12pm. Armed with a screwdriver and an Allen wrench, she consistently works to put it together until 3:43pm. Phew! Maybe next time
she will order the one that comes
fully assembled! The duration of the
project was 1 hour and 31 minutes.
• Benny gets a new yo-yo for his birthday and plays with it for 20 minutes
after eating his cake and ice cream.
He puts it down to play tag with his
sister. The duration of yo-yo playing
is 20 minutes.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to identify the
duration of furniture assembly from
the example above

•

Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own
Have your supervisee measure the
duration of another behavior on the
job or in role-play.
Have the supervisee graph the duration of another behavior measured
on the job or in a role-play.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W.
L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis.
DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &
Wallace, M. D. (1999). Examination of
ambiguous stimulus preferences with
duration-based measures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(1), 111-114.
Related Lessons:
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
I-01 Define the behavior in observable and
measurable terms
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-04 Measure Latency
Definition:
Latency - “A measure of temporal locus; the
elapsed time from the onset of a stimulus (e.g.,
task direction, cue) to the initiation of a response” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
80).
Example: Hitting the snooze button or hitting the break
•

•

Example: Gertrude is not a morning
person. Her alarm goes off at precisely 5:30AM. She hears the annoying wail but doesn’t respond immediately. After 32 seconds of beeping,
she whacks the snooze button, rolls
over and goes back to sleep. Latency
to turning off the alarm is 32 seconds.
Example: Marty is driving down a
country road. Out of nowhere a
herd of deer dart out in front of his
car. It takes Marty 5 seconds from
the time he first sees the deer to hit
the break. Latency from the time the
deer are spotted to applying pressure
to the break is 5 seconds.
Non-example: Gertrude is not a
morning person. Her alarm goes off
at precisely 5:30 AM. She does not
respond to its annoying wailing and
continues to sleep despite the noise.
The alarm stops on its own 1 hour
later.

Assessment:
•

•

Ask your supervisee to identify the
latency of a few responses of your
choosing.
Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own.
Have your supervisee measure the
latency to another behavior on the
job or in role-play.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward,W.
L. (2007). Applied behavior analsis.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Thomason‐Sassi, J. L., Iwata, B. A.,
Neidert, P. L., & Roscoe, E. M. (2011).
Response latency as an index of response strength during functional analyses of problem behavior. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), 51-67.
Related Lessons:
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
I-01 Define the behavior in observable and
measurable terms
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-05 Measure Interresponse Time (IRT)

Definition:
Interresponse time (IRT) - “…the elapsed
time between two successive responses”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 80).
Example: Frisky pets
• Example: Sparky loves to bark at
passing cars. He hears a car drive by
the house and barks. Thirty-seven
seconds later another car passes by
and Sparky barks again. Interresponse time between barking at the
vehicles is thirty-seven seconds.
• Example: Doodles the cat likes to
scratch the furniture. She walks over
the chair and sinks her claws in.
Eleven seconds later Doodles walks
over to the couch and begins to
scratch again. Interresponse time
between scratches is eleven seconds.
• Example: Roger the rooster doesn’t
know that he’s only supposed to
crow at dawn. He lets out crows all
day long. He is observed to crow at
3:43 in the afternoon. He crows
again at 3: 59. Interresponse time
between crows is sixteen minutes.
• Non-example: Sparky’s owner accidentally steps on his tail. Sparky
yelps from the pain.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to identify the
interresponse time in the examples
above.
• Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own.
• Have your supervisee measure the
interresponse time of a behavior on
the job or in a role-play.
• Have your supervisee graph the interresponse time measured on the
job or in a role-play.

Relevant Literature:
Blough, D. S. (1963), Interresponse Time
as a Function of Continuous Variables:
A New Method and Some Data. Journal
of Experimental Analysis Behavior, 6: 237–
246.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Favell, J.E., McGimsey, J.F., & Jones, M.L.
(1980). Rapid Eating in the Retarded:
Reduction by Nonaversive Procedures.
Behavior Modifications, 4, 235-239.
Related Lessons:
A-05 Measure Interresponse time (IRT)
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-06 Measure Percent of Occurrence
Definition:
Percent of occurrence - “A ratio formed by
combining the same dimensional quantities
such as count or time; expressed as a number
of parts per 100; typically expressed as a ratio
of the number of responses of a certain type
per total number of responses. A percentage
represents a proportional quantity per 100”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 701)
Example: Greeting
• Example: Twelve strangers walk by
an elderly man. He greets three of
them and ignores the rest. The percent of occurrence of greeting
strangers is 25%.
o To compute: Divide number of greetings emitted by
the man (3) by the total
number of opportunities to
greet (12) and multiply that
product by 100 to yield a
percentage (3/12= 0.25 x
100= 25%).
• Non-example: Twelve strangers
walk by an elderly man. He greets
three of them and ignores the rest.
The percent of occurrence of greeting strangers is 0.25.
Pros:
• Demonstrates proportional relations
well (e.g. can indicate how many
times an individual engaged in a target response given a set number of
opportunities available).
Cons:
•

•

Has no dimensional quantities (e.g.
does not indicate how many target
responses were emitted nor how
many opportunities were given)
When there are few response opportunities (e.g. fewer than 20), percent
occurrence measures may skew performance (e.g. An individual answering 1 out of 2 problems correct
on a math test will receive the same

•

score of 50% as an individual answering 25 out of 50 problems correct).
Imposes an artificial ceiling of measurement (e.g. 100% may be subjective; suggests that a learner performing at 100% cannot improve)
(Cooper et al., 2007).

Assessment:
• Provide hypothetical situations and
ask your supervisee if using percent
of occurrence measures are appropriate
• Provide various hypothetical situations and ask your supervisee to calculate percent of occurrence
• Have supervisee graph percent of
occurrence measured on the job or
in a role play
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-07 Measure Trials to Criterion

Definition:
Trials to criterion - “A special form of event
recording; a measure of the number of responses or practice opportunities needed for
a person to achieve a pre-established level of
accuracy or proficiency” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, p. 87).
To use, one must first determine what constitutes a response opportunity, and what the
criteria for mastery will be. Response opportunities can vary depending on the target behavior. For example, an opportunity for
spelling accuracy could be a 10-question
spelling test. An opportunity for responding
to one’s name within five seconds might be
every time someone called the individual’s
name. Other measures such as latency, percent occurrence, rate and duration can be used
to compute trials to criterion data. For instance in the latter example to compute
whether the individual is responding to his
name within 5 seconds, data would have to be
taken on latency to respond per opportunity
(Cooper et al., 2007).
Example:
• A behavioral interventionist is teaching a
child how to brush her teeth. She teaches
this using a task analysis that involves
backwards chaining. She provides two
opportunities per session for the child to
complete this skill. Data reflect that it
takes the child on average four opportunities before she is able to complete the
step being taught independently and to
move to the next step in the task analysis.
Assessment:
• Have your supervisee list uses for trials to criterion data.
• In a clinical setting or during roleplay, have your supervisee determine
which intervention is more efficient
using trials to criterion data.
• Have your supervisee complete trials
to criterion data in various scenarios.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lahey, B. B., & Drabman, R. S. (1974). Facilitation of the acquisition and retention of
the sight-word vocabulary through token reinforcement1. Journal of applied behavior analysis,7(2), 307-312.
Related Lessons:
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.

A-08 Assess and Interpret Interobserver Agreement
Definition:
Interobserver agreement (IOA) – “…refers to
the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same event” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 113).
There are four basic types of IOA as described by
Johnston and Pennypacker (2009):
Total agreement - Smaller total ÷ Larger total X 100
= % Agreement
Exact agreement – Total agreements ÷ Total number of intervals X 100 = % Agreement
Interval agreement –Total agreements ÷ Total
number of intervals X 100 = % Agreement
Occurrence/nonoccurrence agreement – Total
agreements ÷ Total number of intervals X 100 = %
Agreement
“By reporting the results of IOA assessments, researchers enable consumers to judge the relative
believability of the data as trustworthy and deserving interpretation” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 114). It,
however, should be noted that the “…fact that two
observers reported the same measure of the target
behavior for a session says nothing about the accuracy or reliability of either” (Johnston & Pennypacker, 2009, p. 149).
Example:
John is conducting a functional analysis (FA) on aggression in one of his students. He has asked Mary
to observe the behavior and record data simultaneously with him to calculate Interobserver agreement. He plans on conducting a 5-minute session
with 30, 10-second intervals. He plans to use interval agreement IOA. He records 4 instances of aggression during the FA in the 21st, 22nd, 23rd and
24th interval. Mary records 4 instances in the 21st,
22nd, 23rd, and 25th interval. He calculates IOA to
be 97% or 29/30 intervals.
Non-example:
John is conducting a functional analysis on aggression in one of his students. He asks Mary to come
in and observe but does not provide her with a data
recording sheet to take data on the behavior. At the
end of the session he asks Mary if she saw any aggression during the session.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Assessment:
•
Have supervisee watch a video of client exhibiting target behavior. Ask him/her to record
frequency data on the behavior. Record data
on the same video and compare data after
completion.
•
Provide supervisee with 2 sets of data sheets
based on the observance of the same behavior. Have him/her calculate Interobserver
agreement based on the data provided.
•
Assign supervisee recommended article on
Interobserver agreement. Have him/her summarize the article and share this with peers
Relevant Literature:
Boyce, T.E., Carter, N., & Neboschick, H. (2000).
An Evaluation of Intraobserver Reliability
versus Interobserver Agreement. European
Journal of Behavior Analysis, 1, (2), 107-114.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.
113-122.
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2009). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research.
Watkins, M.W. & Pacheco, M. (2000). Interobserver Agreement in Behavioral Research:
Importance and Calculation. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 4, 205-212.
Related Lessons:
A-01: Measure Frequency (i.e., count)
A-09: Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of measurement procedures.
B-02: Review and interpret articles from the behavior-analytic literature.
G-06: Provide behavior-analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide
services to one’s clients.
H-02: Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
J-09: Identify and address practical and ethical considerations when using experimental designs to
demonstrate treatment effectiveness.
K-05: Design and use systems for monitoring procedural integrity.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability
of measurement procedures

Evaluating the accuracy and reliability of
measurement procedures involves “measuring the measurement system” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 110). As human
error is the biggest threat to the accuracy and
reliability of data, measurements must be evaluated to determine trustworthiness. Accuracy
of measurement is determined when the observed values equal the true values. Establishing a true value requires the use of a different
measurement procedure than the one used to
record the observed value. This often makes
it difficult to determine a true value for many
of the behaviors of interest. Measures of reliability should be used when a true value cannot be established. Reliability of measurement is determined when the same value is
given across repeated measures of the same
event, thus reliability reflects consistency.
Examples:
• Accuracy: You and a friend decide to
go on a 5-mile run. Your friend tells
you that she can monitor the distance because her legs always start to
hurt once she runs 5 miles. You, being a data-driven behavior analyst,
decide that your friend’s measurement procedure might not be the
most accurate so you use your smart
phone app to track the distance.
Your measurement system will likely
reveal a better estimate of the true
value of the distance you ran.
• Reliability: Using the example for accuracy, both measures can be reliable if at the end of the run your
friend tells you that you must have

run 5 miles because her legs hurt and
your app indicates you ran 5 miles.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to evaluate the accuracy
and reliability of a measurement procedure that is being used with a client.
• Ask supervisee to provide definitions and
examples of accuracy and reliability.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Improving and assessing the
quality of behavioral measurement.
Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 102124). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993a).
Strategies and tactics for human behavioral
research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum.
Related Lessons:
A-01 Measure frequency (i.e., count).
A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).
A-03 Measure duration.
A-04 Measure latency.
A-05 Measure interresponse time (IRT).
A-06 Measure percent of occurrence.
A-07 Measure trials to criterion.
A-08 Assess and interpret interobserver agreement.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-10 Design, plot and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs
Definition:
Line graph - “In applied behavior analysis,
each point on a line graph shows the level of
some quantifiable dimension of the target behavior (i.e. the dependent variable) in relation
to a specified point in time and/or environmental condition” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, p. 129).*
The behavior analyst defines behavior in
quantifiable, observable terms to measure
consistently and accurately. The behavior is
measured in terms of a pertinent aspect of behavior that can be counted or assessed across
observers. When data are plotted, the patterns
they make provide for a visual analysis of levels of the behavior (shown on the vertical, yaxis) as the behavior occurs at a specific point
in time or environmental condition (shown on
a horizontal, x-axis). Graphs are drawn with
the y-axis in a two-thirds ratio to the x-axis in
order to enable accurate comparison of intervention results across graphs. The analysis interprets levels of data points, directions
(trend), and stability or variability of data
paths within a single condition or viewed
across different conditions. These factors help
an analyst assess if an individual is responding
to intervention efforts in a therapeutic or nontherapeutic direction. As a result of this systematic interpretation of results, the analyst
continues treatment strategies or alters them
until the line graph shows consistent behavior
change in a therapeutic direction.
Designing an equal interval line graph:
• Approximate ratio of y to x-axis is 2:3
• The target behavior to measure was the
percent (dimension) of math homework (varied number of problems assigned) a student completed each
morning when math homework was
assigned (session).

•

Lowest possible percent of homework
completed was zero and highest possible percent (100%) is shown at equal
intervals of outside tic marks.

Example:
•

•
•
•

•

Before intervention began, John
showed a baseline pattern of completing between zero and 10% of his
assigned math homework.
Zero value is raised above the x-axis
to see data points clearly.
Baseline lasted 4 sessions in a nontherapeutic pattern.
Conditions changed from baseline
to intervention between Session 4
and 5.
The intervention included John’s
teacher praising him each day that he
returned any part of his math homework assigned.
In the first session of intervention,
John turned in 10% of his homework. The second day after receiving
teacher praise, John increased his
completed amount of homework to
40% of the assignment.
John did not always increase the percent of homework completed each
day that math homework was given.
The intervention data path shows an
increasing trend overall throughout
the intervention condition of teacher
praise for math homework completion.
Although data showed some variability, John reached criteria of at least
90% of math homework completed
for 3 consecutive days on the 12th
day of teacher praise for his efforts
to return homework.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Figure 2 Percent of daily math homework
John completed in September
*AB designs can show relations between baseline and intervention responding but
cannot be used to show cause and effect.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to explain why
the percent of homework completed
was the correct dimension to measure for this intervention.
• Ask supervisee to explain the reason
the AB graph design cannot be used
to demonstrate experimental control
but can be used in applied settings to
indicate consistent and therapeutic
change.
• Ask supervisee to find missing elements in a line graph you design.
• Ask the supervisee to operationally
define a repetitive behavior of a
friend or family member, identify a
dimension of that behavior that
would accurately represent occurrences of the behavior, and then design a line graph to show results.
• Give the supervisee a line graph you
design and ask supervisee to interpret level, trend, variability, and data
path characteristics within and
across conditions.

Relevant Literature:
Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. C. (2013). Applied
behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed). Boston: Pearson.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis.
Gast, D. L., & Ledford, J. R. (Eds.).
(2010). Single subject research methodology in
behavioral sciences. Routledge.
Vanselow, N. R., & Bourret, J. C. (2012).
Online Interactive Tutorials for Creating Graphs with Excel 2007 or 2010. Behavior analysis in practice, 5(1), 40.
Related Lessons:
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
J-15 Base decision-making on data displayed
in various formats.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using
a cumulative record to display data
Definition:
Cumulative record – recording method that
involves “the number of responses recorded
during each observation period is added to the
total number of responses recorded during
previous observation periods” (Cooper,
Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 138). The value on
the y-axis represents the cumulative number
of responses recorded and the value on the xaxis represents time (i.e., observation periods).
Once the response rate exceeds the maximum
value on the y-axis, the curve resets to zero
and begins again. Cumulative records display
the overall response rate and visually depict
the learner’s rate of acquisition for a series of
behavior targets (e.g., total number of skills
mastered throughout services, number of
sight words learned). Data are interpreted on
a cumulative record by analyzing the slope in
which the steeper the slope, the higher the response rate.

Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to identify behavioral
targets that would be appropriate to
graph in a cumulative record
• Ask supervisee to create a cumulative record graph.
• Show supervisee various examples
of cumulative records and ask supervisee to interpret the data.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Constructing and interpreting
graphic displays of behavioral data. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 126-157). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York, NY:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Related Lessons:
A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variables (within &between sessions,
time series).

Examples:
• The cumulative record below indicates
the number of attributes learned by a first
grade student. The overall response rate
is 13 attributes across 181 sessions. In
general, data in this graph suggests that
there was a fairly slow rate of acquisition.
However, the slope is much steeper between sessions 1 and 61, indicating that
the rate of acquisition was quicker during
the first part of the intervention.
Cumulative Number of Attributes

101
Sessions

121

141

161

181

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-12 Design and implement continuous
measurement procedures (e.g., event recording)
Definition:
Event recording – “measurement procedure
for obtaining a tally or count of the number of
times a behavior occurs” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 695).

Examples:
Examples of contexts that are likely to be appropriate for an event recording procedure:
• Property destruction that typically
occurs two to five times a week.
• Correct responses to the question,
“What do you want?” when asked in
at least six distributed trials each day.
Examples of contexts that may be inappropriate for an event recording procedure:
• Vocal Stereotypy that occurs on and
off so rapidly that an observer would
not be able to accurately determine
the start and end of the stereotypy.
• Aggressive behavior in a classroom
setting with one teacher, who must
conduct instruction, interact with
other students, and count hitting behavior that often includes multiple
students.
An observer may increase counting accuracy
by using a counting device with low-technology (i.e., masking tape around the wrist for
tally marks or a golf-stroke counter or with
high technology (i.e., iPad or laptop direct observation programs).
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to describe situations
that would be appropriate to use event
recording procedures.
• Ask the supervisee to describe situations
that may not be appropriate to use an
event recording procedure.

•

Ask the supervisee to use an event recording procedure to measure 3 responses at one time. Ask the student to
design a datasheet and method for
counting that will help the observer record the responses accurately.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Kelly, M. B. (1977). A review of the observational data‐collection and reliability procedures reported in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10 (1), 97-101.
Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J.,
Wacker, D., Berg, W., Steege, M., & Allaire, A. (1992). Use of descriptive and
experimental analyses to identify the
functional properties of aberrant behavior in school settings. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 25 (4), 809-821.
Related Lessons:
A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of
measurement procedures.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).
FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages
of using continuous measurement procedures
and discontinuous measurement procedures
(e.g. partial- and whole-interval recording,
momentary time sampling.)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-13 Design and implement discontinuous measurement procedures (e.g., partial
& whole interval, momentary time sampling)
Definition:
Time sampling – “…refers to a variety of
methods for observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in
time. The basic procedure involves dividing
the observation period into time intervals and
then recording the presence or absence of behavior within or at the end of interval… Three
forms of time sampling used often by applied
behavior analysts are whole-interval recording, partial-interval recording and momentary
time sampling” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 90).
Whole-Interval Recording
Once the interval has ended, the observer records whether the behavior has occurred
throughout the entire interval. Whole-interval
recording tends to underestimate how much a
behavior is occurring because the behavior
has to be emitted for the entire interval in order to get recorded (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Example:
• Hand-flapping: student moves one or both
hands repeatedly and rapidly by bending at
the wrist, such that fingers move more than
2 inches.
• Non-example: waving hand to say “hello”
or “goodbye.”
• An observer divides a 5-minute observation period into intervals of 5
seconds. A student flaps his hands
for the entire 5-second interval. At
the end of the 5-second interval, the
observer records the behavior as
having occurred.
Example:
• Palilalia: student repeats a word, phrase, or
sentence with no direct, observable relationship with the immediate environment.

•

An observer divides a 5-minute observation period up into intervals of
10 seconds. A student emits palilalia
for the entire 10-second interval. At
the end of the 10-second interval,
the observer records the behavior as
having occurred.

Partial-Interval Recording
With the partial-interval recording method,
the time of observation is again divided into
intervals and a behavior is recorded as having
occurred if it has occurred at some point during
the interval. Data are usually reported as percentage of intervals (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Example:
• Calling-out behavior in a pupil: student
raises voice above conversation level when
not called on by teacher.
• A 30-minute observation period is
divided into one-minute intervals.
At the end of the one minute interval, the behavior is recorded as having occurred because the pupil
called-out after the first 30 seconds
of the interval.
Example:
• Toy play: child touches or manipulates toys.
• A 5-minute observation period is divided up into 10-second intervals.
The observer records the behavior
as having occurred in the last 10-second interval because the child had
engaged with the toy at some point
during the interval.
Momentary Time Sampling
With this type of measurement, a period of
time is divided up into intervals and the ob-

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

server records whether the behavior is occurring at the precise moment the interval ends.
(Cooper, Heron and Heward, 2007)

Example:
• Movie watching: client is seated, and head
and eyes are oriented toward screen.
• An observer is measuring a client’s
engagement with a movie across a 2minute period. The 2-minute period
is divided up into 5-second intervals.
The observer records the behavior
as being present at the end of the
first 5-second interval as the client
was watching the movie appropriately at that specific point in time.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to describe
each of the 3 types of time sampling
methods listed above.
• Have your Supervisee practice each
type of data collection method in
his/her job role or through roleplaying.
• Ask them to tell you which time
sampling method is being employed
in each of the following examples:
o
An observer is interested in a client’s interactions with his/her
peers. They observe him/her
across a 10-minute period; at the
end of each 10-second interval,
they record the behavior as being
present if the client has had any
interaction with his/her peers at
all during the interval. (Answer =
Partial-interval recording).
o
An observer is examining a client’s on-task behavior in class.
They observe him/her for a 60minute period and divide the
hour up into 5-minute intervals. If
the client is on-task at the end of
the 5-minute interval, on-task behavior is scored as having been

observed. (Answer = Momentary time sampling).
A client’s humming behavior is
being observed; the observer divides a 15-minute observation
time up into 30-second intervals.
If humming was observed
throughout the entire 30-second
interval, the behavior is scored as
having occurred in that interval.
(Answer = Whole-interval recording).

Relevant Literature:
Daboul-Meany, M. G., Roscoe, E. M., Bourret, J. C., Ahearn, W. H. (2007). A comparison of momentary time sampling
and partial-interval recording for evaluating functional relations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40 (3), 501-514.
Powell, J., Martindale, A., & KuIp, S. (1975).
An evaluation of time-sample measures
of behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 8, 463-469.
Suen, H. K., Ary, D., & Covalt, W. (1991). Reappraisal of momentary time sampling
and partial-interval recording. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 803-804.
Related Lessons:
A-12: Design and implement continuous
measurement procedures (e.g., event recording)
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
I-01: Define the behavior in observable and
measurable terms
FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
FK-48: State the advantages and disadvantages of using continuous measurement
procedures and discontinuous measurement
procedures (e.g., partial- and whole-interval
recording, momentary time sampling)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

A-14 Design and implement choice
measures
Types of Choice Measures
• Stimulus preference assessment – “a
variety of procedures used to determine the stimuli that a person prefers, the relative preference values
(high versus low) of those stimuli,
the conditions under which those
preference values remain in effect,
and their presumed value as reinforcers” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 705).
• Single-stimulus preference assessment – also called a “successive
choice” method. A stimulus is presented one at a time. Approaches to
the items are recorded. Preference is
based on whether or not individual
approached item. (Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, & Page, 1985)
• Paired choice preference assessment
–also called a “forced choice”
method. Consists of the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli. The
observer records which of the two
stimuli the learner chooses. Presentations continue until all stimuli are
paired with each other stimulus. A
hierarchy can then be formed using
the choices. (Fisher, Piazza, Bowman, Hagopian, Owens, & Slevin,
1992).
• Multiple stimulus assessment – an
extension of the paired-stimulus
procedure developed by Fisher and
colleagues (1992). The person
chooses a preferred stimulus from
an array of three or more stimuli.
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007)
• Multiple stimulus without replacement assessment – an extension of
the procedures described by Windsor and colleagues (1994). Once an
item was selected, DeLeon and
Iwata (1996) did not replace previously chosen stimuli. Each choice
was among the remaining stimuli.

•

Free-operant assessment – Developed by Roane and colleagues
(1998), participants had free and
continuous access to the entire array
of stimuli for 5 minutes. Duration of
item manipulation is recorded.
• Response restriction assessment–
Developed by Hanley and colleagues
(2003), a free operant arrangement
was used to measure preference.
Stimuli with high interaction relative
to the other stimuli during a session
were restricted for the remaining
sessions.
• Duration assessment – Developed
by Hagopian and colleagues (2001),
items were presented one at a time.
Duration of engagement was measured for each item.
• Concurrent-chain assessment (Concurrent-chain schedules) – “concurrent schedules in which the reinforcers are themselves schedules that operate separately and in the presence
of different stimuli” (Catania, 2013,
p. 433). Completion of the initial link
schedule of reinforcement gives access to the terminal link schedule of
reinforcement. Preference for particular schedules of reinforcement,
or other environmental arrangements can be measured by responding in the initial links (Hanley, Iwata,
& Lindberg, 1999).
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to identify the
pros and cons of each type of preference assessment.
• Have Supervisee memorize the authors and years for the publications
of each type of preference assessment. Use flashcards to learn to fluency.
• Have Supervisee demonstrate the
use of at least 5 types of preference

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

assessments on the job (or in a role
play).

Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Fisher, W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G.,
Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin,
I. (1992). A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for
persons with severe and profound disabilities. Journal of applied Behavior analysis, 25(2), 491-498.
Hagopian, L. P., Rush, K. S., Lewin, A. B., &
Long, E. S. (2001). Evaluating the predictive validity of a single stimulus engagement preference assessment.Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(4), 475485.
Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., Lindberg, J. S., &
Conners, J. (2003). Response-restriction
analysis: I. Assessment of activity preferences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(1), 47-58.
Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & Lindberg, J. S.
(1999). Analysis of activity preferences
as a function of differential consequences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(4), 419-435.

DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of a multiple‐stimulus presentation
format for assessing reinforcer preferences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 519-533.
Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., Edwards, G. L.,
Iwata, B. A., & Page, T. J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded
individuals. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 18(3), 249-255.
Roane, H. S., Vollmer, T. R., Ringdahl, J. E.,
& Marcus, B. A. (1998). Evaluation of a
brief stimulus preference assessment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(4), 605-620.
Smith, R. G., Iwata, B. A., & Shore, B. A.
(1995). Effects of subject-versus experimenter-selected reinforcers on the behavior of individuals with profound developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(1), 61-71.
Windsor, J., Piché, L. M., & Locke, P. A.
(1994). Preference testing: A comparison of two presentation methods. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15(6),
439-455.
Related Lessons:
I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.
J-04: Select intervention strategies based on
client preferences.

B-01 Use the dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis (Baer, Wolf,
& Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature
“Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) recommended
that applied behavior analysis should be applied, behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptually
systematic, effective, and capable of appropriately
generalized outcomes….” In 1987 Baer and colleagues reported that the “seven self-conscious guides to behavior analytic conduct”
they had offered 20 years earlier “remain functional; they still connote the current dimensions of the work usually called applied behavior analysis” (Baer, et al., cited in Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 16).
1.
2.

Applied - The applied dimension relates to choosing target behaviors to
change that are socially significant.
Behavioral - The behavioral dimension refers to the target behavior being systematically chosen for intervention based on its significance and
this behavior must be measurable.
Baer et al. (1968, p. 93) summarized
this point by stating, “Since the behavior of an individual is composed
of physical events, its scientific study
requires their precise measure.”
Analytic - The analytic dimension
refers to “… a functional relation
between the manipulated events and
a reliable change in some measurable
dimension of the targeted behavior”
(Cooper et al. 2007, p. 17). Baer et al.
(1968, p. 94) stated that, “An experimenter has achieved an analysis of
behavior when he can exercise control over it.”
Technological - “A study in applied behavior analysis is technological when all of its operative procedures are identified and described
with sufficient detail and clarity”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 17).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Conceptually systematic - Conceptual systems refer to the application of behavior analytic principles
to create behavior change. “The field
of applied behavior analysis will
probably advance best if the published descriptions of its procedures
are not only precisely technological,
but also strive for relevance to principle” (Baer et. al. 1968, p. 96).
Effective - “An effective application
of behavioral techniques must improve the behavior under investigation to a practical degree” (Cooper et
al., 2007, p. 17).
Generality - The final dimension of
applied behavior analysis outlined by
Baer et al. (1968) was generality. “A
behavior change has generality if it
lasts over time, appears in environments other than the one in which
the intervention that initially produced it was implemented, and/or
spreads to other behaviors not directly treated by the intervention.”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 18).

Example:
• Tim was evaluating the effectiveness
of an intervention to decrease inappropriate comments for a first grade
student on his case load. The data indicated that the behavior had decreased across all settings including
when the child was home, displaying
generalization of the intervention.
He also noticed that the intervention
was analytic because the data indicated that on days there was a substitute who was not thoroughly
trained on the intervention there was
a significant increase in rates of inappropriate commenting. Finally, Tim
deemed the behavior of inappropriately commenting to be socially significant because it impeded the student from effectively accessing the
classroom curriculum.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

•

Students learning the 7 dimensions
of ABA often use the acronyms
GET-A-CAB or BAT-CAGE to remember them.

Assessment:
• Have supervisee create SAFMEDs
cards for each of the dimensions of
ABA.
• Have supervisee identify, define, and
give examples of each of the 7 dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis mentioned in the Baer, Wolf, &
Risley (1968) article.
• In reference to the “applied” dimension of ABA, have supervisee list 5
types of behavior that they feel are
social significant in their life. Have
him/her describe why these are socially significant types of behavior.
• Have supervisee identify types of socially significant behavior they target
with clients.
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).
Some Current Dimensions of Applied
Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 1, 91-97.
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1987).
Some Still Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 4, 313-327.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 16-18, 235, 247-252.
Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). An Implicit
Technology of Generalization. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 2, 349-367.
Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social Validity: The Case
for Subjective Measurement or How
Applied Behavior Analysis Is Finding its
Heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
11, 2, 203-214.
Related Lessons:
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs
B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-element) designs
B-06: Use changing criterion designs
B-07: Use multiple baseline designs
B-09: Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package
B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent
variable.
H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.

B-02 Review and interpret articles from
the behavior-analytic literature
Applied behavior analysis is an applied science
that develops its technology via the discovery
of environmental variables that produce socially significant behavior change. The process
of putting the science into practice begins
with basic researchers discovering the principles of behavior that are then tested on socially significant behavior by applied researchers and then ultimately implemented by practitioners (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Whether a behavior analyst is solely a practitioner or a practitioner and a researcher, it is
important that they maintain close contact
with the scientific literature and its possible
applications by regularly reviewing and critically interpreting articles from the behavior
analytic literature.
When engaging in a review of the literature
it is useful to consider the criteria that define
applied behavior analysis which are outlined
by Baer, Wolf, & Risley (1987). These criteria
referred to as the seven dimensions (applied,
behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptually systematic, effective and generality) can
not only assist in determining if an intervention meets the standards of applied behavior
analysis but it can also conclude whether a research intervention is prepared to translate
into practice or if further investigation is necessary prior to effective clinical implementation.
Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007, p. 5),
assert that “scientific knowledge is built on
above all, empiricism - the practice of objective observations of the phenomena of interest.” Therefore, a behavior analyst should also
remain objective when reviewing and interpreting articles. For example, when reviewing
an article it is important to make an unbiased
interpretation regarding whether or not experimental control (internal validity) was established by acknowledging possible subject, setting, measurement and/or independent variable confounds (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007). Furthermore, it is important to remain
objective when conducting visual analyses of

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

the data to determine the extent that a functional relation is demonstrated. To assist in
this process, Johnston and Pennypacker
(2009) suggest that a behavior analyst have extensive experience with graphical analyses
both as a designer and a reader. They also
note that the first step to analyzing behavioral
data is to ask whether the data presentation is
straightforward and productive toward the research question by orienting to the graph’s
scale, axes and legend. Next, one should conduct a visual analysis by acknowledging the
number of data points, variability, level and
trend for each experimental condition followed by a visual analysis across conditions
and then across participants to draw comparisons and begin to establish conclusions
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
In summary, a behavior analyst’s ability to
critically and empirically analyze the literature
requires a thorough understanding of the science and acknowledgment of the bidirectional
relationship between research and practice.
Assessment:
• Provide the supervisee with an article and ask them to outline and possible threats to internal validity in the
article.
• Provide the supervisee with an article that has the results and discussion removed. Ask Supervisee to
give a precise summary of the results
based upon the figures and tables.
Afterward, provide the results and
the discussion to compare and facilitate further supervisory discussion.
• Ask supervisee to determine if there
is a function relation based on the
data presented in an article and provide a rationale to their assertion.
• Ask the supervisee to evaluate an article to determine if it includes the
seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

•

Throughout the course of supervision, ask the supervisee to determine
whether a literature review or research article (considering past research cited) is applied, basic or both
and whether there is adequate support to use the intervention in clinical practice.

Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
(1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior
analysis. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 1(1), 91-97.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Johnston, J. M. (2009). Pennypacker Jr. Strategies and tactics of behavioral research.
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret observed
data
FK-04 Empiricism
FK-09 Distinguish between the conceptual
analysis of behavior, experimental analysis of
behavior, applied behavior analysis, and behavioral service delivery.
FK-33 functional relations

B-03 Systematically arrange independent
variables to demonstrate their effects on
dependent variables
Definitions:
Independent Variable - “The variable that is
systematically manipulated by the researcher
in an experiment to see whether changes in
the independent variable produce reliable
changes in the dependent variable. In applied
behavior analysis, it is usually an environmental event or condition antecedent or consequent to the dependent variable. Sometimes
called the intervention or treatment variable”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 697).
Dependent Variable - “The variable in an
experiment measured to determine if it
changes as a result of the manipulations of the
independent variable; in applied behavior
analysis, it represents some measure of a socially significant behavior” (Cooper et al.
2007, p. 693).
Dependent variables must be operationally
defined to allow for consistent assessment and
replication of the assessment process, measured repeatedly within and across controlled
conditions, recording is assessed for consistency across the experiment using inter-observer agreement, and dependent variables
must be socially significant to the individual or
those around them. (Horner, Carr, Halle,
McGee, Odom, & Wolery, 2005)
Experimental control is achieved when predicted change in the dependent variable (i.e.,
the behavior) covaries with manipulations of
the independent variable (i.e., the intervention) showing the effectiveness of the independent variable on the dependent variable of
a participant. (Horner et al., 2005)
Example:
• A student consistently disrupts group activities. When given visuals for appropriate
behavior (i.e., quiet voice, calm body) paired
with gestural redirection, disruptive behavior in group lessons decreases. The teacher
then takes the visuals away for a week to

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

see if fading these supports would be an option. The gestural redirection for inappropriate behavior is still in place. The student’s disruptive behavior remains low.
When the redirection is removed the following week. The student engages in increased
disruptive behavior during this week, so the
teacher decides to continue the gestural
prompts and the disruptive behavior decreases again.
Non-example:
A student with attention deficits consistently disrupts
group activities. His teacher occasionally uses the visuals for appropriate behavior outlined in the BSP and
the disruptive behavior does not decrease.
Assessment:
• Give supervisees article abstracts on single subject research. Have them identify
the dependent variable and independent
variable for the study.
• Have supervisees identify the independent and dependent variables in the example listed above.
• Have supervisees read Horner et al.,
(2005) The Use of Single-Subject Research to Identify Evidence-Based Practice in Special Education and complete a
brief summary of the article and ask them
to identify what compromises the integrity of a functional relationship and define the quality indicators outlined for effective single-subject research.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Horner, R.H., Carr, E.G., Halle, J., McGee,
G., Odom, S., Wolery, M. (2005). The
Use of Single-Subject Research to Identify Evidence-Based Practice in Special

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Education. Exceptional Children, 71, 2,
165-179.

Related Lessons:
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs
B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-element) designs
B-06: Use changing criterion designs
B-07: Use multiple baseline designs

B-09: Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package
B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent
variable.
H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.

B-04 Use withdrawal/reversal designs
Definition:
Reversal design - “Any experimental design in
which the researcher attempts to verify the effect
of the independent variable by “reversing” responding to a level obtained in a previous condition; encompasses experimental designs in which
the independent variable is withdrawn (A-B-A-B)
or reversed in its focus (e.g., DRI/DRA)” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).
Withdrawal design - “A term used by some researchers as a synonym for an A-B-A-B design; also
used to describe experiments in which an effective
treatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to
promote the maintenance of behavior changes”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 708).
Examples:
•
An experiment that entails exposing a participant to a condition of no programmed reinforcement for a work task (baseline) until
steady state is achieved, then exposes a participate to a condition in which they earn stickers
contingent on a work task (intervention) and
then repeats these two conditions respectively.
•
An experiment in which baseline consists of
the reinforcement of challenging behavior
and the treatment consists of differential reinforcement of an alternative/replacement behavior and both conditions are replicated at
least twice.
Assessment:
•
Ask the supervisee to either describe a time
that they used of a withdrawal or reversal design or have them describe a hypothetical experiment using a withdrawal or reversal design.
•
Have supervisee look at the figures in the articles (such as those listed below) as well as
other articles and determine which ones are
reversal/withdrawal designs.
•
Have the supervisee look at figures in the articles below and describe what characteristics
make it a reversal or withdrawal design
•
Have the supervisee describe the pros of using
a reversal design and the condition in which

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

the use of a reversal design would not be desirable
Relevant Literature:
Anderson, C. M., & Long, E. S. (2002). Use of a
structured descriptive assessment methodology to identify variables affecting problem
behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
35(2), 137-154.
Baer, D. M., & Wolf, M. M. (1970). Recent examples of behavior modification in preschool
settings. Behavior modification in clinical psychology, 5-12
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Falcomata, T. S., Roane, H. S., Hovanetz, A. N.,
Kettering, T. L., & Keeney, K. M. (2004). An
evaluation of response cost in the treatment
of inappropriate vocalizations maintained by
automatic reinforcement. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 37(1), 83-87.
Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Vorndran, C. M.,
Kuhn, S. A., & LaRue, R. H. (2002). Reinforcement magnitude and responding during
treatment with differential reinforcement.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(1), 2948.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables
J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical considerations when using experimental designs to
demonstrate treatment effectiveness
Footnotes
Some authors exclusively use the term reversal design for studies in which the contingency is reversed (or switched to another behavior) as in
DRO and DRA/DRI reversal techniques and the
term withdrawal design for studies that employ an
A-B-A-B approach where the A signifies baseline
condition and B the treatment condition (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007).
A multiple treatment reversal design can also be
used to compare the effects of two or more treatment conditions to baseline and/or to the other
treatments (e.g., ABABACAC, ABABCBCB)
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-05 Use alternating treatments designs

Definition:
Alternating treatments design - “An experimental design in which two or more conditions (one of which may be a no treatment
control condition) are presented in rapidly alternating succession (e.g., on alternating sessions or days) independent of the level of responding; differences in responding between
or among conditions are attributed to the effects of the conditions (also called concurrent
schedule design, multielement design, multiple schedule design)” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 689).
Examples:
• An experiment that entails conducting
DRA and no programmed treatment
during alternating sessions to compare
treatment to the no treatment.
• An experiment that entails conducting
DRI, DRO and DRA on alternating
days to compare all treatments to each
other.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to either describe
an alternating treatment design they
have used in the past or have them describe an alternating treatments design.
• Have supervisee look at various figures
from the articles (such as some of
those below) as well as articles that did
not use an alternating treatment design
and have them determine which figures depict the use of an alternating
treatment design.
• Have the supervisee look at figures in
the articles below and describe what
characteristics make it an alternating
treatment design
• Have the supervisee describe the pros
of using an alternating treatment design and the condition in which the use
of an alternating treatment design
would not be desirable

Relevant Literature:
Barbetta, P. M., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(1992). Effects of active student response
during error correction on the acquisition,
maintenance, and generalization of sight
words by students with developmental
disabilities. Journal of applied behavior analysis,
26 (1), 111-119.
Barlow, D. H., & Hayes, S. C. (1979). Alternating
treatments design: One strategy for comparing the effects of two treatments in a
single subject. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 12(2), 199-210.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K .J.
Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994).
Toward a functional analysis of self-injury.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197209. (Reprinted from Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3-20,
1982).
Martens, B. K., Lochner, D. G., & Kelly, S. Q.
(1992). The effects of variable‐interval reinforcement on academic engagement: A
demonstration of matching theory. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 143-151.
Singh, J., & Singh, N. N. (1985). Comparison of
word-supply and word-analysis error-correction procedures on oral reading by
mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency.
Ulman, J. D., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1975). Multielement baseline design in educational
research. Behavior analysis: Areas of research
and application, 377-391.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables
J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical
considerations when using experimental designs to demonstrate treatment effectiveness

B-06 Use changing criterion designs
Definitions:
Changing criterion design - "An experimental design in which an initial baseline
phase is followed by a series of treatment
phases consisting of successive and gradually
changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment. Experimental control is evidenced by
the extent the level of responding changes to
conform to each new criterion" (Cooper,
Heron & Heward, 2007, pp. 691-692).
“The design requires initial baseline observations on a single target behavior. This baseline
phase is followed by implementation of a
treatment program in each of a series of treatment phases. Each treatment phase is associated with a stepwise change in criterion rate
for the target behavior. Thus, each phase of
the design provides a baseline for the following phase. When the rate of the target behavior changes with each stepwise change in the
criterion, therapeutic change is replicated and
experimental control is demonstrated" (Hartmann & Hall, 1976, p. 527).
Guidelines for using the changing criterion
design include:
1. Manipulation of the length of
phases. Each phase serves as a baseline to compare responding to the
next phase. Each phase must be long
enough to display stable responding
before moving to the next phase.
2. “Varying the size of the criterion
change enables a more convincing
demonstration of experimental control.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 222).
Criterion change magnitude must be
carefully considered so that the criterion is not too large and unattainable but also not too small in magnitude which would not demonstrate
sufficient experimental control.
3. Experimental control is demonstrated through replication of treatment effects. Therefore, as the number of phases increases, so does the

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

opportunity to replicate treatment
effects and enhance experimental
control.
Example:
• Jim created a class wide reinforcement program to increase the vocabulary test scores of a 1st grade class.
He wanted to make sure that the reinforcement program was effective
so he set specific score criterion for
the class, to monitor their progress.
Average baseline test scores were 55
% correct for the entire class. Jim set
the first criterion phase at 70% of
the test questions answered correctly
for the entire class. After 4 weeks,
the class met these criteria for 3 consecutive tests, so Jim set the classroom performance criterion to 80%
of the test questions answered correctly. This time the class met the
criterion in 3 weeks and Jim increased the criterion to 90%. Once
again, the class met these criteria for
3 consecutive tests. Jim concluded
that his intervention was likely responsible for the change in test
scores, since the test score reliably
increased when the criteria were altered and required a greater score.
Non-example:
John created a reinforcement program to increase
Larry’s rate of answering questions during class. After
3 weeks, the data indicated that Larry was answering
more questions appropriately in class. However, there
was a new teacher in the classroom and other variables
that may have accounted for this change. John wanted
to see if the program was increasing this behavior, so
he decided to remove the reinforcement program for a
week to see if Larry’s rate of answering questions decreased.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee describe the changing criterion design and state when it

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

may be most appropriate, strengths
of this design, as well as limitations
of the changing criterion design.
Have supervisee create a hypothetical analysis using the changing criterion design. Have him/her state why
the changing criterion design was the
most effective design to display experimental control.
Have supervisee label the parts of a
completed changing criterion design
graph and describe how the graph
displays experimental control.

settings. Educational Research Quarterly, 7,
4, 35-42.
Hall, R.V., & Fox, R.G. (1977). Changing criterion designs: An alternative applied
behavior analysis procedure. In B.C. Etzel, J.M. LeBlanc, & D.M. Baer (Eds.).
New developments in behavioral research: Theory, method, and application (pp. 151-166).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Allen, K.D., & Evans, J.H. (2001). Exposurebased treatment to control excessive
blood glucose monitoring. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 497-500.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Hartmann, D.P. & Hall, R.V. (1976). The
changing criterion design. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 4, 527-532.
McDougall, D. (2005). The range-bound
changing criterion design. Behavioral Interventions, 20, 2, 129-137.
McLaughlin, T.F. (1983). An examination and
evaluation of single subject designs used
in behavior analysis research in school

Related Lessons:
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs
B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-element) designs
B-07: Use multiple baseline designs
B-09: Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package
B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent
variable.
H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.

•

B-07 Use multiple baseline designs
Definition:
Multiple baseline design – “An experimental design that begins with the concurrent
measurement of two or more behaviors in a
baseline condition, followed by the application of the treatment variable to one of the
behaviors while baseline conditions remain in
effect for the other behavior(s) After maximum change has been noted in the first behavior, the treatment variable is applied in sequential fashion to each of the other behaviors in the design” (Cooper, Heron & Heward,
2007, p. 699).
Multiple baselines are useful when the target
behavior is likely to be irreversible, for example, in skill acquisition. And are also useful
when it may be impractical or undesirable to
implement a reversal design. For example, in
decreasing aggression toward peers. One
drawback of the multiple baseline design is
potentially the length of time that treatment or
intervention is withheld for the last behavior
or setting being targeted.
In the delayed baseline design, collection of
baseline data for other target behaviors is
taken after baseline measurements for the previous behaviors. This design may be effective
when a reversal design is not possible, when
resources are limited, or when a new behavior
or subject becomes available. Behaviors must
be measured at the same time and the independent variable cannot be applied to the next
behavior until the previous behavior change
has been established. There should be a significant difference in the length of baseline conditions between the different behaviors and
the independent variable should first be applied to the behavior demonstrating the greatest level of stable responding in baseline.
Other variations in multiple baselines designs are concurrent and nonconcurrent uses
of the design. In concurrent multiple baseline
designs the data are collected in the same time
period. In nonconcurrent multiple baseline
designs data can be collected at different
times, and different lengths of baselines are

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

collected, following which implementation of
the treatment or intervention is conducted—
creating multiple A-B experiments. The experiments are then arranged by length of baseline to create a multiple baseline design. “According to single-case design logic, the nonconcurrent MB design demonstrates only prediction and replication, and not the critical
verification of the intervention’s effects”
(Carr, 2005, p. 220).
Example:
• Rod conducted an FBA on Billy’s
aggression and property destruction.
Both behaviors were determined to
be maintained by escape from demands. Rod decided to implement
the same intervention for each behavior using a multiple baseline design because they both served the
same function and a reversal would
possibly reestablish the dangerous
behavior after therapeutic effects
were observed.
Non-example:
Bob wanted to determine the effects of
response blocking and redirection on
hand flapping with one of his students.
He implemented this procedure and once
it proved effective, decided to eliminate
the intervention to determine if this procedure was the likely cause of the behavior decrease.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee describe the multiple baseline design and state when it
may be most appropriate, strengths
of this design, as well as limitations
of the multiple baseline design.
• Have supervisee create a hypothetical analysis using the multiple baseline design. Have him/her state why
the multiple baseline design was the
most effective design to display experimental control.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

•

Have supervisee label the parts of a
completed multiple baseline design
graph and describe how the graph
displays experimental control.

Relevant Literature:
Barger-Anderson, R., Domaracki, J.W.,
Kearney-Vakulick, N., & Kubina, R.M.
(2004). Multiple baseline designs: The
use of a single-case experimental design
in literacy research. Reading Improvement,
41, 4, 217.
Carr, J.E. (2005). Recommendations for reporting multiple-baseline designs across
participants. Behavioral Interventions,
20, 3, 219-224.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Harris, F.N., & Jenson, W.R. (1985). Comparisons of multiple-baseline across persons designs and AB designs with replication: Issues and confusions. Behavioral
Assessment, 7, 2, 121,127.
Harvey, M.T., May, M.E., & Kennedy, C.H.
(2004) Nonconcurrent multiple baseline
designs and the evaluation of educational systems. Journal of Behavioral Education, 13, 4, 267-276.
Watson, P.J., & Workman, E.A. (1981), The
non-concurrent
multiple
baseline

across-individuals design: An extension
of the traditional multiple baseline design. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychology, 12, 3, 257-259.
Zhan, S. & Ottenbacher, K.J. (2001). Single
subject research designs for disability research. Journal of Disability and Rehabilitation, 23, 1, 1-8.
Related Lessons:
B-03: Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs.
B-08: Use multiple probe designs.
B-09: Use combinations of design elements.
B-10: Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package.
B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent
variable.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operants and discriminative stimuli
H-03: Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed data.
FK-33: Functional relations.

B-08 Use multiple-probe designs
Like multiple baseline designs (MBD), multiple probe designs (MPD) are “rigorous in
their evaluation of threats to interval validity;
and are practical for teachers and clinicians
who want their research efforts to be wholly
compatible with their instructional or therapy
activities” (Gast, 2009, p. 277). Multiple probe
designs have an additional advantage in applied settings in that intermittent measures of
baseline conditions streamline data collection
and still maintain the requirement that responding does not change until intervention is
applied (baseline logic). Either one probe is
taken periodically in baseline conditions and
at least three days immediately before applying
intervention, MPD (days), or probes occur in
brief sessions of a few baseline measurements
taken at least three consecutive days before intervention, MPD (conditions). Experimental
control is demonstrated if probe evidence
across each tier of similar, but functionally different behaviors, participants, or conditions
remains relatively stable until intervention is
implemented.
Examples:
• Multiple probe designs are particularly
useful for researchers and teachers in educational settings to efficiently demonstrate results of instructional interventions when teaching across functionally
different new skills (behaviors), across
multiple students (participants), or across
different sets of skills (conditions).
• Multiple probe designs might not be appropriate if assessing the effects of intervention on severe behaviors that result in
injury or property destruction because of
the requirement that intervention be delayed across each tier while a person continues to engage in severe behaviors with
lasting consequences.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to explain the meaning of “baseline logic” and the reason it
enables measurement of experimental
control.
• Ask the supervisee why MPD across behaviors requires similar, but functionally
different behaviors in each tier of a MPD.
• Give the supervisee three articles in
which researchers based their conclusions on MPD line graph data. Ask the
supervisee to interpret results of the
study based on the graphic data. Compare to the conclusions written by study
authors.
Relevant Literature:
Gast, D. L., & Ledford, J. R. (2009). Single subject
research methodology in behavioral sciences. Routledge.
Horner, R. D., & Baer, D. M. (1978). Multipleprobe technique: A variation of the multiple
baseline. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
11(1), 189-196.
Thompson, T. J., Braam, S. J., & Fuqua, R. W.
(1982). Training and generalization of laundry skills: A multiple probe evaluation with
handicapped persons. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 15(1), 177-182.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
B-07 Use multiple baselines designs.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain representative data given thedimensions of the behavior
and the logistics of observing and recording.
H-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and variability.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.

FK-36 response generalization

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-09 Use combinations of design elements

When designing an experiment it is sometimes
useful to combine experimental design elements to strengthen the demonstration of experimental control. For instance it may be valuable to combine a multiple baseline design
with a reversal design.
For example, Colón et al. (2012) used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across
participants to analyze the effects of verbal
operant training on appropriate vocalizations
and vocal stereotypy. RIRD was implemented
and examined using a reversal design for each
participant exposed to their procedure.
In 1985, Alexander used a multiple baseline
across students with reversal design to evaluate the effects of a study skill training procedure.
Johnston and Pennypacker (2009) point out
that experimenters often combine and intermingle many different types of designs as necessary. Categorizing types of designs is really a
more valuable thing for the student than it is
for the researcher.
Murray Sidman in Tactics of Scientific Research
says that it is not valuable to say that there are
rules to follow when designing an experiment.
He says “this would be disastrous” (Sidman,
1960/1988, p. 214). Simply put, he says, “The
fact is that there are no rules of experimental design”
(Sidman, 1960/1988, p. 214).
The most important thing is that the experiment is designed to answer some question we
have about the natural world. Sidman says,
“We conduct experiments to find out something we do not know” (Sidman, 1960/1988,
p.214).

Assessment:
• Have your supervisee design an experiment that would be best suited to use a
combination of design elements.
• Ask your supervisee to point to the sections of the graphs in Colon et al. (2012)
and Alexander (1985) that reflect the
types of experimental designs used.
• Ask your supervisee to describe what
Sidman meant when he said that having
rules for designing an experiment would
be “disastrous.”
Relevant Literature:
Alexander, D. F. (1985). The effect of study skill
training on learning disabled students’ retelling of expository material. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 18(3), 263-267.
Colón, C. L., Ahearn, W. H., Clark, K. M., &
Masalsky, J. (2012). The effects of verbal
operant training and response interruption
and redirection on appropriate and inappropriate vocalizations. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 45(1), 107-120.
Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lindberg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., ... &
Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisition in
the implementation of functional analysis
methodology. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis,33(2), 181-194.
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.
(2009). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Routledge.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent
variables.
B-07 Use multiple baselines designs.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of the
behavior and the logistics of observing and recording.
II-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

B-10 Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package
Definition:
Component analysis - “An experiment designed to identify the active elements of a
treatment condition, the relative contributions
of different variables in a treatment package,
and/or the necessary and sufficient components of an intervention. Component analyses
take many forms, but the basic strategy is to
compare levels of responding across successive phases in which the intervention is implemented with one or more of the components
left out” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
692).
Examples:
• An experiment that compares response blocking with and without
redirection.
• An experiment that compares differential reinforcement of alternative
behavior with and without extinction
• An experiment that removes one
procedure at a time from a treatment
package consisting of three procedures (e.g., Token system, response
cost and extinction) and compares
responding under each condition to
responding during implementation
of the full treatment package.
Assessment:
• Ask Supervisee to explain why component analysis research is important to clinical practice (e.g. efficiency)
• Ask the supervisee to either describe
a treatment package they use in their
fieldwork or practicum that could

•

that could be tested via a component
analysis or have them describe a hypothetical treatment package that
could be tested via a component
analysis
Have supervisee look at the figures
in the articles listed below and explain the findings of the analysis by
determining the effective components of the intervention package.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Hardesty, S. L., Hagopian, L. P., McIvor, M.
M., Wagner, L. L., Sigurdsson, S. O., &
Bowman, L. G. (2014). Effects of specified performance criterion and performance feedback on staff behavior: A
component analysis. Behavior Modification,
38(5),
760-773.
doi:10.1177/0145445514538280
Ward-Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2010). Component analyses using single-subject experimental designs: A review. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(4), 685-704.
doi:10.1901/jaba.2010.43-685
Ward‐Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2012). Component analysis of behavior skills training in functional analysis. Behavioral Interventions,
27(2),
75-92.
doi:10.1002/bin.1339
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-11 Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent variable

Definition:
Parametric analysis - “An experiment designed to compare the differential effects of a
range of values of the independent variable”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 701).
Examples:
• An experiment designed to analyze
different magnitudes of a punishment procedure to determine the
least intrusive magnitude of a stimulus to decrease behavior.
• An experiment designed to analyze
the optimal quality of attention necessary to reinforce appropriate behavior
Assessment:
• Ask Supervisee to list some parameters (schedule, immediacy, quality,
quantity) of an independent variable
that can be manipulated experimentally
• Have supervisee describe a hypothetical parametric analysis inclusive
of the independent variable parameter to be manipulated and the functional relation to be tested
• Ask the supervisee how they could
use a parametric analysis to test for
the optimal level of treatment integrity. Then discuss what parameter
they would measure (i.e., schedule,
immediacy) and which values they
would select to answer this experimental question.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Lerman, D. C., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). A methodology for distinguishing between extinction and punishment effects associated with response blocking. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 231-233.
doi:10.1901/jaba.1996.29-231
Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Vorndran, C.
M., Kuhn, S. C., & LaRue, R. J. (2002).
Reinforcement magnitude and responding during treatment with differential reinforcement. Journal Of Applied Behavior
Analysis,
35(1),
29-48.
doi:10.1901/jaba.2002.35-29
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables
FK-33 functional relations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

C-01 State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of reinforcement
Reinforcement has been long been defined as
a crucial element to behavioral change. However, there are considerations that behavioral
analysts should explore before implementing
reinforcement strategies. Here are some considerations for the use of positive reinforcement:
• May suppress the desired response
o e.g. The availability of the
reinforcer elicits behavior
that may compete with the
target response (Balsam &
Bondy, 1983).
• May not be feasible for an individual
that has little or no learning history
with that reinforcement contingency.
o e.g. An individual that is
being taught to swallow
solid food may not progress with a program solely
using positive reinforcement due to low baseline
levels of swallowing solid
foods (Riordan, Iwata,
Wohl & Finney, 1984).
• Increases the frequency of the target
behavior, thereby reducing the frequency in other responses that may
also be desirable
o e.g. While teaching a student to raise their hand and
wait until they are called on
in class, the student no
longer garners others’ attention by calling their
name (Balsam & Bondy,
1983).
• May evoke aggression in others, especially in conditions which there
are limited quantities of the reinforcer.
o Aggression may be directed at individuals that
are also competing for

•

same reinforce (Balsam &
Bondy, 1983).
May also evoke aggression when
group contingencies are used.
o Individual may become aggressive towards lowerperforming
teammates
(Balsam & Bondy, 1983).
Removal of positive reinforcer has
been correlated with lower than
baseline levels of responding (Balsam & Bondy, 1983).

There are also considerations for the use of
negative reinforcement. Here are some:
• Can result in more challenging behavior due to the continuation of
aversive stimulation if target behavior is not displayed
• Research shows that even for escape-maintained behavior, positive
reinforcement contingencies may
compete with negative reinforcement contingencies, therefore, decreasing escape-maintained behavior
(Lerman, Volkert & Trosclair, 2007).
o A child that engages in aggression to escape tasks
may be more likely complete tasks without aggression if access to an iPad
was given contingent on
work completion. This
may be more effective than
reducing aggression by
providing breaks contingent on appropriate asking.
• Negative reinforcement contingencies may reinforce minimal requirements needed to avoid/escape aversive stimulus; does not focus on
quality of target response (Balsam &
Bondy, 1983).
• Requires continuous aversive stimulation and aversive stimulation often
elicits aggressive responses.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

These unwanted effects of reinforcement can
be curbed taking baseline levels of the target
behavior before setting criteria for reinforcement, implementing preference assessments
routinely, ensuring reinforcement schedule
and reinforcers chosen are as natural to the individual’s environment as possible to promote
generalization, systematic thinning of the reinforcement schedule, and having concurrent
schedules of reinforcement for positive and
negative reinforcement when negative reinforcement is utilized.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to list considerations
for the use of positive reinforcement.
• Ask supervisee to list considerations
for the use of negative reinforcement.
• Have supervisee outline which considerations may affect a particular
client and what behavioral strategies
can be used to curb these unwanted
effects.
Relevant Literature:
Balsam, P.D., & Bondy, A.S. (1983). The negative side effects of reward. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 16(3), 283-296.
Flora, S.R. (2004). The power of reinforcement. Albany: State University of New York
Press.

Lerman, D.C., Volkert, V.M., & Trosclair, N.
(2007). Further examination of factors
that influence preference for positive
versus negative reinforcement. Journal of
Applied Behavioral Analysis, 40(1), 25-44.
Riordan M.M., Iwata B.A., Wohl M.K., Finney J.W. (1984). Behavioral treatment of
food refusal and selectivity in developmentaly disabled children. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis. 17(3), 327-341.
Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH).
E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditioned reinforcers and punishers.
I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.
J-04 Select intervention strategies based on
client preferences.
J-05 Select intervention strategies based on
client’s current repertoires.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints.
J-11 Program for stimulus and response generalization.

C-02 State and plan for unwanted effects
of punishment
Punishment is sometimes used to change or
shape behavior and may cause unwanted side
effects.
• For instance, those individuals who
are being treated using punishment
procedures may become aggressive
(Azrin & Holz, 1966) or may have
strong emotional reactions to such
measures.
• An adult or child may become subject to negative modeling (such as
imitating scolding or hitting behavior).
• Those treated through the use of
punishment may seek out escape/avoidance of the punisher or
the contingencies surrounding punishment.
• In extreme cases, the use of punishment can result in harm or injury to
the child or adult.
Punishment may also have unwanted effects with regards to an individual’s future
learning. It may not appropriately generalize
to new situations requiring further intervention. When used as the sole intervention in a
treatment package, it fails to teach an individual an alternative behavior to engage in and
consequently individuals may revert back to
old behaviors without a replacement strategy.
These behaviors may diminish temporarily
only to be subject to a recovery of responding
(Catania, 1998) at a later period of time.
As a result, the majority of those in the field
agree that “punishment be limited to those situations in which other interventions have
failed” (May, Risley, Twardosz, Friedman, Bijou, Wexler et al., 1975 as cited in Iwata et al.,
1994, p. 198). Iwata et al., (1994) described
that reinforcement approaches to behavior reduction were just as effective as punishment
approaches and that if a functional analysis of
the problem behavior was done, the need for
the use of punishment procedures was greatly
reduced.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

During the supervision process, be diligent
in choosing interventions, which are based on
reinforcement and not solely on punishment.
The function of a problem behavior should always be assessed before making decisions regarding an individuals program to ensure effective treatment. If a team has deemed that
punishment is necessary as a part of a treatment package, it is important to state any potential unwanted effects of any procedure being utilized and to attempt to plan for these.
Consider the following when planning for
punishment effects:
1. A team should always adhere to the
“Fair Pair Rule” when using punishment. This states that a “practitioner
should choose one or more alternatives to increase for every behavior
targeted for reduction” (White &
Haring, 1980, p. 423).
2. Be sure to plan for continuation of
the procedure to different environments, staff and stimuli (any and all
that apply).
3. Avoid modeling any behavior which
you do not want the adult or child to
imitate
4. The team should develop a contingency plan for managing aggression
or extreme emotional responses
(should they occur) and have safety
measures in place to avoid accidental
injury to the individual.
5. The team should develop a plan to
manage any escape/avoidant behaviors that may occur
6. Be aware the effects of punishment
can be difficult to predict. Staff may
need to adjust the plan over time if
the affects are not therapeutic or effective.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state the unwanted effects of punishment.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

•

Ask the supervisee to plan for unwanted effects of punishment. The
supervisor should provide examples
of commonly used punishment procedures within agency (such as restraint, time outs, or other punitive
measures) and ask the supervisee to
propose solutions to these problems.
Ask the supervisee to select one behavior to target for increase for each
behavior targeted for decrease.

Relevant Literature:
Azrin, N.H., & Holz, W.C. (1966). Punishment. In W.K. Honig (Ed), Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Catania, C.A. (1998). Learning (4th ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E. and Richman, G. S. (1994).
Toward a Functional Analysis of Self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
27: 197–209.
May, J. G., Risley, T. R., Twardosz, S., Friedman, P., Bijou, S., Wexler, D., et al.
(1975). Guidelines for the use of behavioral procedures in state programs for
the retarded. NARC Monograph, M. R.
Research, 1.
White, O.R. & Haring, N.G. (1980). Exceptional Teaching (2nd e.d.). Columbus,
O.H.: Charles E. Merrill.
Related Lessons:
C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of punishment.
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
D-17 Use appropriate parameters andschedules of punishment.
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
E-07 Plan for behavioral contrast effects.
FK-31 Behavioral contingencies.

C-03 Use Extinction
Extinction “occurs when reinforcement of a
previously reinforced behavior is discontinued; as a result the frequency of that behavior
decreases in the future” (Cooper, Heron &
Howard, 2007, p. 457). Extinction renders target behavior useless and is often a significant
component contributing to the effectiveness
of a behavioral program. However, extinction
should be used with caution. Two common
side effects may occur when extinction is utilized: an extinction burst, defined as “an immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the removal of the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement” (Cooper,
Heron & Howard, 2007, p. 462), and extinction-induced aggression.
Studies have compared withdrawal of reinforcement as an aversive event and responses
to extinction are similar to attack responses in
laboratory subjects exposed to aversive stimulation, such as heat, shocks and physical
blows (Lerman et al., 1999). Extinction should
not be used as a singular intervention when
self-injury or aggression is severe and cannot
be prevented and appropriate safe-guards cannot be put in place. Other considerations include extinction being inappropriate in settings where maladaptive behaviors are likely
to be imitated by others (e.g., classroom setting) and when extinction is not feasible (e.g.
if an individual engages in physical aggression
for attention, response-blocking may be
enough to reinforce the individual’s behavior).
Research has shown that there are other behavioral strategies that can be utilized to mitigate the unwanted effects of extinction. These
include using differential reinforcement of alternative behavior in conjunction with extinction procedures. In situations in which using
extinction is not possible, research has shown
that by manipulating reinforcement schedules
and reinforcement parameters (e.g. quality,
duration, immediacy of reinforcement) to favoring appropriate behavior rather than problem behavior, problem behavior has also been
shown to decrease (Athens & Vollmer, 2010).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to list the possible unwanted effects of extinction.
• Ask your supervisee in which situations should extinction not be utilized.
• Ask your supervisee what behavioral
strategies can mitigate the unwanted
effects of extinction.
• Have your supervisee determine
which of his/her clients could benefit from extinction and which clients
should avoid the use of extinction.
Relevant Literature:
Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An investigation of differential reinforcement
of alternative behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis,
43(4), 569-589.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lerman, D.C., & Iwata, B.A.,(1995). Prevalence of the extinction burst and its attenuation during treatment. Journal of
Applied Behavioral Analysis, 28(1), 93-94.
Lerman, D.C., Iwata, B.A., & Wallace, M.D.,
(1999). Side effects of extinction: Prevalence of bursting and aggression during
the treatment of self-injurious behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 32
(1), 1-8.
Related Lessons:
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-18. Use Extinction.
D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-08 Use the matching law and recognize factors influencing choice.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement

The principle of reinforcement is in operation
when immediately following a behavior, a
stimulus event occurs and this serves to increase the future frequency of that behavior
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement has occurred when a
stimulus is added to the environment, or is increased in intensity, immediately following a
behavior, and this serves to increase the frequency of that behavior occurring in the future (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
Example:
Mommy Singing
A mommy sings a verse from “The Wheels on
the Bus” nursery rhyme to her baby. The baby
giggles immediately following the nursery
rhyme being sung. The mommy is more likely
to sing this nursery rhyme to her baby in the
future, because the baby’s giggling serves as a
reinforcer.
Example:
Accessing food
A rat is in a cage, which has a food dispenser
lever. To access food, the rat pushes the lever
and food pellets are dispensed. In the future,
after a few hours of food deprivation, the rat
is more likely to push the lever to access food.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement has occurred when a
stimulus is removed, or decreased in intensity,
immediately following a behavior, and this increases the frequency of that behavior in the future (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
Example:
Removal of loud music
A child asks her friend to turn down the music, as it is too loud for her. The music is immediately turned down. The child is more
likely to ask for music to be turned down in
the future when it is too loud.

Example:
Raining
It is raining so you put up your umbrella and
immediately reduce the amount that you are
getting wet. You are more likely to put up your
umbrella in the future when it is raining to
avoid getting wet.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisees to define both
positive and negative reinforcement
and give an example of each type.
• Ask your Supervisee to demonstrate
an example of positive and negative reinforcement through role-playing.
• Ask your Supervisee to identify which
type of reinforcement is operating in
these examples:
o A Supervisee sees her BCBA
Supervisor coming in to the classroom to run teaching evaluations.
The Supervisee takes her client
for a reinforcer break in another
room and thereby avoids having a
teaching evaluation completed on
her. The next day, when her Supervisor comes back in to do
more evaluations, she takes her
client outside to play. (Answer =
the Supervisee’s behavior of leaving the classroom is negatively reinforced by avoiding having
teaching evaluations completed
on her).
o A client regularly has challenging behavior when working
with his teacher at the table, as he
does not enjoy the work. However, on this occasion he has
worked really well so has immediately been given a 3-minute break
to run around in the playground.
He continues to work well at the
table after his break. (Answer =
the client’s hard work at the table

may be being negatively reinforced. This is because his work
behavior is being reinforced with
removal from the table environment).
o A Father calls his son down
to the dishes. His son comes
down and does the dishes. His
Father says “Thanks, Son” and
gives him a dollar to get some
candy. The next day when the son
is asked to do the dishes again, he
quickly comes down to do them.
(Answer = the son’s compliant
behavior was probably positively
reinforced with praise and/or
money).
Relevant Literature:
Hall, R. V., Lund, D. & Jackson, D. (1968).
Effects of teacher attention on study behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 1-12.
Hart, B. M., Reynolds, N. J., Baer, D. M.,
Brawley, E. R. & Harris, F. R. (1968).
Effect of contingent and non-contingent social reinforcement on the cooperative play of a preschool child. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 73-76.
Michael, J. (1975). Positive and negative reinforcement, a distinction that is no longer
necessary; or a better way to talk about
bad things. Behaviorism, 3 (1), 33-44.
Osborne, J. G. (1969). Free-time as a reinforcer in the management of classroom
behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 113-118.
Skinner, B. F. The behavior of organisms. New
York: D. Appleton-Century, 1938.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Thomas, D. R., Becker, W. C., & Armstrong,
M. (1968). Production and elimination
of disruptive classroom behavior by systematically varying teacher's behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 3545.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted side effects of reinforcement
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement
D-16: Use positive and negative punishment
D-17: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement
D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
D-20: Use response-independent (timebased) schedules of reinforcement (i.e., noncontingent reinforcement)
D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
E-10: Use the Premack principle
E-11: Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditioned reinforcers and punishers
F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned reinforcement systems
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15: Operant conditioning
FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement
FK-19: Unconditioned punishment
FK-20: Conditioned punishment
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-23: Automatic reinforcement and punishment

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and
schedules of reinforcement

Definition:
Schedule of reinforcement - “A rule specifying the environmental arrangements and response requirements for reinforcement; a description of a contingency of reinforcement”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 703).
There are two basic schedules of reinforcement: continuous (CRF) and intermittent
(INT). CRF is useful when teaching a new response. With CRF, reinforcement is provided
each time the target behavior occurs. As a result, the desired behavior is strengthened.
INT is used for thinning schedules of reinforcement and transitioning to naturally occurring reinforcement contingencies.
INT may be defined as having a fixed ratio
schedule, variable ratio schedule, fixed interval schedule, or variable interval schedule.

Schedule Effects

Example

Definition

Fixed Ratio (FR)
A fixed number of
target responses
must be completed
to produce a reinforcer.

Variable Ratio
(VR)
A variable number
of target responses must be
completed to produce a reinforcer.

When learning basic schedules of reinforcement, it is not only important to understand
how the schedules are defined, but also understand the effects of each type of INT. Ferster
and Skinner (1957) and Cooper et al. (2007)
thoroughly discuss these concepts and it is
strongly encouraged that supervisors and supervisees read this material. The table below
serves as a reference and briefly illustrates the
key points of basic INT.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to define basic
schedules of reinforcement.
• Ask supervisee to provide examples
of basic schedules of reinforcement.
• Supervisor can graph response rates
of INT schedules and ask supervisee
to analyze graphs and identify which
INT schedule is in place.
Fixed Interval (FI)
Reinforcement is
provided for the
first target response
following a fixed
duration of time.

FR 7 means that
every seventh target
response produces
a reinforcer.

VR 15 means that
on average, every
fifteenth target response produces a
reinforcer.

FI 5 means that
first target response
following the end
of a five minute period produces a reinforcer.

Produces a typical
pattern of responding and high rates
of responses. Post
reinforcement
pause occurs.

Produces a consistent, steady response rate, usually without a post
reinforcement
pause.

Produces a post reinforcement pause
during the initial
part of the interval.
Rate of responding
accelerates toward
the end. Slow to
moderate response
rates observed.

Variable Interval
(VI)

Reinforcement is
provided for the
first target response following
the end of variable
durations of time.
VI 12 means that
the first target response following
the end of an average duration of 12
minutes produces
a reinforcer.
Produces a constant, stable, yet
low to moderate
response rate.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Schedules of reinforcement.
Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 304323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York, NY:
Appleton-Century-Crofts

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Related Lessons:
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)
schedules of reinforcement (i.e., non-contingent reinforcement)
D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
FK-21 Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-40 Matching law
FK-41 Contingency maintained behavior

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading

Definitions:
Prompts – “…antecedent stimuli that increase the probability of a desired response”
(Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p. 256)
Prompt fading – “…transfer stimulus control from therapist delivered prompts to stimuli in the natural environment that should
evoke appropriate responses” (Walker, 2008
as cited in Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p.
412).
Prompts are used when teaching skills.
Prompts can be used when teaching in task
analysis, discrete trial, incidental teaching, etc.
Prompt fading is important as the learner begins to show competence with the skill being
taught. Fading allows the learner to become
independent and meet naturalistic reinforcers
for his/her behavior.
Prompts are generally divided into two categories: stimulus prompts and response
prompts.
Stimulus prompts – “…those in which some
property of the criterion stimulus is altered, or
other stimuli are added to or removed from
the criterion stimulus” (Etzel & LeBlanc, 1979
cited in Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p. 256)
Examples:
Stimulus shaping
Stimulus fading
Response prompts – “…addition of some
behavior on the part of an instructor to evoke
the desired learner behavior” (Fisher, Piazza,
& Roane, 2014, p. 256).
Examples:
Most-to-least prompting
Least-to-most prompting
Time delay prompts

Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to role-play several types of prompt strategies.
• Ask your supervisee to role-play several types of prompt fading procedures.
•
Ask your supervisee to describe the
transfer of stimulus control when a
prompt is faded out e.g., what stimulus is controlling behavior while
prompting vs what stimulus is controlling behavior after the prompt
has been faded out.
Relevant Literature:
Etzel, B. C., & LeBlanc, J. M. (1979). The simplest treatment alternative: The law of parsimony applied to choosing appropriate
instructional control and errorless-learning procedures for the difficult-to-teach
child. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 9(4), 361-382.
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Roane, H. S.
(2014). Handbook of applied behavior analysis. New York: Guilford Press.
Walker, G. (2008). Constant and progressive
time delay procedures for teaching children with autism: A literature review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(2), 261-275.
Related Lessons:
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.
D-05 Use shaping.
D-06 Use chaining.
D-07 Conduct task analyses.
D-08 Use discrete-trial and free-operant arrangements.
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-02 Use discrimination training procedures.
E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures.
FK-24 stimulus control

D-04 Modeling and Imitation training
Definitions:
Imitation - “A behavior controlled by any
physical movement that serves as a novel
model excluding vocal-verbal behavior, has
formal similarity with the model, and immediately follows the occurrence of the model (e.g.
within seconds of the model presentation).
An imitative behavior is a new behavior emitted following a novel antecedent event (i.e.,
the model)” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 697).
Model - “An antecedent stimulus that evokes
the imitative behavior” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 413)
• Imitation training is a method often
used to teach learners new imitation
skills. During imitation training the
learner learns to imitate the behavior
of the person providing the model
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Reinforcement is typically delivered
for imitation of the model. Prompt
fading is often used.
Example: Modeling a new behavior
• Example: A therapist sits across
from his student Zeke in the preschool classroom. The therapist
prompts the student to “do this,”
and claps her hands. Zeke responds
within two seconds of the therapist’s
prompt and claps. The therapist responds by adding a token to Zeke’s
token board.
• Example: During job training, the
job coach, Flora, demonstrates to
her new employee, Fauna, how to
turn the copy machine off at the end
of the workday. Fauna then imme-

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

diately flicks the switch, demonstrating that she understands the expectation. Flora praises Fauna for paying attention.
• Non-example: A therapist sits across
from his student Zeke in the preschool classroom. The therapist
prompts the student to “do this,”
and claps her hands. Zeke does not
imitate the model and reinforcement
is not delivered. Later during the day
Zeke excitedly claps his hands when
his favorite song is playing on the t.v.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to define both
“imitation” and “model.”
• Ask your Supervisee to state the purpose of imitation training.
• Ask your supervisee to give several
examples of some new skills that one
might want to select for imitation
training (other than the ones listed
above).
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Peterson, R. F. and Sherman, J.
A. (1967), The development of imitation
by reinforcing behavioral similarity to a
model. Journal of the Experimental Analysis
Behavior, 10: 405–416.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Striefel, S., Bryan, K. S. and Aikins, D. A.
(1974), Transfer of stimulus control
from motor to verbal stimuli. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 7: 123–135.
Related Lessons:
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-05 Use Shaping

Definition:
Shaping – “Using differential reinforcement to
produce a series of gradually changing response
classes; each response class is a successive approximation toward a terminal behavior. Members of an existent response class are selected for
differential reinforcement because they more
closely resemble the terminal behavior”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 704).
•
Examples:
• Bernice’s infant is babbling. She has been trying to get him to say, “mama.” While playing
with him she happens to catch him making
the “mmm” sound. She smiles and praises
him for making the vocalization. Over the
next several days she continues to applaud
when he makes this sound. After a few weeks
she observes the baby making a “ma” noise.
She praises him more enthusiastically giving
him tickles. Although she still continues to
commend him for making the “mmm” sound,
the social reinforcement delivered for saying
“ma” is differentially delivered. Some time
later she catches him babbling “ma ma ma.”
She praises him, saying, “You said ‘mama’,”
giving him big hugs and kisses. Verbal praise
and affection is almost exclusively delivered
for saying “ma ma ma” now. Eventually the
baby who continually hears him mother say
“mama” (and not “ma ma ma”) echoes his
mother when she gives the verbal model. She
demonstrates the highest level of excitement
for this vocalization and the baby continues to
emit this response.
• Petunia is pet sitting for a friend. On her way
out the door the cat, Mr. Boots, escapes outside. Petunia tries to call the feline back indoors, but every time she gets near him, Mr.
Boots runs away. Petunia has an idea. She
places a bowl of cat food outside. Mr. Boots
goes to the bowl but only when he thinks the
coast is clear. Over the next few days, she
successively moves the bowl of food closer to
the front door. On the fourth day, Petunia
puts the bowl just inside of the doorway. Mr.
Boots takes the bait. While he gobbles down
the food, Petunia, who had been hiding

nearby shuts the door and captures the beloved cat.
Non-example:
Bernice’s baby has gotten bigger. While looking
at a picture book she points out a picture of a
farm animal. She tells him that this is a cow and
that the cow says, “moo.” The baby immediately
echoes the word “moo” and Bernice praises
him. He continues to say “moo” when seeing
pictures of cows in other books as well.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to identify the steps
taken to shape the desired behavior of saying “mama” above.
• Ask the supervisee to identify how differential reinforcement is used to shape desired behavior.
• Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of his/her own.
Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Lovaas O.I. The autistic child: Language development through behavior modification. New
York: Irvington; 1977.
Newman, B., Reinecke, D., & Ramos, M. (2009). Is
a Reasonable Attempt Reasonable? Shaping
Versus Reinforcing Verbal Attempts of Preschoolers with Autism. The Analysis of Verbal
Behavior, 25(1), 67–72.
Pryor, K. (1999). Don't Shoot The Dog [rev. ed.].
New York: Bantam.
Ricciardi, J. N., Luiselli, J. K., & Camare, M. (2006).
Shaping approach responses as intervention
for specific phobia in a child with autism.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39(4),
445-448.
Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behaviorist: Part
two of an autobiography. New York: New York
University Press.

Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement
D-05 Use Shaping
D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g., DRO,
DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
FK -41 Contingency-shaped behavior

D-06 Use Chaining
Definition:
Behavior chain - “A sequence of responses
in which each response produces a stimulus
change that functions as conditioned reinforcement for that response and as a discriminative stimulus for the next response in the
chain; reinforcement for the last response in a
chain maintains the reinforcing effectiveness
of the stimulus changes produced by all previous responses in the chain” (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007, p. 691).
Often behavior chains are taught using a task
analysis. This involves breaking down steps of
a sequence or routine and sequentially teaching them one at a time. Reinforcement is delivered following the first step, then following
each succeeding step if the previous steps
were completed in correct order.
According to Cooper, et al., “a behavior chain
has the following three important characteristics: (a) A behavior chain involves the performance of a specific series of discrete responses; (b) the performance of each behavior
in the sequence changes the environment in
such a way that it produces conditioned reinforcement for the preceding responses and
serves as an SD for the next response; and (c)
the responses within the chain must be performed in a specific sequence, usually in close
temporal succession” (2007, p. 436).
“In forward chaining, behaviors are linked together beginning with the first behavior in the
sequence. In backward chaining, behaviors are
linked together beginning with the last behavior in the sequence” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.
436).
Example:
• Brad is going to teach shoe tying to
one of his students. He decides to
use a forward chain and writes down
all the smaller steps involved in tying
ones shoes. He teaches the steps at
the beginning, like crossing the laces.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

After the student has completed this
step Brad delivers reinforcement.
Then moves down the steps in sequential order delivering reinforcement at the completion of the last
step that was taught.
Non-example:
Joe decides to use video modeling to help his
student learn to tie their shoes. He has them
watch the video daily and then model what
they learned from that video in an attempt to
have them learn how to tie their shoes.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee choose a target skill and
create a task analysis for that skill. Then
have him/her decide whether to teach
this skill using forward or backward
chaining and explain their rationale.
• Have supervisee identify and describe the
benefits and limitations of using both
forward and backward chains. Have
him/her list several behaviors/skills that
they would use for each type of chaining
procedure and why they chose that
method.
• Have supervisee create a task analysis
procedure for a skill they can demonstrate in the group supervision setting.
Have him/her model the training procedure. Finally, have him/her role play being a teacher and the supervisor being the
student as they demonstrate the steps of
their task analysis chain.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 435-453, 589.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Catania, A.C. (1998). Learning (4th Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
44, 82, 124, 380.
Libby, M.E., Weiss, J.S., Bancroft, S., &
Ahearn, W.A. (2008).A comparison of
most-to-least and least-to-most prompting on the acquisition of solitary play
skills. Behavior Analytic Practices, 1, 1, 3743.
Kayser J. E, Billingsley F. F, & Neel R. S.
(1986). A comparison of in-context and
traditional instructional approaches: Total task, single trial versus backward
chaining, multiple trials. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped. 11,
28–38.
Spooner F. (1984). Comparisons of backward
chaining and total task presentation in
training severely handicapped persons. Education and Training of the Mentally
Retarded. 19, 15–22.
Reynolds, G.S. (1975). A primer of operant conditioning (Rev. Ed.) Glenview, IL.:. Scott,
Foresman.
McWilliams, R., Nietupski, J., & HamreNietupski, S. (1990). Teaching complex
activities to students with moderate

handicaps through the forward chaining
of shorter total cycle response sequences. Education and Training in Mental
Retardation, 25, 3, 292-298.
Test, D.W., Spooner, F., Keul, P.K., & Grossi,
T. (1990). Teaching adolescents with severe disability to use the public telephone. Behavior Modification, 14, 157-171.
Snell, M.E. & Brown, F. (2006). Instruction of
students with severe disabilities (6th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
A-07: Measure trials to criterion.
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.
D-05: Use shaping.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
J-03: Select intervention strategies based on
task analysis.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

D-07 Conduct Task Analyses
Definition:
Task analysis - “The process of breaking a
complex skill into smaller, teachable units, or
the product of which is a series of sequentially
ordered steps or tasks” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 706).
A task analysis can be taught using any of the
following chaining procedures:
• Forward chaining - behaviors are
taught in sequential order; reinforcement would occur once criteria for first
behavior in the task analysis is achieved
• Backward chaining – all steps in the
task analysis are done by trainer except
for the final behavior; reinforcement
would occur once criteria for last behavior in chain is achieved. Subsequent teaching trials would involve
providing reinforcement after the
next-to-last behavior is achieved, etc.
•
Backward chaining with leaps- similar
to backwards chaining, however, some
steps are in the task analysis are not
taught, and perhaps just probed in order to decrease the total amount of
time spent teaching a skill. If there are
some behaviors in the task analysis are
mastered, a trainer could “leap” ahead
a few steps to allow for more independence and maintenance of previously acquired skills.
• Total task presentation – prompting
would occur at any point in the task
analysis when a person is unable to
complete any part of steps independently.
Examples:
• Accessing an iPhone 6
1. Press home key (circle)
2. Slide finger across bottom of
screen, from left to right, over
text that reads “slide to unlock”
3. Enter passcode

•

Washing a cup
1. Turn on tap
2. Pick up sponge and put dish
soap on sponge
3. Put down dish soap
4. Pick up dirty cup, scrub outside
rim, sides, and base of cup with
sponge
5. Scrub inside, base, and rim of
cup with sponge
6. Put sponge down
7. Rinse cup with warm water
8. Place cup in drainboard
9. Rinse excess soap out of sponge
10. Turn off tap
11. Put sponge in holder/in sink

Assessment
• Ask your Supervisee to create a task
analysis for a technology related task
(e.g. faxing, scanning, etc.).
• Ask your Supervisee to create a task
analysis for eating with a utensil.
• Have Supervisee create a task analysis on a skill that can be observed on
the job. Once complete, have Supervisee observe an individual completing the task. Supervisee should make
note of any differences in sequences
of behavior or steps.
• Have Supervisee follow a task analysis for a task they are not familiar
with.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis.
Resnick, L. B., Wang, M. C., & Kaplan, J.
(1973). Task analysis in curriculum design: a hierarchically sequenced introductory mathematics curriculum. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6(4), 679709.
Bancroft, S. L., Weiss, J. S., Libby, M. E., &
Ahearn, W. H. (2011). A comparison of
procedural variations in teaching behavior chains: Manual guidance, trainer

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

completion, and no completion of untrained steps. Journal of applied behavior
analysis, 44(3), 559-569.
Jerome, J., Frantino, E. P., & Sturmey, P.
(2007). The effects of errorless learning
and backward chaining on the acquisition of internet skills in adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of applied
behavior analysis, 40(1), 185-189.

Slocum, S. K., & Tiger, J. H. (2011). An assessment of the efficiency of and child
preference for forward and backward
chaining. Journal of applied behavior analysis,
44(4), 793-805.
Related Lessons:
D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading
D-05 Use shaping
D-06 Use chaining

D-08 Use discrete-trials and free-operant
arrangements
Definitions:
Free operant - " behaviors that have discrete
beginning and ending points, require minimal
displacement of the organism in time and
space, can be emitted at nearly any time, do
not require much time for completion, and
can be emitted over a wide range of response
rates.” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
696)
Rate of responding is typically used to measure behavior considered to be free operant.
Rate of responding is typically used because it
uses count per unit of time. (i.e., a person can
type 50 words per minute). However, rate of
responding is not typically used to measure
behavior that occurs within discrete trials.
These responses can occur only within limited
or restricted situations.
Discrete trial responses include responses to
flash cards, answering teacher’s questions, and
choosing an answer from an array.
Discrete trial- “Any operant whose response
rate is controlled by a given opportunity to
emit the response. Each discrete response occurs when an opportunity to respond exists”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 694).
Assessment:
• Have supervisee create a simple discrete trial program to teach a skill.
Have him/her run conduct a trial using this program and identify the
parts of a discrete trial.
• Have supervisee identify the differences between a discrete trial and a
free operant trial. Have him/her list
pros and cons for each method.
• Have supervisee identify what type
of measurement procedures and

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

data you would take for free operant
trials as well as discrete trials. Have
him/her describe why they would
use that measurement system for
each.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 77-78, chapters 11-23, 2528.
Otto, J. (2003). Discrete trial procedures vs.
free-operant procedures. Retrieved
from http://old.dickmalott.com/students/undergradprogram/psy3600/discrete_vs_free.html.
Malott, R.W., & Trojan, E.A. (2003). Principles
of Behavior. (5th Ed.), Upper Saddle River,
NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. Chapter 17.
Mazur, J.E. (2002). Learning and Behavior (5th
Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
A-01: Measure frequency (i.e., count).
A-02: Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).
A-07: Measure trials to criterion.
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-12: Use errorless learning procedures.
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, inter-response time).

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-09 Use the verbal operants as a basis for
language assessment

In the field of applied behavior analysis extensive research has been done on the development of verbal behavior.
“Verbal behavior involves social interactions between speakers and listeners, whereby
speakers gain access to reinforcement and
control their environment through the behavior of listeners” (Sundberg as cited in Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 529). Verbal operants are the basic units of this exchange.
In 1957 B.F. Skinner identified six elementary verbal operants in his book on Verbal Behavior. These included mands, tacts, intraverbals, echoics, textuals, and transcription.
“Skinner’s analysis suggests that a complete
verbal repertoire is composed of each of the
different elementary operants, and separate
speaker and listener repertoires” (Sundberg as
cited in Cooper, et al., 2007, p. 541).
Since Skinner described these operants,
those in the field have applied these concepts
to both language assessment and training. In
order to evaluate whether or not specific language training is necessary, a variety of standardized tools have been used to test an individual’s receptive and expressive language
abilities. These include but are not limited to:
the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test III
(Dunn & Dunn, 1997), the Comprehensive
Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test
(Hammill & Newcomer, 1997), the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills
(ABLLS) (Partington & Sundberg, 1998), the
Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and
Placement Program (VB-MAPP) and the
CELF-4 Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003).
Not all of these tests will identify deficits in
one or more of the verbal operants Some children who may be proficient in tacting (such as
labeling things in their environment such as
letters and numbers) may fail to make appropriate mands for desired items (Cooper, et al.,
2007). In this case it is important for behavior
analysts to use a combination of approaches
or less standardized methods to assess these

needs. It may be helpful to observe the individual in their natural environment and take
data on their verbal interactions. It will be important to ask questions such as:
• What is the frequency of and complexity of mands?
• What it the frequency and complexity of tacting behavior?
• Will the child or individual demonstrate echoic behavior when
prompted?
• Does the child or individual engage
in intraverbal behavior with known
caregivers?
• Can or will the child or individual
read words that are written down for
him?
• Can or will the child or individual
write down words that are said to
him?
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to name the basic
unit of language
• Ask the supervisee to name all 6 of
the elementary verbal operants
• Ask the supervisee to name some of
the standardized tests often used to
assess language
• Ask the supervisee to explain why
these standardized tests may not
provide adequate information
• Ask the supervisee to describe how
one might assess an individual’s use
of verbal operants if testing fails to
yield enough information.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E., Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Hammill, D., & Newcomer, P.L. (1997). Test
of language development-3. Austin, TX: ProEd.

Partington, J. W., & Sundberg, M. L. (1998).
Assessment of basic language and learning
skills. (The ABLLS): An assessment for language
delayed
students.
Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts,
Inc.
Semel, E, Wiig, E. H. & Second, W A. (2003)
Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals,
fourth edition (CELF-4). Toronto, Canada:
The Psychological Corporation/A Harcourt
Assessment Company.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behaior. New
York: Appleton-Century.
Sundberg, M. L. (2008) Verbal behavior milestones assessment and placement program: The
VB-MAPP. Concord, CA: AVB Press.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Sundberg, M.L. & Partington, J.W. (1998).
Teaching language to children with autism or
other developmental disabilities. Pleasant Hill,
CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
Related Lessons:
D-10 Use echoic training.
D-11 Use mand training.
D-12 Use tact training.
D-13 Use intraverbal training.
D-14 Use listener training.
FK-43 Echoics
FK-44 Mands
FK-45 Tacts
FK-46 Intraverbals

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-10 Use Echoic Training

Echoics are units of verbal behavior that are,
“evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus
that has point-to point correspondence and
formal similarity with the response” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2014, p. 694).
Repeating words, phrases, or other auditory
verbal units is common for all speakers in dayto-day speech (Sundberg, 2008).
Echoic training, sometimes referred to as vocal imitation training, is a procedure in which
a caregiver or teacher emits a sound and a listener echoes or repeats what has been said
(Skinner, 1957). Reinforcement (either social,
tangible or other) is often delivered after the
correct utterance is given.
Echoic training can be used to teach a variety
of skills such as:
• Mands-such as when you give a child
a full verbal model of the appropriate way to ask for another cup of
milk “I want milk” and he repeats
this phrase.
• Tacts- such as telling a classroom full
of Spanish students that the word
for dog is “perro” and asking them
to repeat this word back to you.
• Intraverbal behavior- such as an elementary school teaching modeling
the fill in of the word “star” after
saying “Twinkle, twinkle little
______” and pausing (Skinner,
1957).
When using echoic training, the trainer
should:
1. Deliver the verbal discriminative
stimulus (the word, sound or phrase
you intend them to repeat).
2. Provide positive reinforcement for
responses that have point-to-point
similarity to the target response.

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state what echoic training can be used to teach.
• Ask the supervisee to give examples
of echoic training.
• Ask the supervisee to discuss how
echoic training should be delivered.
Relevant Literature:
Drash, P. W., High, R. L., & Tudor, R. M.
(1999). Using mand training to establish
an echoic repertoire in young children
with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 16, 29–44.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2014).
Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Kodak, T., & Clements, A. (2009). Acquisition
of Mands and Tacts with Concurrent
Echoic Training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(4), 839–843.
Mirenda, P. (2008). A Comparison of Stimulus-Stimulus Pairing, Standard Echoic
Training, and Control Procedures on
the Vocal Behavior of Children with
Autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,
24(1), 123–133.
Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program.
Concorde, CA: AVB Press
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century
Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.
FK-43 Echoics

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

D-11 Use Mand Training
Mands are important in the development of
language in children. The development of a
mands allows an individual to communicate
their wants and needs, including basic needs
such as food and water, to those around them.
When an early learner fails to develop a mand
repertoire, they may not be able to effectively
communicate with others and may not be able
to access these reinforcers. This can lead to
frustration, learned helplessness, or a variety
of other maladaptive behaviors such aggression, self-injurious behavior social withdrawal
or tantrums (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007).
When mands fail to develop typically, it is crucial begin language training. Cooper, Heron
and Heward (2007) suggest teaching mands
before all other types of verbal behavior as
manding allows an individual to gain access to
their wants and needs. During early training a
variety of mands should be taught so that the
child learns to differentiate their response
based on their current needs and MO. Instructors should focus on teaching bids for edibles
and tangibles before making other requests.
Sundberg & Partington (1998) suggest that
teachers should use a combination of
“prompting, fading and differential reinforcement to transfer control from stimulus variables to motivative variables” (as cited in
Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 541). It
is important that both the echoic prompt and
the non-verbal stimulus be faded out for
mand training to be effective.
When using mand training, the trainer should:
1. Establish a likely MO (motivating operation). This may be done formally
through preference assessment procedures or more informally through observations or caregiver report. It is important that a child be motivated to
make a request for mand training to be
effective. Note: It may be helpful to ensure
that a reinforcer has been withheld prior to

training to ensure that it is potent. For instance a child who has just recently eaten is
not as likely to be motivated to request food.
Enrich the environment with potential
reinforcers (things that the child generally seems to prefer such as foods
and toys).
Wait for the child to initiate or show
interest in the non-verbal stimulus (the
child reaches for an item, emits some
sort of vocalization, points to it, etc.).
Use an echoic prompt to label the nonverbal stimulus. Successively reinforce
closer and closer approximations to
the target verbal response and follow
with specific reinforcement (the requested item).
Once the client is able to imitate the
verbal model in the presence of the
stimulus, gradually fade out the echoic
prompt to establish the response “under the multiple control of the MO and
the nonverbal stimulus” Sundberg, as
cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, pp. 541-542).
Finally the presentation of the nonverbal stimulus should also be faded
out so that the response is only under
the control of the MO. This helps to
ensure that the individual can make the
request regardless of whether or not
the item is physically present within
the environment.
Gradually increase the verbal requirement over time so that the child is
making more complex and specific requests (“I want the chocolate
cookie.”).

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state what
mand training can be used to teach.
• Ask the supervisee to give examples
of mand training.
• Ask the supervisee to state why it is
important to fade the non-verbal
stimulus and the echoic prompt.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Drash, P. W., High, R. L., & Tudor, R. M.
(1999). Using mand training to establish
an echoic repertoire in young children
with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 16, 29–44.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century.

Sundberg, M. L., Loeb, M., Hail, L., &
Eigenheer, P. (2002). Contriving establishing operations to teach mands for information. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 14-28
Sundberg, M.L., & Partington, J.W. (1998).
Teaching language to children with autism or
other developmental disabilities. Pleasant
Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
Related Lessons:
FK-44 Mands

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

D-12 Use Tact Training
Practitioners may use a variety of techniques
to teach language when working with clients.
Tact training is one such technique in which a
consumer may be taught to label “objects, actions, properties of objects and actions, prepositional relations, abstractions, private
events, and so on” (Sundberg as cited in
Cooper, Howard, & Heron, 2007, p. 544).
“The goal of teaching is to bring a verbal response under nonverbal stimulus control”
(Sundberg as cited in Cooper, Howard, &
Heron, 2007, p.544).
Initially, a practitioner pairs a nonverbal stimulus (such as snow falling outside of one’s
window) with an echoic model “snow.” The
imitation of this verbal model is differentially
reinforced. Over time this echoic is faded out
so that only the presence of the nonverbal
stimulus (the snow) sets the occasion for the
consumer to label “snow” in the absence of a
verbal model. A time delay procedure, in
which the practitioner gradually delays the
presentation of the echoic model after the
nonverbal stimulus appears, may be helpful in
fading out the verbal model.
When using tact training, the trainer should:
1. Ensure that the listener is attending.
Make sure that they are looking in
your direction, are making eye contact and that the environment isn’t
too noisy or distracting.
2. Pair the presentation of nonverbal
stimulus that you would like to train
with an echoic model.
3. Pause to allow the listener to process
the information and wait for a response.
4. Provide differential reinforcement
for responses that are closer and
closer approximations to the verbal
model. Note: It may be difficult to differentially reinforce the tacting of events that
cannot be shared by both instructor and student, such as private events like pain, as the
instructor may not be able to adequately

able to label them (Cooper, Howard, &
Heron, 2007). For this reason it is recommended that initial tact training be done
with objects or actions that can be directly
observed.
Once the client is able to imitate the
verbal model in the presence of the
stimulus, gradually fade out the verbal model so that only the stimulus
itself sets the occasion for the response.

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state what tact
training can be used to teach.
• Ask the supervisee to give examples
of tact training.
• Ask the supervisee to discuss how
tact training should be delivered.
• Ask the supervisee to state how the
verbal model can be successfully
faded out.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century.
Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The
value of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior for teaching children with autism.
Behavior Modification, 25, 698-724.
Sundberg, M.L.,& Partington, J.W. (1998).
Teaching language to children with autism or
other developmental disabilities. Pleasant
Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
Related Lessons:
D-12 Use Tact Training
FK-45 Tacts

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-13 Use Intraverbal Training

“Many children with autism, developmental
disabilities, or other language delays suffer
from defective or nonexistent intraverbal repertoires, even though some can emit hundreds
of mands, tacts, and receptive responses”
(Sundberg, as cited in Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 545).
Although typically developing children generally acquire this type of language on their own,
some learners may not acquire this type of language without specific training in the skill. In
such cases, intraverbal training may be recommended. Prior to starting intraverbal training,
the learner must have a acquired a variety of
pre-requisite skills such as being able to mand,
tact, engage in echoic behavior or imitation, to
receptively identify stimuli, and to do match
to sample tasks (Sundberg & Partington,
1998). The goal is not to teach new language,
but to bring words or phrases that are currently under nonverbal stimulus control entirely under verbal stimulus control (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007). For instance, a
child who has previously learned to tact or
echo the word “cow” when they see a picture
of a cow, may learn to then say “cow” when
his teacher has asked, “What says moo?”
It is recommended that simple intraverbal interactions that are appropriate to the child’s
developmental age be taught before more
complicated responses. Fill in the blank relations are often the easiest to teach first
(Cooper et al., 2007). For instance, a learner
may be taught to fill in the word “star” after
someone has delivered the line “Twinkle,
twinkle little _______.” A teacher may start
by using visual stimuli and then gradually fade
out these prompts as the child is successful so
that only the verbal stimulus is presented.
Since intraverbal behavior is reinforced by
generalized conditioned reinforcement (i.e.,

social reinforcement via praise, eye contact,
body language, etc.) it may be challenging to
motivate some students initially to engage in
the desired response. Trainers may need to
initially pair specific reinforcement (such as a
crayon after the child has responded “crayon”
when asked, “What do you color with?”) initially and then fade this over time (Cooper et
al., 2007).
Varying both the verbal stimuli and the verbal
responses over time will help to strengthen
these responses (Cooper et al., 2007). For instance a child who has learned to respond
“bear” when asked, “What is your favorite
toy?” may then learn to respond with more
complexity such as “blue bear” or “my blue
bear with the purple hat.” The teacher can
also vary the verbal prompt such as asking,
“What toy do you like the most?” which is
simply another way of phrasing “what is your
favorite toy,” and is a part of the same stimulus class.
When using intraverbal training, the trainer
should:
1.

Be sure that the desired verbal responses are already in the child’s or
individual’s repertoire
Ensure that the listener is attending.
Make sure that they are looking in
your direction, are making eye contact and that the environment isn’t
too noisy or distracting.
Deliver the verbal stimulus (i.e. “The
itsy bitsy _______.”) and pause. Initially pair the verbal response with a
nonverbal stimulus that can be faded
out over time (such as a picture of a
spider or spider puppet).
Provide reinforcement for correct
responding. Specific reinforcement

such as providing edibles, access to
the spider puppet, etc. should be
faded over time so that social reinforcement becomes the reinforcing
consequence.
Once simple intraverbal relations
have been established, teach the
child to respond to variations to the
verbal stimulus (“Who went up the
water spout?”) or respond with
more complexity.

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state what intraverbal training can be used to
teach.
• Ask the supervisee to state the prerequisite skills that are needed to
teach intraverbal behavior.
• Ask the supervisee to give examples
of intraverbal training.
• Ask the supervisee to discuss how
intraverbal training should be delivered.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

•

Ask the supervisee to state why nonverbal stimuli should be faded out.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Partington, J. W., & Bailey, J. S. (1993). Teaching intraverbal behavior to preschool
children. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,
11, 9–18.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century.
Sundberg, M.L. & Partington, J.W. (1998).
Teaching language to children with autism or
other developmental disabilities. Pleasant
Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
Vedora, J., Meunier, L., & Mackay, H. (2009).
Teaching Intraverbal Behavior to Children with Autism: A Comparison of
Textual and Echoic Prompts. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 25(1), 79–86.
Related Lessons:
D-13 Use Intraverbal Training
FK-46 Intraverbals

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-14 Use listener training

Definition:
Listener – “someone who provides reinforcement for verbal behavior” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 698)
Part of being involved in a verbal community
is reinforcing the behavior of speakers. There
are several methods for training someone to
respond as a listener. Skills such as vocal imitation (echoic), following instructions, answering questions (intraverbal), conversation
skills (intraverbal), indicating objects, etc., all
require listener behavior.
Sundberg discusses a distinction between intraverbal and listener responding. “If the
child’s response were verbal, then it would
classified as intraverbal... but if the response
were nonverbal it would be classified as listener behavior (or often termed receptive language or receptive labeling)” (Sundberg, 2008,
pp. 11-12).
There are multiple protocols for receptive language training (cf., Fabrizio & Moors, 2001;
Leaf & McEachin, 1999; Lovaas, 2003; Maurice, Green, & Luce, 1996). In a review of
teaching receptive language to children with
autism, Pelios and Sucharzewski (2004) point
out that one must consider antecedent manipulations (e.g., within-stimulus prompts, keeping stimulus short, using topographically dissimilar responses) and consequence manipulations (e.g., rich reinforcement schedules, token economies, performance based breaks).
Also, they recommend systematically programming specific antecedent and consequence manipulations and requiring specific
response requirements.
Examples:
•

A teacher conducting receptive language training tells her student “sit

•

down” the student sits down and the
teacher praises the student. The
teacher then says “clap hands” the
student claps hands and the teacher
praises the student.
A teacher presents an array of fruit
and says to the student, “give me the
apple.” The student gives the teacher
the apple and the teacher gives the
student a token.

Assessment:
•

•

Have supervisee read relevant literature on receptive language/listener
training.
Role play with your supervisee
teacher (speaker) and student (listener) examples of receptive language training protocols.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Fabrizio, M. S. (2001). A Brief Overview of Fluency-Based Instruction for Learners with Autism. Fabrizio/Moors Consulting, Seattle, Washington.
Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management strategies and a
curriculum for intensive behavioral treatment of
autism. New York: DRL Books, LLC.
Lovaas, O. I. (2003). Teaching individuals with developmental delays: Basic intervention techniques. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Maurice C, Green G, Luce S, editors. Behavioral intervention for young children
with autism: A manual for parents and
professionals. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed;
1996.
Pelios, L. V., & Sucharzewski, A. (2004).
Teaching receptive language to children

with autism: A selective overview. The
Behavior Analyst Today, 4(4), 378.
Schlinger, H. D. (2008). Listening Is Behaving
Verbally. The Behavior Analyst, 31(2),
145–161.
Sundberg, M. L. (2008). VB-MAPP Verbal
Behavior Milestones Assessment and
Placement Program: a language and social skills assessment program for chil-

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

dren with autism or other developmental disabilities: guide. Concord, CA:
AVB Press.
Related Lessons:
D-10 Use echoic training.
D-13 Use intraverbal training.
FK-43 Echoics
FK-44 Mands
FK-45 Tacts
FK-46 Intraverbals

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-15 Identify punishers

Definition:
Punisher – “A stimulus change that decreases
the future frequency of behavior that immediately precedes it” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 702).
Punishers can be categorized as unconditioned or conditioned. Unconditioned punishers, or unlearned punishers, are stimuli
whose presentation functions as punishment
without previous pairing with any other punishers. Such punishers consist of stimulation
such as pain, intense odors, visual stimulation,
taste, sound, or extreme temperatures
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Conditioned punishers, or learned punishers, are
stimuli whose presentation has previously
been paired with an unconditioned punisher
or a previously conditioned punisher (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007). For example, if a
person eats yogurt and immediately gags or
vomits, yogurt may become a conditioned
aversive and thereby a conditioned punisher
by decreasing the behavior of eating yogurt
and possibly other food with a similar consistency to yogurt. As the above examples of
conditioned and unconditioned punishers
show, the process of punishment is a naturally
occurring phenomenon that causes behavior
change. However, punishment procedures
can also be an effective means for decreasing
challenging behavior that is life threatening or
resistant to other forms of intervention in an
ethical manner. Iwata (1988) recommends
that behavior analysts view the use of punishers as a default technology to be used when
other interventions have failed.
Regarding the selection of a punisher to use in
an intervention, it is important to note that
punishers are idiosyncratic. A punisher for
one person maybe a reinforcer for someone
else, and perhaps a neutral stimulus to another. For this reason, a punisher assessment
can assist in identifying stimuli that will likely
function as punishers by measuring avoidance

and escape behavior following the presentation with each stimulus (Fisher et al., 1994).
Once potential punishers have been identified
there are some factors to consider when
choosing a stimulus to use in the treatment of
challenging behavior. Research has indicated
that the magnitude, or amount of the punisher, should be delivered at the optimum
level at the outset of the intervention (Azrin
& Holz, 1966; Thompson et al., 1999). Furthermore, in keeping with ethical considerations the selection of the least intrusive punisher(s) is recommended. Typically intrusiveness is outlined by hierarchically arranging interventions according to the degree to which
the intervention limits individual freedom, intrudes into the child’s life, or produces discomfort, pain, or distress (Luiselli, 2008). Pairing procedures may be beneficial in assisting
with the identification of less intrusive punishers by establishing less intrusive conditioned
punishers (Vorndran & Lerman, 2006).
Lastly, it should be noted that Lerman and
Vorndran (2002) highlighted the need for further basic and applied research on punishment due to a need for identifying strategies
to enhance the effectiveness of least intrusive
punishment procedures.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to give examples of
an unconditioned punisher
• Ask supervisee to give examples of a
conditioned punisher
• Ask supervisee to identify ethical
considerations regarding the use of
punishment and selecting punishers
• Ask supervisee to list the characteristics that should be considered
when selecting a punisher
Relevant Literature:
Azrin, N. H., & Holz, W. C. (1966). Punishment. Operant behavior: Areas of research
and application, 380-447.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., BowMAN, L. G.,
Kurtz, P. F., Sherer, M. R., & Lachman,
S. R. (1994). A preliminary evaluation of
empirically derived consequences for
the treatment of pica. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 27(3), 447-457.
Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and
adoption of controversial default technologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 149.
Lerman, D. C., & Vorndran, C. M. (2002). On
the status of knowledge for using punishment: Implications for treating behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(4), 431-464.
Luiselli, J. K. (Ed.). (2008). Effective practices for
children with autism: Educational and behavior support interventions that work. Oxford
University Press.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

Thompson, R. H., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &
Roscoe, E. M. (1999). Effects of reinforcement for alternative behavior during punishment of self-injury. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(3), 317.
Vorndran, C. M., & Lerman, D. C. (2006). Establishing and maintaining treatment effects with less intrusive consequences
via a pairing procedure. Journal of applied
behavior analysis, 39(1), 35-48.
Related Lessons:
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment.
J-02 Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.
FK-19 Unconditioned punishment
FK-20 Conditioned punishment
FK-21 Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-23 Automatic reinforcement and punishment

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment

Definitions:
Punishment - "Occurs when stimulus
change immediately follows a response
and decreases the future frequency of that
type of behavior in similar conditions”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 702).
Positive Punishment: "A behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a
stimulus that decreases the future frequency
of the behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 701).*
Example: Albert is learning to drive. Albert
drives fast and speeds along the highway. His
mother provides a firm reprimand directly following the speeding. Albert no longer speeds
when his mother is in the car.
Negative Punishment -"A…behavior is followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of the stimulus), that decreases the future frequency of
similar responses under similar conditions"
(Cooper Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 700). *
Example: Albert is learning to drive. Albert
drives fast and speeds along the highway. His
mother removes Albert’s driving privilege for
a week following the speeding. Albert no
longer speeds.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee what the behavioral
process behind “time-out” is.
• Ask your supervisee to create an example
of both positive and negative punishment
• Ask supervisee to explain the difference
between negative reinforcement and negative punishment
• Have the supervisee provide labels in the
boxes
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior
Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor &
Francis.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Foxx, R. M. (1982). Decreasing behaviors of severely
retarded and autistic persons. Champaign, IL:
Research Press.
Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J. E.,
Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas, O. I.
(1988). The right to effective behavioral
treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21(4), 381-384.

Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditioned reinforcers and punishers
G-07 Practice within one's limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased
FK-19 Unconditioned punishment
FK 20 Conditioned punishment
Footnotes:
Alternatively Fox (1982) described positive
and negative punishment as Type I punishment (contingent stimulation) and Type II
punishment (contingent withdrawal of a stimulus).
An emphasis on the ethical considerations of
using punishment should be introduced when
punishment is first discussed.

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and
schedules of punishment
Definitions:
Punishment - "Occurs when stimulus
change immediately follows a response and
decreases the future frequency of that type of
behavior in similar conditions" (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 702).*
Legislation and agency policies limit the use of
punishment. Lerman and Vorndran (2002)
suggested that punishment may be considered
if:
1. The challenging behavior produces
serious physical harm and has to be
suppressed quickly
2. Reinforcement based treatments
have not reduced the problem behavior to socially acceptable levels or
3. The reinforcer maintaining the challenging behavior cannot be identified or withheld
BACB Labels specific considerations regarding punishment in the ethical guideline 4.08:
4.08 Considerations Regarding Punishment Procedures:
(a) Behavior analysts recommend reinforcement rather than punishment whenever
possible.
(b) If punishment procedures are necessary, behavior analysts always include reinforcement procedures for alternative behavior
in the behavior-change program.
(c) Before implementing punishmentbased procedures, behavior analysts ensure
that appropriate steps
have been taken to implement reinforcementbased procedures unless the severity or dangerousness of the behavior necessitates immediate use of aversive procedures.
(d) Behavior analysts ensure that aversive procedures are accompanied by an increased level
of training, supervision, and oversight. Behavior analysts must evaluate the effectiveness of
aversive procedures in a timely manner and
modify the behavior-change program if it is
ineffective. Behavior analysts always include a

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

plan to discontinue the use of aversive procedures when no longer needed. (BACB, 2014,
pp.12-13)
Ethical Considerations Related to Punishment as outlined by Cooper, Heron, and
Heward (2007):
1. The right to safe and humane treatment
2. Least restrictive alternative
3. Right to effective treatment
Appropriate Use of Punishment as outlined
by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007):
1. Conduct a functional assessment
2. Attempt reinforcement based strategies (behavior as above does not
reach socially acceptable levels)
3. Conduct punisher assessment
4. Ensure informed consent is given
5. Include reinforcement based strategies with punishment procedures
6. Ensure all staff are trained in the
procedure and monitored closely
7. Use punishers of sufficient quality
and magnitude
8. Use varied punishers
9. Deliver punisher at the beginning of
a behavioral sequence
10. Punish each instance of the behavior
Initially
11. Shift to intermittent schedule gradually
12. If delay in punishment use mediation
13. Supplement punishment with complementary interventions
14. Be prepared for negative side effects
15. Collect data, graph and evaluate daily
16. Discontinue procedure if a decrease
in behavior is not observed
Assessment:
• Provide scenarios in which clients
would not qualify for a punishment
procedure (e.g., behavior does not

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•
•
•

•

cause physical harm, reinforcement
based strategies have not been attempted, or consent was not obtained.)
Ask Supervisee to list the four considerations the BACB lists when
considering punishment
Ask the Supervisee to list the side effects of punishment
Ask the Supervisee to outline the
recommendation for a client who
had been receiving a punishment
procedure for 2 months and head
hitting remained consistent at 10
times a day. (should discontinue)
Have the supervisee list all of the
things that must happen prior to a
punishment procedure beginning
(functional assessment, reinforcement based program ineffective,
consent obtained, staff trained)

Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd
Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Foxx, R. M. (1982). Decreasing behaviors of severely
retarded and autistic persons. Champaign,
IL: Research Press.
Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J.
E., Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas,
O. I. (1988). The right to effective behavioral treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21(4), 381-384.

Lerman, D. C., & Vorndran, C. M. (2002). On
the status of knowledge for using punishment: Implications for treating behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(4), 431-464.
Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and
adoption of controversial default technologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 149.
Related Lessons:
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment
D-15 Identify punishers
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditional reinforcers and punishers
G-07 Practice within one's limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased
FK-19 Unconditioned punishment
FK 20 Conditioned punishment
FK 21 Schedules of reinforceement and punishment
FK 38 Behavioral contrast
Footnotes
• Positive punishment may also be described as a type of aversive control.
Negative side effects include: emotional or aggressive reactions, behavioral contrast, escape and avoidance
of the punisher, modeling of inappropriate behavior and the overuse
associated with negative reinforcement of the person presenting the
punisher (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007)

D-18 Use Extinction
Extinction “involves eliminating the reinforcement contingency maintaining a response” and has “been used successfully to reduce the frequency of a variety of behavioral
disorders” (Lerman & Iwata, 1995, p. 93). To
use it effectively, determine the reinforcer and
prevent the behavior from contacting reinforcement. Extinction occurs when the behavior no longer produces reinforcement
such as:
• Social Positive
• Social Negative
• Automatic reinforcement
Extinction may have unwanted side effects:
1. Extinction bursts
2. Initial increases in target behavior as
the individual engages in an increased
rate of behavior to access previous reinforcers
3. Extinction-induced aggression
4. Increased unwanted novel behavior
To use extinction effectively, withhold all
reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior
and provide frequent opportunities for the individual’s behavior to contact new reinforcement contingencies (e.g. problem behavior no
longer produces reinforcement while replacement behavior produces does produce reinforcement). It may not work if the client aggresses for attention (e.g., response blocking
may reinforce aggression).
Extinction is not advised in environments
where peers are likely to imitate problem behaviors (e.g., classroom settings). Use of extinction for severe aggression or self-injury
behaviors may result in harm to client or
peers. Extinction is not selected to manage severely disruptive high-frequency behavior.
Do not use extinction as a singular intervention. Unwanted effects of extinction are
reduced when coupled with differential reinforcement strategies (Athens & Vollmer,
2010).

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101

Example:
Teach client to raise hand for attention (differential reinforcement strategy) while putting
spitting for attention on extinction. Give client access to previous reinforcers to minimize
aversive effects of extinction.
Assessment:
• Provide hypothetical scenarios and have
supervisee determine what type of extinction procedure should be utilized
and what appropriate replacement behavior should be reinforced.
• Have supervisee explain 3 scenarios in
which extinction should not be utilized.
• Have supervisee describe additional
treatment components which can increase the efficacy of treatment.
Relevant Literature:
Lerman, D.C., & Iwata, B.A., (1995). Prevalence of the extinction burst and its attenuation during treatment. Journal of
Applied Behavioral Analysis, 28(1), 93-94.
Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An investigation of differential reinforcement
of alternative behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis,
43(4), 569-589.
Related Lessons:
C-03 State and plan for unwanted effects of
extinction
D-18. Use Extinction.
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints
J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical
considerations when using experimental designs to demonstrate program effectiveness.
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.

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D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction

A guideline for using extinction effectively is
the simultaneous use of reinforcement procedures. Extinction used alone may result in a
temporary increase in the target behavior
known as extinction burst (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007). Teaching an alternative behavior may decrease the extinction burst effects and other possible side effects such as
aggressive behavior (Lerman, Iwata, & Wallace, 1999). Similarly, several studies have
found that differential reinforcement procedures are most effective when used in conjunction with extinction (e.g., Fisher, Piazza,
Cataldo, Harrell, Jefferson, & Conner, 1993;
Hagopian, Fisher, Sullivan, Acquisto, & LeBlanc, 1998; Piazza, Patel, Gulotta, Sevin, &
Layer, 2002). Using extinction with differential reinforcement ensures that concurrent access to reinforcement for inappropriate behavior is not favored, thereby increasing the
likelihood of allocation to the alternative behavior targeted for increase.
Likewise, punishment procedures are most
effective when used in conjunction with reinforcement-based procedures (Millenson,
1967). The main rationale for use of reinforcement with punishment procedures is that
punishment is considered an intrusive treatment procedure. In addition, punishment procedures do not teach the individual any appropriate skills. Teaching appropriate skills helps
to solve these problems. Reinforcing an alternative behavior makes it more likely that punishment procedures can then be faded out as
the appropriate behavior replaces the inappropriate behavior. A study conducted by Holz,
Azrin and Ayllon (1963) even found that punishment was ineffective without the use of reinforcement contingencies. Several studies
have illustrated the benefits of using reinforcement in conjunction with punishment
procedures (e.g., Fisher et al., 1993; Hagopian
et al., 1998; Thompson, Iwata, Conners, &
Roscoe, 1999).

Assessment:
• Provide the supervisee with articles
from the relevant literature and discuss
the findings and their considerations for
clinical application.
• Ask the supervisee to list the problems
associates with using extinction procedures alone
• Ask supervisee to list the benefits of using reinforcement based procedures
with extinction
• Ask the supervisee to list the problems
associates with using punishment procedures alone
• Ask supervisee to list the benefits of using reinforcement based procedures
with punishment
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Fisher, W., Piazza, C., Cataldo, M., Harrell, R.,
Jefferson, G., & Conner, R. (1993).
Functional communication training
with and without extinction and punishment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
26(1), 23–36.
Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., Sullivan, M.
T., Acquisto, J., & LeBlanc, L. A. (1998).
Effectiveness of functional communication training with and without extinction
and punishment: A summary of 21 inpatient cases. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 31(2), 211-235.
Holz, W. C., Azrin, N. H., & Ayllon, T. (1963).
Elimination of behavior of mental patients by response-produced extinction.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6(3), 407.
Lerman, D. C., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.
(1999). Side effects of extinction: prevalence of bursting and aggression during
the treatment of self-injurious behavior.
Journal of applied behavior analysis, 32(1), 1-8.

Millenson, J. R., & Leslie, J. C. (1967). Principles
of behavioral analysis (pp. 43-44). New
York: Macmillan.
Piazza, C. C., Patel, M. R., Gulotta, C. S., Sevin, B. M., & Layer, S. A. (2002). On the
relative contributions of positive reinforcement and escape extinction in the
treatment of food refusal. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 36(3), 309-324.
Thompson, R. H., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &
Roscoe, E. M. (1999). Effects of reinforcement for alternative behavior during punishment of self-injury. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(3), 317.
Related Lessons:
B-10 Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package.
C-01 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of reinforcement.
C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of punishment.
C-03 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of extinction.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

103

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-15 Identify punishers.
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment.
D-18 Use extinction.
D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)
schedules of reinforcement (i.e., noncontingent reinforcement).
D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH).
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.
J-02 Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.

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D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)
schedules of reinforcement (i.e., non-contingent reinforcement)
Definition:
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) – “A procedure in which stimuli with known reinforcing
properties are presented on fixed-time (FT) or variable time (VT) schedules completely independent
of behavior; often used as an antecedent intervention to reduce problem behavior” (Cooper, Heron
& Heward, 2007, p. 700).

Noncontingent reinforcement is sometimes used in
applied research in an experimental design called
the NCR reversal technique. This design involves a
baseline phase, NCR phase (where a potential reinforcer is delivered on a fixed or variable time schedule independent of the target behavior), and a
phase where the reinforcer is delivered contingent
on a set behavioral criteria. The phases are repeated
as necessary to indicate experimental control over
the dependent variable. The NCR and baseline
conditions function as a comparative measure to
validate the independent variable in these studies.
Differential reinforcement procedures may limit
access to reinforcement if appropriate behavior occurs at low rates. NCR gives consistent access to
reinforcement.
Example:
A DRO program was trialed for 3 weeks to decrease
Jimmy’s verbal protesting during group activities. Based on
data collected, the DRO program was deemed ineffective for
decreasing Jimmy’s verbal protesting. Mr. Jones took data
and found that Jimmy could quietly engage in group activities
for 3 minutes before starting to protest. Mr. Jones decided to
implement a 2 minute NCR program in which he would give
Jimmy a sticker every 2 minutes regardless of the presence of
interfering behaviors.
Non- Example:
Mr. Michael was concerned with Barry’s aggressive behavior
during group activities. He decided to give him a sticker for
every 2 minutes that he did not engage in aggressive behavior.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee create an NCR program and
explain procedures to other supervisees.

•

Have Supervisee identify the difference between differential reinforcement and noncontingent reinforcement and give examples of
both.
Have supervisee give examples of NCR used
in his/her professional and nonprofessional
life.

Relevant Literature:
Cautela, J. R. (1984). General level of reinforcement. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 15, 109-114.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., & Legacy, S. M.
(1994). Schedule effects of noncontingent
reinforcement on attention-maintained destructive behavior in identical quadruplets.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 317325.
Ingvarsson, E.T., Kahng, S., Hausman, N.L.
(2008). Some effects of noncontingent positive reinforcement on multiply controlled
Problem behavior and compliance in a demand context. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis. 41, 3, 435-440.
Wilder, D. A., Normand, M., & Atwell, J.
(2005). Noncontingent reinforcement as
treatment for food refusal and associated
self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
38, 549-553.
Related Lessons:
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs.
C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects of
reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g., DRO,
DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
Definitions:
Differential Reinforcement - “Reinforcing
only those responses within a response class
that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) (i.e., frequency, topography, duration, latency or magnitude) and placing all
other behaviors in the class on extinction”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 693).
Five common variations of differential reinforcement are:
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) is a procedure that provides reinforcement for the absence of problem behavior during a period of time (interval) or at a
specific time (momentary) (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Differential reinforcement of alternative
behavior (DRA) is the reinforcement of a response that is an appropriate alternative to
problem behavior (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) is the reinforcement of a
response that is physically incompatible with
the target problem behavior (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007).
Differential reinforcement of high rates
(DRH) is reinforcement contingent upon a
behavior occurring at a set high rate used to
increase the overall rate of a behavior
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Differential reinforcement of low rates of
behavior (DRL) is reinforcement contingent
upon behavior occurring at a set reduced rate
used to decrease the overall rate of a behavior
but not to eliminate it completely (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007).

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105

Examples:
• DRO: Providing a toy following the absence of inappropriate vocalizations for
5 minutes which decreases inappropriate vocalizations.
• DRA: Providing a break for handing
over a break card which increases the
use of the break card in the future.
• DRI: Providing social attention for having hands in their own pant pockets
which subsequently decreases scratching at caregivers hands.
• DRH: A student typically only completes one math worksheet per class period. Providing a break with a preferred
item contingent on finishing three math
worksheets, which increases the number
of worksheets completed by a student.
The student only gets the preferred item
when they complete three worksheets.
• DRL: Providing attention when a student says “excuse me” 2 times every 10
minutes and not providing attention if
the behavior occurs more frequently
within that 10 minute period which
maintains low rates of the behavior
Assessment:
• Provide the supervisee with several target behaviors and their respective function. Have him/her select which differential reinforcement procedure(s)
would be the most appropriate for each
and why. Review it and provide feedback.
• Have the supervisee describe the benefits of each differential reinforcement
procedure.
• Have the supervisee list the conditions
in which the use of each variation would
not be desirable.
• Provide supervisee with an article from
the relevant literature regarding DRA or
DRI and discuss the alternative or in-

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compatible behavior the authors selected. In addition, ask them to come up
with other alternative or incompatible
behaviors which could have been used
in the study.
• Provide supervisee with an article from
the relevant literature and discuss if the
reinforcer selected by the authors is
functional or arbitrary. In addition, ask
the supervisee to come up with other
putative reinforcers which the study
could have used. Finally, discuss the
pros and cons of using an arbitrary reinforcer and functional reinforcers.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Cowdery, G. E. (1990). Effects and Side Effects of DRO as Treatment for Self-Injurious Behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23(4), 497-506.
Deitz, S. M. (1977). An analysis of programming DRL schedules in educational settings. Behaviour Research and Therapy,
15(1), 103-111.
Deitz, D. E., & Repp, A. C. (1983). Reducing
Behavior through Reinforcement. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 3(4), 34-46.
Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & Thompson, R.
H. (2001). Reinforcement schedule thinning following treatment with functional communication training. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(1), 17-38.
Kahng, S. W., Abt, K. A., & Schonbachler, H.
E. (2001). Assessment and treatment of
low-rate high-intensity problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
34(2), 225.
Lalli, J. S., Casey, S., & Kates, K. (1995). Reducing escape behavior and increasing
task completion with functional communication training, extinction and response chaining. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3), 261-268.
Lindberg, J. S., Iwata, B. A., Kahng, S., &
DeLeon, I. G. (1998). DRO contingencies: an analysis of variable-momentary

schedules. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 32(2), 123-35.
Mazaleski, J. L. (1993). Analysis of the Reinforcement and Extinction Components
in DRO Contingencies with Self-Injury.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(2),
143-56.
Petscher, E. S., Rey, C., & Bailey, J. S. (2009).
A review of empirical support for differential reinforcement of alternative behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(3), 409-425.
Rehfeldt, R. A., & Chambers, M. R. (2003).
Functional analysis and treatment of
verbal perseverations displayed by an
adult with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(2), 259-261.
Seys, D. M., & Duker, P. C. (1978). Improving
residential care for the retarded by differential reinforcement of high rates of
ward-staff behaviour. Behavioural Analysis and Modification, 2, 203-210.
Vollmer, T. R., & Iwata, B. A. (1992). Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: Procedural and functional variations. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 13(4), 393-417.
Vollmer, T. R., Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E.,
& Marcus, B. A. (1999). Evaluating
treatment challenges with differential reinforcement of alternative behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(1),
9-23.

Related Lessons:
C-01 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of reinforcement.
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
F-07 Use functional communication training.
I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.
J-02 Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating
operations and discriminative stimuli
While it is commonly known that behaviors
are maintained by consequences, including antecedent interventions within an individual’s
treatment package can often expedite positive
behavioral change and mitigate negative effects of consequent strategies (e.g. extinction
bursts). Some antecedent strategies include
motivating operations, discriminative stimuli,
non-contingent reinforcement and usage of
high probability request sequences.
Michael (1982, p. 149) describes motivating
operations as “a stimulus change which, (1)
given the momentary effectiveness of some
particular type of reinforcement (2) increases
the frequency of a particular type of response
(3) because that stimulus change has been correlated with an increase in the frequency with
which that type of response has been followed
by that type of reinforcement.”
Skinner first explored this concept, describing
deprivation and satiation to be motivating variables that govern behavior. Simply put, reinforcers obtain most of their reinforcing value
depending on the individual’s drive to obtain
that reinforcer, which is a direct result of deprivation-satiation contingencies. The motivating operation for one’s behavior that has run
three miles in the heat is to quench their thirst
increasing the value of water as a reinforcer.
Having no money to put into a vending machine to get a bottle of water is the motivating
operation to ask friends for loose change.
Similarly, after the person drinks an entire bottle of water, water may no longer function as
a reinforcer. Behavior analysts can thereby affect behavioral change by manipulating motivating operations (e.g. challenging behavior
maintained by escape from non-preferred
tasks may be mitigated by giving the individual
frequent breaks).

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107

Another antecedent strategy is effectively programming for discriminative stimuli. Skinner
claimed that virtually all operant behavior falls
under stimulus control, asserting that ‘‘if all
behavior were equally likely to occur on all occasions, the result would be chaotic’’ (Skinner,
1953, p. 108). It is therefore important for individuals to learn to discriminate between
conditions in which specific responses will be
reinforced and when these responses will not.
Discriminative stimuli evoke behavior because they have been correlated with increased probability of accessing a reinforcer.
For instance, teaching a student to mand for a
break can be problematic if the student mands
for a break continuously throughout the day,
thereby yielding very little on-task behavior.
However, this can be possibly remedied by the
availability of a break is represented by the
presence of a break icon (e.g. break icon is the
discriminative stimulus, signaling that if the
student asks for a break, a break will be
granted).
Other antecedent strategies include usage of
non-contingent reinforcement and usage of
high-probability request sequences. Non-contingent reinforcement is “an antecedent intervention in which stimuli with known reinforcing properties are delivered on a fixed-time or
variable-time schedule independent of the
learner’s behavior” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, p. 489). This operates on the
principle of motivating operations. By satiating an individual with wants/needs, the individual is no longer motivated to engage in responses that used to generate that want/need
(e.g. giving attention to a student every five
minutes may abolish attention as a reinforcer,
thereby reducing the need to engage in inappropriate attention-seeking behavior).

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Assessment:
• Have your supervisee list and describe applicable antecedent interventions.
• In a clinical setting or during roleplay, have your supervisee describe
what motivating operations may be
affecting the client’s behavior.
• Describe a scenario and have the supervisee lists some potential antecedent strategies that can be used
and have them describe why they
chose these strategies.

Relevant Literature:
Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between
discriminative and motivational functions of stimuli. Journal of Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 37(1), 149-155.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.
New York: Macmillan.
Smith, R.G. & Iwata, B.A. (1997). Antecedent
influences on behavior disorders. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(2), 343375.
Related Lessons:
E-09: Arrange high probability request sequences
FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations
FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative stimulus and the motivating operation

E-02 Use discrimination training procedures
Discrimination training procedures involve “reinforcing or punishing a response in the presence of one stimulus and extinguishing it or allowing it to recover in the presence of another
stimulus” (Malott &Trojan Suarez, 2004, p. 485).
There are typically two competing contingencies
when discrimination training occurs. The first
contingency involves an S-delta (i.e., signals that
a specified response will not be reinforced or
punished when in the presence of a specified
stimulus). The second contingency involves a
discriminative stimulus (i.e., signals that a specified response will be reinforced in the presence
of a specific stimulus condition). When discrimination training occurs, a specified response will
no longer be reinforced in the presence of an Sdelta, however, that same response will be reinforced in the presence of a discriminative stimulus. The goal of discrimination training is to reinforce responses in certain stimulus conditions
so that they occur more frequently when those
stimulus conditions are present and over time,
the response will no longer occur in the presence
of the S-delta. When discrimination training is
successful, the learner can discriminate which
antecedent stimulus conditions will result in
greater reinforcement for a given response.
Example:
Discrimination training can be used to teach an
individual appropriate times to take breaks,
when or where it is acceptable to engage in selfstimulatory behaviors, what items in the kitchen
can be accessed without asking for permission,
and so on. Discrimination training procedures
are evident in basic instructional lessons such as
teaching a child to identify colors to seemingly
natural situations such as only scheduling clients
on days allowed by funding sources because this
results in you being paid for your services.
Carl’s teacher determines attention is reinforcing
his speaking out in class. Carl’s teacher teaches
Carl to ask questions when there is a green card
present on the board, and not to ask questions
when there is a red card on the board. She does
this by only delivering attention to Carl when the

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green card is present on the board, and ignoring
Carl when the red card is present.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to provide examples of
how discrimination procedures can be
used with a specific client or to teach a
specific skill.
• Ask supervisee to clearly operationalize the S-delta and discriminative stimulus contingencies that will be utilized
during a specific discrimination training procedure.
• Observe supervisee describe discrimination procedures to a client, colleague, etc.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Stimulus Control. Applied Behavior
Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).
Discrimination. Principles of Behavior (pp.
206-225). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Taylor-Santa, C., Sidener, T. M., Carr, J. E., &
Reeve, K. F. (2014). A discrimination
training procedure to establish conditioned reinforcers for children with autism. Behavioral Intervention, 29, 157-176.
Related Lessons:
D-08 Use discrete-trial and free-operant arrangements
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation
of antecedents, such as motivating operations
and discriminative stimuli
E-03 Use instructions and rules
E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures
J-11 Program for stimulus and response generalization
FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-25 Multiple functions of a single stimulus
FK-35 Stimulus discrimination

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E-03 Use instructions and rules

Rules are descriptions of behavioral contingencies (e.g., “Putting a sweater on when it is
cold outside will help you stay warm”). When
rules are followed, behavior can come under
the control of delayed or indirect consequences therefore resulting in rule-governed
behavior. Malott and Trojan-Suarez (2004)
suggest that all instructions involve rules. For
example, incomplete rules (e.g., “Stop it”)
provide minimal instruction (e.g., stop) and
imply an outcome (e.g., you might get in trouble). It is argued that rules function as reinforcement-based or punishment-based discriminative stimuli (Malott & Trojan-Suarez,
2004). Skinner (1969) referred to rules, instructions, advice, and laws as contingency𝑆𝑆 𝐷𝐷 : 𝑅𝑅 →
specifying
stimuli, describing the
𝑟𝑟
𝑆𝑆
relations of everyday life.
Evidence that behavior is the result of instructional control or rule following is provided if:
(1) there is no obvious or immediate consequence of the behavior; (2) the delivery of the
consequence following the behavior exceeds
30 seconds; (3) behavior changes without reinforcement; (4) a substantial increase in the
rate of behavior occurs following one instance
of direct contact with reinforcement; and (5)
the rule exists but no consequence (including
automatic reinforcement) exists following the
behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to discriminate between direct-acting contingencies
and rule-governed behavior.
• Ask supervisee to provide examples
of rules.
• Ask supervisee to identify rules that
may be governing a client’s behavior.

•

If a rule exists, ask supervisee to describe how a direct-acting contingency can be used instead and vice
versa.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Positive reinforcement. Applied
Behavior Analysis (pp. 256-290). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hayes, S. C. (2004). Rule-Governed Behavior: Cognition, Contingencies & Instructional Control.
Oakland, CA: Context Press.
Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).
Analogs to reinforcement and avoidance part 1. Principles of Behavior (pp. 377393). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).
Analogs to reinforcement and avoidance part 2. Principles of Behavior (pp. 394409). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Centrury-Crofts.
Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the
behavior of those responsible for carrying out
behavior-change procedures and design interventions accordingly.
FK-30 distinguish between motivating operation and reinforcement effects
FK-31 behavioral contingencies
FK-33 functional relations
FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior
FK-42 rule-governed behavior

E-04 Use Contingency Contracting
Definition:
Contingency contract - “…also called a behavioral contract, is a document that specifies
a contingent relationship between the completion of a specified behavior and access to, or
delivery of, a specified reward such as free
time, a letter grade or access to a preferred activity” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.
551).
Contingency contracts have several components:
• Outlines the task to be completed- includes an objective definition of the task,
who must complete the task and when
the task must be completed.
• Specifies the reward contingent on task
completion- includes description of the
reward, who will deliver the reward, who
will measure, whether the task has been
completed to criterion, and when the reward will be received.
• Outlines how performance will be measured and what data will be taken.
Contingency contracts can be highly effective
if used properly because the individual whose
behavior is to be changed is involved in the
process from the start. Studies have shown
that contingency contracting “…has been
identified as an important step toward selfmanagement of behavior” (Miller & Kelley,
1994, p. 74) because by helping to determine
the parameters of the task and outlining what
and when rewards should be given, reinforcer
assessments have already been identified and
the individual is already motivated to engage
in the target behavior, which can greatly increase compliance. However, Cooper, Heron
and Heward (2007) caution against using contingency contracts with all populations. There

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must be set criteria that the individual must already possess in order for contingency contracts to be effective. The target behavior
must already be in the individual’s repertoire
and the individual must already be able to discriminate when and which environments are
appropriate for the response to occur. Additionally, the individual’s behavior must be able
to “come under the control of the visual or
oral statements (rules) of the contract”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 558).
The individual does not need to be proficient
in reading so long as the contract is adapted
using symbols, icons, photographs, etc. and
the individual thoroughly understands the reinforcement contingency.
Assessment:
• Have the supervisee design a contingency contract.
• Have the supervisee describe each
component of the contract.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Miller, D.L., & Kelley, M.L. (1994). The use
of goal setting and contingency contracting for improving children’s homework performance. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis 27(10), 73-84.
Related Lessons:
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the
behavior of those responsible for carrying out
behavior-change procedures and design the
interventions accordingly
FK-42 Rule-governed behavior

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E-05 Use independent, interdependent,
and dependent group contingencies

The three group contingencies as defined by
Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2007):
“An independent group contingency is an arrangement in which a contingency is presented to all members of a group, but reinforcement is delivered only to those group
members who meet the criterion outlined in
the contingency.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 568)
“An interdependent group contingency is one
in which all members of a group must meet
the criterion of the contingency (individually
and as a group) before any member earns the
reward.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 569)
“Under a dependent group contingency the
reward for the whole group is dependent on
the performance of an individual student or
small group.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 568)
These three contingencies use the principles
of reinforcement to change the behavior of a
group of individuals. They involve “a common consequence (usually, but not necessarily, a reward intended to function as reinforcement) contingent on the behavior of one
member of the group, the behavior of part of
the group, or the behavior of everyone in the
group.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 567)
Examples:
• Independent Group Contingency
o Each student was given a math worksheet and received a special sticker if they
completed the work without engaging in
disruptive behavior. Billy, Johnny, and
Sam finished their work quietly and
earned stickers, but Danny was disruptive and only finished half his worksheet
so he did not earn a sticker.
• Interdependent Group Contingency
o Each student in Mrs. Kelly’s class had
to complete their math worksheets before
they were allowed to go outside for recess.

The students who finished first were allowed to help any of the struggling students. Sam was the last one working
and Roger came over to help him complete his work. Once Sam was finished
the whole class earned recess time.
• Dependent Group Contingency
o At the end of football practice, Mr. Bill
told the team that they could stop running wind sprints if Roger caught a long
pass from the coach. Roger caught that
pass and the team cheered as they went
to shower and practice ended.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify and describe
group contingencies he/she has encountered in his/her professional career.
• Give examples of various contingencies
and ask supervisees to identify which of
the three group contingencies is exhibited
in each example.
• Have supervisee choose a group contingency and create guidelines for a program
to change the behavior of a group using
the designated contingency.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 567-573.
Kamps, D., Howard, W., Heitzman-Powell,
L., Laylin, J., Szoke, C., Petrillo, T., &
Culey, A. (2011). Class-Wide FunctionRelated Intervention Teams: Effects of
Group Contingency Programs in Urban
Classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13, 154-167.
Litow, L. & Pumroy, D. K. (1975). A brief review of classroom group-oriented contingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 8(3), 341-347.

Nevin, A., Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1982).
Effects of group and individual contingencies on academic performance and
social relations of special needs students. Journal of School Psychology. 116, 1,
41-59.
Theodore, L.., Bray, M., Kehle, T., & Jenson,
W. (2001). Randomization of Group
Contingencies and Reinforcers to Reduce Classroom Disruptive Behavior.
Journal of School Psychology. 39, 3, 267-277.

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Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects
of reinforcement.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
E-04: Use contingency contracting
F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned reinforcement systems

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E-06 Use Stimulus Equivalence Procedures

In the field of applied behavior analysis, a number
of procedures have been used to teach new concepts. One of these procedures is known as stimulus equivalence. In 1971, Murray Sidman discovered that a previously untaught, unreinforced stimuli could come under stimulus control through its
pairing with other stimuli which were explicitly
taught (Sidman, 1971). This concept revolutionized
the field as it demonstrated a new way of teaching
that could potentially reduce the amount of time
needed to teach a new class of stimuli. “Behavior
analysts define stimulus equivalence by testing
stimulus-stimulus relations. A positive demonstration of all three behavioral tests (i.e. reflexivity,
symmetry, and transitivity) is necessary to meet the
definition of an equivalence relation among a set of
arbitrary stimuli” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 398).
• Reflexivity describes the action of selecting a
stimulus that is matched to itself in the absence of
training and reinforcement (A=A). For instance an
individual is shown three pictures; a penny, a nickel,
and a dime. When given an identical picture of a
penny, he matches it to the identical picture of a
penny in the array (Sidman, 1994).
• Symmetry describes the reversibility of the sample stimulus and a comparison stimulus (A=B and
B=A). For instance an individual who is taught to
select the picture of a penny (out of an array of 3),
when the word penny is given, would also be able
to choose the comparison spoken word penny
shown the picture of the penny without being previously taught this correlation (Sidman, 1994).
• Transitivity is the most crucial test for demonstrating stimulus equivalence. A third, untrained
relation emerges as a result of being taught the first
two relations. (A=C and C=A) “…emerges as a
product of training two other stimulus-stimulus relations” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 399).
The following equation demonstrates the basic
principals of stimulus equivalence:
1. If A = B, and
2. B = C, then
3. A = C

Sidman and Tailby (1982)

When using stimulus equivalence, decide what relations are to be taught (i.e. spoken word to picture,
picture to written word, drawing to real-life picture,
etc.). Decide which order the conditional relations
are to be taught. Teach the relations A=B and B=C
to mastery criteria. Once mastery criteria are met
for the first two relations, test for reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity using the same criteria. If
the participant demonstrates these relations without having been previously been taught them, they
will have acquired the third relation C=A that
demonstrates the most important test for stimulus
equivalence.
Assessment:
•
Ask the supervisee to explain the concept of
stimulus equivalence.
•
Ask the supervisee to name the three tests that
demonstrate the basic principles of stimulus
equivalence and describe each of these.
•
Ask the supervisee to give examples of some
new concepts that might be taught through
stimulus equivalence
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O., Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson
Sidman, M. (1971) Reading and auditory-visual
equivalences. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, Volume 14(1), 5-13.
Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence Relations and Behavior: A Research Story. Boston: Author’s Cooperative.
Sidman, M. and Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional
Discrimination vs. Matching to Sample: An
Expansion of the Testing Paradigm. Journal
of Experimental Analysis Behavior, 37: 5–22.
Related Lessons:
E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures.
FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-12 stimulus equivalence
FK-13 reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-24 stimulus control
FK-28 transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating
operations
FK-35 stimulus discrimination

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

E-07 Plan for behavioral contrast effects
What is behavioral contrast?
• George Reynolds first presented behavioral contrast in 1961. He defined behavioral contrast as “an increase in the rate of responding in
one component of a multiple schedule when certain changes occur in
the other component” (p. 60).
• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)
state that behavioral contrast “can
occur as a function of a change in reinforcement or punishment density
on one component of a multiple
schedule” (p. 337).
Example of Behavioral Contrast
• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)
give a good example of behavioral
contrast to illustrate the concept;
“…a pigeon pecks a backlit key,
which alternates between blue and
green, reinforcement is delivered on
the same schedule on both keys, and
the bird pecks at approximately the
same rate regardless of the key’s
color.” (p. 337). However, this
changes so that responses on one
component of the schedule are punished, i.e., pecks on the blue key are
punished because reinforcement is
not delivered, but pecks on the other
(green) key continue to produce reinforcement. As a result, rate of responding decreases on the blue key
and rate of responding on the green
key increases, even though no more
reinforcement is delivered from the
green key than before.
Plan for the effects of behavioral contrast
• It is important to consider prior to
beginning an intervention, whether
behavioral contrast may occur as a
result of that planned intervention.
If behavioral contrast is a possibility;
then planning for its occurrence is
crucial.

•

115

Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007,
p. 338) suggest that one way to minimize or completely prevent the contrast effects of punishment is to plan
the intervention so that the consequence is consistently applied to the
target behavior across all relevant
environments and stimulus conditions. All those involved in the client’s life that may be required to deliver the consequence, will need to
be thoroughly trained to ensure its
consistent implementation.
Additionally, reinforcement will
need to be minimized, or where possible, withheld, when the target behavior has occurred. Similarly, training will need to be provided to all
those involved so that the client isn’t
receiving reinforcement when the
target behavior is emitted.

Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to define behavioral contrast.
• Ask your Supervisee to describe
what will happen in this example if
behavioral contrast is in effect:
o A child has been playing with
two musical toys, allocating an
equal amount of time playing
with each toy. One of the musical toys is yellow and one of the
musical toys is red. The red
toy’s battery begins to give out
so that when the child presses
the button, sometimes the music is not produced. However,
the yellow musical toy continues to work well and music is
produced each time the child
pushes the button. What will
happen to the rate of responding for each of the musical toys?
(Answer = the rate of responding on the red musical
toy will decrease and the rate

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of responding on the yellow
toy will increase, even
though there isn’t any additional reinforcement being
produced from the yellow
toy).

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd
ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Fagan, J. W. (1978). Behavioral contrast in infants. Infant behavior and development, 2,
101-112.
Hantula, D. A., & Crowell, C. R. (1994). Behavioral contrast in a two-option analogue task of financial decision making.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27,
607-617.
McSweeney, F. K., & Weatherly, J. N. (1998).
Habituation to the reinforcer may contribute to multiple-schedule behavioral
contrast. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 69, 199-221.
Reynolds, G. S. (1961a). Behavioral contrast.
Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
4, 57 – 71.
Reynolds, G. S. (1963). Some limitations on
behavioral contrast and induction during successive discrimination. Journal of
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 131139.

Tarbox, J., & Parrott Hayes, L. (2005). Verbal
behavior and behavioral contrast in human subjects. The Psychological Record, 55,
419-437.
Weatherly, J. N., Melville, C. L., &
McSweeney, F. K. (1996). Picking, pecking, and pressing: A cross-species
demonstration of behavioral contrast.
The Psychological Record, 46, 351-372.
Weatherly, J. N., King, B. M., Arthur, E. I. L.
(2002). Rats’ level pressing for 1% sucrose and food-pellet reinforcement: In
search of negative behavioral contrast.
The Psychological Record, 52, 507-529.
Related Lessons:
C-02: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of punishment
D-15: Identify punishers
D-16: Use positive and negative punishment
D-17: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment
D19: Use combinations of reinforcement with
punishment and extinction
J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased
K-02: Identify the contingencies governing
the behavior of those responsible for carrying
out behavior-change procedures and design
interventions accordingly
FK-38: Behavioral contrast
FK-40: Matching law

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

E-08 Use the matching law and recognize
factors influencing choice
Definitions:
Matching Law - “When two or more concurrentinterval schedules are available, the relative rate of
response matches (or equals) the relative rate of reinforcement. More generally, the matching law
states that the distribution of behavior between (or
among) alternative sources of reinforcement is
equal to the distribution of reinforcement for these
alternatives” (Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 260).
Choice - “…the emission of one of two or more
alternative and, usually, incompatible responses”
(Catania, 2007, p.431).
Organisms are constantly confronted with making
choices; the allocation of responding is based upon
the probability of reinforcement for that response.
There are also other variables known to effect response allocation such as magnitude of reinforcement, quality of reinforcement, delay to reinforcement, and duration of reinforcement (Baum, 1974).
If a variable that is affecting responding on a particular option cannot be identified, this is known as
bias. An example of bias might be a right-handed
person responding on an option to the right side.
This variable and others are accounted for using
different coefficients in the matching law.
Multiple basic and applied studies with humans and
non-humans have demonstrated that behavior is allocated to response options based on reinforcement schedules available on those options (Baum,
1974; Borrero & Vollmer, 2002; Epling & Pierce,
1983).
There is debate about the status of the matching
law as a convenient description vs. a fundamental
property of behavior (c.f., Catania, 1981; Killeen,
2015, Rachlin, 1971)
Assessment:
• Have supervisee define choice and describe
the matching law.
• Have supervisee describe variables known to
influence response allocation among alternatives.

•

117

Have supervisee set up and conduct an experiment involving concurrent schedules with
different magnitudes/qualities/delays/duration of reinforcement on different options.
Have supervisee use the equation for the
matching law to investigate matching for two
different responses.

Relevant Literature:
Baum, W. M. (1974). On two types of deviation
from the matching law: Bias and undermatching. Journal of the experimental analysis of
behavior, 22(1), 231.
Baum, W. M. (1979). Matching, undermatching,
and overmatching in studies of choice. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 32(2),
269.
Borrero, J. C., & Vollmer, T. R. (2002). An application of the matching law to severe problem
behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
35(1), 13-27.
Catania, A. C. (2007). Learning (Interim. 4ª. Ed.)
USA: Sloan Publishing.
Catania, A. C. (2012). Discussion: The flight from
experimental analysis. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS, 13,
165-176.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (1983). Applied behavior analysis: New directions from the laboratory. The Behavior Analyst, 6(1), 27.
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961). Relative and absolute
strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 4(3), 267.
Killeen, P. R. (2015), The logistics of choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis Behavior.
doi: 10.1002/jeab.156
Pierce, W. D., & Cheney, C. D. (2013). Behavior analysis and learning. (5th ed.) New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Rachlin, H. (1971). On the tautology of the matching law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, 15(2), 249-251.
Related Lessons:
A-14 Design and implement choice measures.

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E-09 Arrange high-probability request sequences

Using a high-probability (high-p) request sequence
involves presenting a series of requests that the individual has a history of following before presenting a target request (low-p). The following is recommended in order to maximize the effectiveness
of the high-p request sequence: (1) tasks/requests
should already be in the learner’s repertoire (i.e., the
skill is considered mastered); (2) high-p requests
should be presented rapidly; (3) the first low-p request should be presented immediately after reinforcement for high-p compliance; and (4) and salient reinforcers should be used for low-p requests
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). It is also recommended to avoid using low-difficulty tasks immediately after a maladaptive behavior that was
triggered by a high-difficulty task (Sailors, Guess,
Rutherford, & Baer, 1968). In the initial stages of
acquisition of a low-p request, increasing the number of high-p requests increases the effectiveness of
the high-p request sequence (Mace, 1996). High-p
request sequences may be helpful in reducing the
reinforcing value of escape from requests and the
maladaptive behaviors that often occur when lowp requests are presented. (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007)
There is a common misconception that the effects
of the high-p sequence are related exclusively to the
repeated delivery of the high-p demands. The
dense schedule of reinforcement is also a necessary
component for this procedure. Zuluaga & Normand (2008) tested the effects of the high-p sequence without reinforcement versus the high-p
sequence with reinforcement. Compliance with
low-p demands increased only when reinforcers
were delivered after the high-p requests.
There are some discussions in the field about
whether the high-p request sequence and behavioral momentum should be considered synonymous. In 1996, Nevin describes his concerns by
suggesting that “translating the terms of the metaphor into the high-p procedure, or indeed any
other application, encounters some uncertainties
and entails a fair amount of speculation; thus, alternative accounts are surely possible” (p.554).

Assessment:
•
Ask supervisee to demonstrate implementing
a high-p request sequence with a client. Supervisor should provide modeling and feedback as necessary.
•
Require that the supervisee reads and summarizes Zululaga & Normand (2008).
•
Ask supervisee to describe why Nevin suggests that the high-p request sequence and behavioral momentum should not be considered synonymous.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Antecedent interventions. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 486-499). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Davis, C. A., & Reichle, J. (1996). Variant and invariant high-probability requests: Increasing
appropriate behaviors in children with emotional-behavioral disorders. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 29, 471-482.
Mace, F. C. (1996). In pursuit of general behavioral
relations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
29, 557-514.
Mace, F. C., & Belfiore, P. (1990). Behavioral momentum in the treatment of escape-motivated stereotypy. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 23(4), 507.
Nevin, J. A. (1996). The Momentum of Compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
29(4), 535–547.
Sailor, W., Guess, D., Rutherford, G., & Baer, D.
M. (1968). Control of tantrum behavior by
operant techniques during experimental verbal training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(3), 237-243.
Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-10 Use the Premack principle.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

E-10 Use the Premack principle
Definition:
The Premack principle - …”a principle of
reinforcement which states that an opportunity to engage in more probable behaviors
(or activities) will reinforce less probable behaviors (or activities).”(Barton, 2013, p. 2345).
“For example, if a child often plays computer
games (more probable) and avoids completing
math problems (less probable), we might allow her to play the computer after (contingent
upon) completing 15 math problems. Prior to
the introduction of the Premack principle,
systems of reinforcement were viewed as the
contingency between a stimulus and behavior.
The Premack principle expanded the existing
reinforcement contingency of stimulus behavior to include contingencies between two behaviors. This principle is often referred to as
‘grandma’s rule’ because grandmothers (or
any caregivers) often apply this principle: ‘you
have to eat your vegetables (less probable) before you can have dessert (more probable)’”
(Barton, 2013, p. 2345).
In education, the Premack principle is the basis for “first/then” strategies. “First/then”
strategies consist of a teacher telling a student
“First X, then Y” with X being a less preferred
activity or task demand and Y being a more
preferred activity contingent on the completion of X.
Premack principles use preferred activities as
reinforcers to help increase engagement in less
preferred activities or demands.
Example:
A father tells his teenage son, “When you have finished
washing the dishes, you can watch TV.”
Assessment:
• Have supervisee give examples of
Premack’s principle in his/her daily life.

•

119

Have supervisee create a role play scenario
in which he/she demonstrates the use of
the Premack principle.
Have supervisee find an article on the use
of the Premack principle, summarize, and
discuss benefits and limitations of use.

Relevant Literature:
Azrin, N. H., Vinas, V., & Ehle, C. T. (2007).
Physical activity as reinforcement for
classroom calmness of ADHD children: A
preliminary study. Child & Family Behavior
Therapy, 29, 2, 1-8.
Barton, E.E. (2013). Premack’s Principle. In Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Volkmar, F.R. (Ed.) (p. 2345) Springer
New York: New York, NY.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice
Hall. 271-273, 277.
Mazur, J.E. (1975). The Matching Law and
Quantifications Related to Premack’s
Principle. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Animal Behavior Processes, 1, 4, 374-386.
Sigafoos, J. (2005). From Premack to PECS: 25
Years of Progress in Communication Intervention for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities. Educational Psychology,
25, 6, 601-607.
Welsh, D.H., Bernstein, D.J., & Luthans, F.
(1992). Application of the Premack Principle of Reinforcement to the Quality Performance of Service Employees. Journal
of Organizational Behavior Management,
13, 1, 9.
Related Lessons:
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules
of reinforcement.
I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.

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E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish
new conditioned reinforcers

•

“Stimulus events or conditions that are present or
that occur just before or simultaneous with the occurrence of other reinforcers (or punishers) may
acquire the ability to reinforce (or punish) behavior
when they later occur on their own as consequences. Called conditioned reinforcers or conditioned punishers, these stimulus changes function
as reinforcers and punishers only because of their
prior pairing with other reinforcers or punishers”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 40).

•

Definition:
Conditioned reinforcer – “…a previously neutral
stimulus change that has acquired the capability to
function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus
pairing with one or more unconditioned or conditioned reinforcers” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 269).
Some common conditioned reinforcers include social praise, tokens, and money because they are often paired with other reinforcers.
Conditioned reinforcers become stronger the more
they are paired with other known reinforcers. For
instance, paper money will likely not function as a
reinforcer until he/she buy toys, candy, and other
things that he enjoys with it. The more the child
uses money to buy items that are appetitive, the
more the paper money becomes a conditioned reinforcer.
The more items the conditioned reinforcer can
“buy”, the less sensitive to motivating operations
they become. This is called generalized conditioned
reinforcement. The more reinforcers that have
been paired with the stimulus, the more generalized
the conditioned reinforcer is.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee create a token economy and
explain how it would be used as a conditioned
reinforcer in their professional setting.

Have supervisee create a list of conditioned
and unconditioned reinforcers and explain the
difference between the two.
Have supervisee explain the concept of a generalized conditioned reinforcer and how this
is different from typical conditioned reinforcers.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 40-41,
269-270.
Williams, B.A. & Fantino, E. (1978). Effects on
choice of reinforcement delay and conditioned reinforcement. Journal of Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 29, 1, 77-86.
Engelmann, S. (1975). Your child can succeed. New
York, NY: Simon and Schuster. (pp. 98-100).
Morse, W.H. & Kelleher, R.T. (1977). Determinants of reinforcement and punishment. In
W.K. Honig & J.E.R. Staddon (Eds.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 174-200). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of reinforcement.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.
F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned
reinforcement systems.
I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments
to identify putative reinforcers.
J-04: Select intervention strategies based on client
preferences.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations
FK-34: Conditional discriminations

E-12 Use Errorless Learning Procedures
Definition:
Errorless learning - an “approach whereby
the task is manipulated to eliminate/reduce
errors. Tasks are executed in such a way that
the subject is unlikely to make errors” (Fillingham, Hodgson, Sage, & Ralph, 2003, p. 339).
Errorless learning techniques include mostto-least prompt fading or stimulus shaping/fading techniques. Prompts are removed
gradually as the individual becomes more
adept with the skill, thereby reducing the likelihood of errors. To apply errorless learning,
behavioral strategies utilized may include: response prevention (e.g. only S+ is presented
allowing for only correct responding or physical guidance is provided with instruction so
incorrect responses are not possible); verbal
prompt fading; modeling; stimulus fading (e.g.
emphasizing a physical dimension of the stimuli to evoke a correct response such as by illuminating the correct selection, S+, and presenting the incorrect selection, S-, in a dimmer
format); or stimulus shaping (e.g. increasing
likelihood of correct responding by gradually
changing the shape of the stimulus to maintain correct responding).
The advantages of errorless learning include
that it removes negative side effects involved
with trial-and-error learning and that it is
proven particularly effective among individuals that suffer from brain damage or have a
developmental disorder. The disadvantages
include cost, time-intensity, and maybe considered less natural than trial-and-error learning (Mueller, Palkovic & Maynard, 2007).
Trial-and-error learning, being presented with
stimuli in which both the correct selection

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(S+) and incorrect selection (S-) are available,
can lead to adverse side effects due to the possibility of incorrect responding and failure to
access reinforcers. Research has shown that
this can result in aggression, negative emotional responses and stimulus overselectivity
(Mueller et al., 2007).
Assessment:
• Have supervisee demonstrate the
difference between trial-and-error
learning and errorless learning on
the job or during role-play.
• Have supervisee describe how and
when prompts will be faded to promote independent responding.
Relevant Literature:
Fillingham, J.K,, Hodgson, C., Sage, K., &
Ralph, M.A. (2003). The application of
errorless learning to aphasic disorders: A
review of theory and practice. Neuropsychological Rehabiliation, 13(3), 337-363.
Mueller, M.M., Palkovic, C.M., & Maynard,
C.S. (2007). Errorless learning: review
and practical application for teaching
children with pervasive developmental
disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7),
691-700.
Terrace, H.S. (1963). Discrimination learning
with and without “errors”. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6(1), 127.
Related Lessons:
D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training
FK-24 Stimulus control

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E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures

Definition:
Matching-to-sample - “A procedure for investigating conditional relations and stimulus
equivalence. A matching-to-sample trial begins with the participant making a response
that presents or reveals the sample stimulus;
next, the sample stimulus may or may not be
removed, and two or more comparison stimuli are presented. The participant then selects
one the comparison stimuli. Responses that
select a comparison stimulus that matches the
sample stimulus are reinforced, and no reinforcement is provided for responses selecting
the nonmatching comparison stimuli”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 699).
Example:
A teacher presents a student with a picture of an apple.
The teacher then lays out three other picture cards away
from the original picture of an apple. One picture card
depicts an apple, the second picture card depicts a banana, and the final picture card depicts an orange. The
teacher holds up the initial picture card depicting an
apple and states, “match”. The student takes the picture of an apple and places it on top of the corresponding picture of an apple. The teacher says, “Great job”
and gives the student a high five.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee create a mock lesson
displaying match-to-sample task. He/she
must create a match-to-sample program,
a data sheet to record responses, and task
materials needed to complete the task.
Have him/her role-play this task scenario
with supervisor. Supervisor will play the
role of the client and supervisee will play
the role of the teacher or therapist.
• Have supervisee create a lesson that
demonstrates stimulus equivalence.

•

He/she must start with match-to-sample
task and then use other topographies of
sample stimulus to display stimulus
equivalence.
Have supervisee describe the match-tosample procedure and stimulus equivalence. Have him/her discuss how matchto-sample procedures can be implemented to test for stimulus equivalence.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 398-401.
Cumming, W.W. & Berryman, R. (1965). The
complex discriminated operant: Studies
of matching-to-sample and related
problems. In D.I. Mostofsky (Ed.), Stimulus Generalization (pp. 284-333). Palo
Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
Fields, L., Garrutto, M., & Watanabe, M.
(2010). Varieties of stimulus control in
matching-to-sample: A kernel analysis.
The Psychological Record, 60, 3-26.
Sidman, M., Wilson-Morris, M., & Kirk, B.
(1986). Matching-to-sample procedures
and the development of equivalence relations: The role of naming. Analysis and
Interventions in Developmental Disabilities, 6,
1, 1-19.
Related Lessons:
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
D-08: Use discrete-trials and free-operant arrangements.
E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.
E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
E-12: Use errorless learning procedures.

F-01 Use self-management strategies
Definition:
Self-management - “…behavior that a person
emits to influence another behavior” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 577).
Skinner (1953) first outlined the idea of selfmanagement with his theories on self-control. He
defined self-control as, “When a man controls himself, chooses a course of action, thinks out the solution to a problem, or strives towards an increase
in self-knowledge, he is behaving. He controls himself precisely as he would control the behavior of
anyone else- through the manipulation of variables
of which behavior is a function” (pp. 228-229).
“All self-control- or self-management- tactics
can be operationalized in terms of two behaviors:
(a) the target behavior a person wants to change
(Skinner’s controlled response) and (b) the selfmanagement behavior (Skinner’s controlling response) emitted to control the target behavior”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 577).
Applications include “helping a person be more
effective and efficient in his daily life, replacing bad
habits with good ones, accomplishing difficult
tasks, and achieving personal goals” (Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 579).
Example:
•
Skipping lunch (controlling behavior) to enjoy
all three courses of your dinner (controlled
behavior).
•
Leaving a bag of garbage near the front door
(controlling behavior) to remind you to take it
to the dumpster next time you leave the house
(controlled behavior).
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee identify and define a personal target behavior they would like to increase or decrease. (i.e., exercising more, eating less, studying more, swearing less, etc…).
•
Have him/her research various self-management studies relevant to the target behavior
they want to decrease.
•
Have supervisee create guidelines and criteria
for their self-management project to be reviewed by supervisor.

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Relevant Literature:
Agran, M. (Ed.) (1997). Self-directed learning: Teaching
self-determination skills. Pacific Grove, CA.
Brooks/Cole.
Baum, W.M. (2005). Understanding behaviorism: Science, behavior, and culture (2nd ed.). Malden,
MA. Blackwell Publishing.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,
576-612, 646, 648-650.
Epstein, R. (1997). Skinner as self-manager. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 545-568.
Kazdin, A.E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied
settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA. Wadsworth.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New
York: MacMillan, pp. 228-240.
Thoreson, C.E., & Mahoney, M.J. (1974). Behavioral
self-control. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Watson, D.L., & Tharp, R.G. (2007). Self-directed behavior: Self-modification for personal adjustment
(9th ed.). Belmont, CA. Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
Related Lessons:
B-03: Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned
reinforcement systems.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors
that must be established, maintained, increased, or
decreased.
J-01: State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an
acceptable alternative behavior to be established or
increased.
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.
FK-20: Conditioned punishment.
FK-31: Behavioral contingencies.

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F-02 Use token economies and other conditioned reinforcement systems

Definition:
Conditioned Reinforcer - “A stimulus change
that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 692).
“Token economies are used as a method of
strengthening a behavior, or increasing its frequency, because the tokens are a way of ‘paying’
children for completing tasks and the children can
then use these tokens to buy desired activities or
items” (Miltenberger, 2008, p. 513).
A token economy uses a conditioned reinforcer,
or token, as currency for a student to exchange for
a backup reinforcer (i.e., tangible items, edibles, activities, etc…) based on earning a certain amount
of tokens for desired target behaviors.
The strength of the token is derived from its being paired with other reinforcers (also referred to
as a backup reinforcer). If the backup reinforcer
loses value due to satiation, the token will subsequently lose its effectiveness.
Miltenberger (2008) listed seven components that
need to be defined before implementing a token
economy. These include: identifying the desired
target behavior to be strengthened, identifying tokens to be used as conditioned reinforcement,
identifying backup reinforcers, outlining a reinforcement schedule for token delivery, identifying
the amount of tokens needed to exchange for reinforcers, identifying the time and place to exchange
tokens, and identifying if a response cost contingency would be necessary for the individual.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee review literature on token
economies and present a brief literature review on the topic. Have him/her identify
strengths and weaknesses of token economies, define any key terms, and discuss future
research directions.
•
Have supervisee develop a token economy
and present this program. Have him/her
identify and create tokens and a token board,
identify a list of backup reinforcers, and create
guidelines on the implementation of this program.

•

Have supervisee define cost response and discuss how it relates to token economies.

Relevant Literature:
Ayllon, T. & Azrin, N. (1968). The Token Economy:
A Motivational System for Therapy and Rehabilitation. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2007). Applied Behaviour Analysis. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.
Foxx, R. (1998). A comprehensive treatment program for inpatient adolescents. Behavioural Interventions, 13, 67-77.
Hackenberg, T. (2009). Token Reinforcement: A
Review and Analysis. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behaviour, 91, 257-286.
Kazdin, A. (1982). The Token Economy: A Decade
Later. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 15,
431-445.
Kazdin, A., & Bootzin, R. (1972). The Token
Economy: An Evaluative Review. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analysis, 5, 343-372.
Malott & Trojan-Suarez, (2006). Principles of Behaviour. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Matson, J. & Boisjoli (2009). The token economy
for children with intellectual disability and/or
autism: A review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30, 240-248.
Miltenberger, R. (2008). Behaviour Modification. Belmont, CA. Wadsworth Publishing.
Tarbox, R., Ghezzi, P., & Wilson G. (2004). The
effects of token reinforcement on attending
in a young child with autism. Behavioural Interventions, 21, 156-164.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of reinforcement.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement with
punishment and extinction.
D-21: Use differential reinforcement
E-04: Use contingency contracting.
E-05: Use independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies.
I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments
to identify putative reinforcers.
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment.
FK-31: Behavioral contingencies.
FK-41: Contingency-shaped behavior

F-03 Use Direct Instruction
Definition:
Direct instruction - a teaching method “…emphasizing the use of specified teacher directions,
programmed instruction and presentation of materials, examples, and prompts, the use of reinforcement and mastery learning principles, regular and
direct assessment, and teaching prerequisite skills.”
(Callahan, Shukla-Mehta, & Wie, 2010, p. 78).
Direct instruction was developed to improve academic skills of elementary school students with
learning challenges. This model of instructional design was proposed by Engelmann and Becker
(Becker, et al., 1975). Direct instruction relies on
scripted lessons implemented by a directly trained
teacher provided to small-group of learners. These
scripted lessons include a lot of examples and nonexamples. Students respond in unison when asked
by a teacher and practice skills in groups until
reaching a mastery level. Students and teachers systematically measure and teachers analyze students’
performance. Those who follow the DI model believe that the learner knows better; that all children
can be taught. If a student fails, this is teacher’s
fault. Additionally, the process of teaching includes
hierarchy of instruction complexity: basic skills
should be taught before advancing to more complex skills.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee define direct instruction.
Have him/her identify and explain the characteristics and methodology associated with
the curriculum.
• Have supervisee identify the differences between direct instruction and other teaching
methodologies.
• Have supervisee list the pros and cons of implementing direct instruction. Have him/her
describe if they would use direct instruction
over other methodologies and curricula and
why.
Relevant Literature:
Callahan, K., Shukla-Mehta, S., MaGee, S., & Wie,
M. (2010). ABA vs. TEACCH: The case for

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defining and validating comprehensive treatment models in autism. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 40, 1, 74-88.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Moran, D.J. & Mallot, R.W. (2004). Evidence Based
Educational Methods. (1st ed.). San Diego, CA:
Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 81-91.
Ledford, J.R., Lane, J.D., Elam, K.L., & Wolery, M.
(2012). Using response-prompting procedures during small group direct-instruction:
Outcomes and procedural variations. American Journal on intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117, 5, 413-434.
Gersten, R., & Keating, T. (1987). Long-term benefits from direct instruction. Educational Leadership, 44, 6, 28-31.
Gersten, R., Keating, T., & Becker, W. (1988). The
continued impact of the direct instruction
model: Longitudinal studies of follow
through students. Education and Treatment of
Children, 11, 4, 318-327.
Gersten, R., Woodward, J., & Darch, C. (1986). Direct instruction: A research-based approach
to curriculum design and teaching. Exceptional
Children, 53, 1, 17-31.
Graves, A. W. (1986). Effects of direct instruction
and meta-comprehension training on finding
main ideas. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 2,
90-100.
Related Lessons:
A-07: Measure trials to criterion.
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
D-08: Use discrete trials and free-operant arrangements.
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
J-12: Program for maintenance.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote
generative learning (i.e., derived learning).

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F-04 Use precision teaching

Precision teaching is a methodology of teaching which involves measuring performance of
a learner and making changes based on these
data. Precision teaching was proposed by Ogden Lindsley in 1964 in an article “Direct
Measurement and Prosthesis of Retarded Behavior”.
There are four steps of precision teaching
process:
1. Pinpoint - means to describe an actual
movement which a learner needs to perform in a specific time interval to show
an improvement on learning behavior.
2. Record - means that a learner or a teacher
collect data on pinpointed behavior regularly and display these data graphically
using the Standard Celeration Chart (the
SCC).
3. Change - means that the teacher analyzes
the data using guidelines of analyzing
the SCC (Graf & Lindsley, 2002) and
quickly makes changes in a current instructional method if needed.
4. Try Again - means that the teacher keeps
exploring the best instructional methods
for those learners who need more help
and provides the learners with the opportunities to practice until the mastery
level.
Precision teaching follows four principles
described by Kubina (2012): “(i) a focus on
observable behavior, (ii) the use of frequency
as data metric, (iii) graphing student performance data on a Standard Celeration Chart,
and (iv) making decisions based on performance data” (As cited in Cooper, Heron,
Heward, 2007, p. 142).
Example:
• A teacher’s objective is to teach a student to say and write an answer when
vocally asked simple math problems
questions. The teacher will record how
many times a student answers correctly

in one minute interval. These data will
be collected over the next several weeks
and progress will be charted using a
Standard Celebration Chart. Decisions
about the teaching procedure will be
made depending on the performance
data.
Non- example:
• A teacher’s objective is to teach students to solve simple math problems.
Percent correct are collected across the
quarter. At the end of the quarter a report card will be sent to the student’s
home.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify the benefits
of adding precision teaching to a curriculum.
• Have supervisee identify and describe
the key features of precision teaching.
• Have supervisee describe the parts of a
Standard Celeration Chart. Have
him/her discuss the benefits of using
this graphic display to track data.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,
139-144.
Cooper, J.O. (2000). Tutoring Joe: Winning
with the precision teaching team. In W.L.
Heward (ed.) Exceptional Children: An introduction to special education (6th ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, 268-270.
Kerr, K.P., Smyth, P., & McDowell, C. (2003).
Precision teaching children with autism:
Helping design effective programmes.

Early Childhood Development and Care, 173,
4, 399-410.
Hughes, J.C., Beverley, M., & Whitehead, J.
(2007). Using precision teaching to increase the fluency of word reading with
problem readers. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 8, 221-238.
Kubina, R. M. (2012). Precision teaching book.
[S.l.]: Greatness Achieved Pub Co.
Kubina, R.M., Morrison, R., & Lee, D.L.
(2002). Benefits of adding precision
teaching to behavioral interventions for
students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 17, 233-246.
Potts, L., Eshleman, J.W., & Cooper, J.O.
(1993). Ogden R. Lindsley and the historical development of precision teaching.
The Behavior Analyst, 2, 16, 177-189.

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Related Lessons:
A-01: Measure frequency (i.e., count)
A-07: Measure trials to criterion.
F-03: Use Direction Instruction
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-02: Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-03: Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
H-05: Evaluate temporal relations between
observed variables (within and between sessions, times series).
J-15: Base decision-making on data displayed
in various formats.
FK-33: Functional relations.

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F-05 Use personalized systems of instruction (PSI)

Personalized system of instruction (PSI) was
created by Fred S. Keller. PSI uses self-paced
modules with study guides to help direct students’ learning. Proctors are used to help students with the material and lectures are not as
common compared to traditional teaching
formats. PSI focuses on self-paced learning by
the student rather than teacher directed instruction. Specific criteria on mastery tests are
required before moving on to the next module. Keller (1968) summarized his writings
from 1967 describing features of this type of
training:
1. The go-at-your-own-pace component
2. The unit-perfection requirement for advancement
3. The use of lectures and demonstrations
sparingly but not for critical information
4. The promotion of written word in teacherstudent communication
5. The use of proctors for repeated testing,
immediate scoring, answering questions, and
personal-social part of the educational process
Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify the key components of personalized Systems of Instruction (PSI).
• Have supervisee provide benefits and
drawbacks for instruction using PSI.
• Have supervisee choose a topic and create a mock PSI curriculum on that topic.
Include modules, competency exams,

and guidelines for other considerations
when using PSI for that topic.
Relevant Literature:
Axelrod, S. (1992). Disseminating an effective
educational technology. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 1, 25, 31-35.
Buskist, W., Cush, D., & DeGrandpre, R. J.
(1991). The life and times of PSI. Journal
of Behavioral Education, 1, 215–234.
Keller, F. S. (1994). The Fred S. Keller School:
CABAS at work. The Current Repertoire, 10,
3–4.
Keller, F. S. (1968). Goodbye, teacher. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 79–89.
Keller, F. S., & Sherman, G. (1982). The PSI
handbook. Lawrence, KS: TRI Publications.
Twyman, J.S. (1992). The Fred S. Keller
School. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
4, 31, 695-701.
Eyre, H.L. (2007) Keller’s personalized system
of instruction: Was it fleeting fancy or is
there a revival on the horizon? The Behavior Analyst, 8, 3, 317-324.
Related Lessons:
F-01: Use self-management strategies.
F-04: Use precision teaching.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).

F-06 Use incidental teaching
Definition:
Incidental teaching - When the “instructor
assesses the child's ongoing interests, follows
the child's lead, restricts access to high interest
items, and constructs a lesson within the natural context, with a presumably more motivated child." (Anderson & Romanczyk, 1999,
p. 169)
Incidental teaching requires an instructor to
use moments in the natural environment as
teaching opportunities. It can be used to teach
language based skills, social skills, play skills,
or other skills as well.
Example:
•

Todd often struggles to initiate play
with his peers during recess. His
teacher decided to go over and
prompt Todd to introduce himself
to Mike and ask him to play a game.

Non-example:
Rich wanted to help teach Todd multiplication, so he gave him a worksheet and sat down
with him to go through the problems one by
one.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee define and describe
incidental teaching.
• Have supervisee describe how they
use incidental teaching at work to
teach various skills.
• Have supervisee describe the pros
and cons of incidental teaching.
Relevant Literature:
Anderson, S. R., & Romancyzk, R. G. (1999).
Early intervention for young children

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

129

with autism: Continuum-based behavioral models. Journal of the Association for
Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 162–173.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,
448, 542, 634.
Hart, B. & Risley, T.R. (1975) Incidental
teaching of language in the preschool.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 4,
411-420.
McGee, G.G., & Daly, T. (2007). Incidental
Teaching of Age-Appropriate Social
Phrases to Children with Autism. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32, 112-123.
McGee, G.G., Morrier, M.J., & Daly, T.
(1999) An Incidental Teaching Approach to Early Intervention for Toddlers with Autism. Research and Practice for
Persons with Severe Disabilities, 24, 133-146.
McGee, G. G., Krantz, P. J., Mason, D., &
McClannahan, L. E. (1983). A modified
incidental-teaching procedure for autistic youth: acquisition and generalization
of receptive object labels. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16(3), 329–338.
Related Lessons:
B-03: Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.
D-05: Use shaping.
D-11: Use mand training.
J-06: Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
FK-44: Mands.

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F-07 Use functional communication training

•
Definition:
Functional communication training (FCT) “…an application of differential reinforcement of
alternative behaviors (DRA) because the intervention develops an alternative communicative response as an antecedent to diminish the problem
behavior” (Fisher, Kuhn, & Thompson, 1998, p.
543).
The alternative response can include vocalizations, sign language, communication boards and
devices, picture cards, or gestures.
Carr and Durand (1985) used a two-step process
to demonstrate how to deliver FCT. First they
completed a functional behavior assessment to
identify the stimuli with known reinforcing properties that maintain the problem behavior, and second, they used those stimuli as reinforcers to develop an alternative behavior to replace the problem behavior.
Guidelines for the effective use of functional
communication training include providing a dense
schedule of reinforcement, fading prompts, and the
appropriate reinforcement schedule thinning after
the response is at strength.
Example:
Rob was throwing books at his teacher every time
he was asked to do a math worksheet. After completing a functional analysis, Rob’s teacher found
throwing books was maintained by access to escape. Rob was taught to ask for a break when he
was doing math instead of throwing something at
his teacher. This response, paired with pre-teaching
and prompt fading, helped replace the problematic
behavior.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee identify the advantages and
disadvantages of functional communication
training.
•
Have supervisee identify some common
guidelines for using FCT.
•
Have supervisee describe instance when
he/she used FCT in a professional setting.

Have supervisee describe how functional behavior assessment (FBA) and differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DRA) relate to the use of FCT.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education, 494-496.
Durand, V.M. (1999). Functional communication
training using assistive devices: Recruiting natural communities of reinforcement. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 247-267.
Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111-126.
Durand, V.M, & Carr, E.G. (1992). An analysis of
maintenance following functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
25, 777-794.
Fisher, W.W., Kuhn, D.E., & Thompson, R.H.
(1998). Establishing discriminative control of
responding using functional and alternative reinforcers during functional communication
training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31,
543-560.
Hanley, G.P., Iwata, B.A., & Thompson, R.H.
(2001). Reinforcement schedule thinning following treatment with functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
34, 17-38.
Related Lessons:
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.
D-05: Use shaping.
D-10: Use echoic training.
D-11: Use mand training.
D-21: Use differential reinforcement
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents
I-03: Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures.
I-04: Design and implement the full range of functional assessment procedures.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

F-08 Use augmentative communication
systems
"A set of procedures and processes by which
an individual’s communication skills (i.e., production as well as comprehension) can be
maximized for functional and effective communication. It involves supplementing or replacing natural speech and/or writing with
aided (e.g. picture communication symbols,
line drawing, Blissymbols, and tangible objects) and/or unaided symbols (e.g. manual
signs, gestures, and finger spelling)” (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association,
2002).
Augmentative communication includes any
modality that supplements a person with difficulties engaging in spoken language. This
can include gestures, sign language, PECS,
electronic devices, picture books, etc…
The use of augmentative communication
should be considered as a way to allow the
user to access reinforcement from the natural
environment. Often functionally equivalent
responses can be taught to replace problematic behavior therefore leading to a decrease in
that behavior (Durand, 1999).
Teaching of functional communication using augmentative communication devices
should be taught using the same strategies to
teach other skills (prompt fading, reinforcement considerations, generalization considerations, etc.)
Augmentative communication systems
should not be confused with the long-discredited “facilitated communication” which is a
pseudoscientific attempt at getting people
with developmental disabilities to communicate.
Example:
• Bill uses pictures to tell his teachers
when he wants.

•

131

Ralph is eating snack and signs “more”
to his teacher after running out of crackers to eat. She gladly hands him more
and praises him for using his words.
Hillary uses an app on a tablet device
that generates speech sounds so others
respond to her.

Non-examples:
- Bill wants more crackers so tells his
teacher, “I want some more, please.” using
spoken word.
- Bill wants more crackers so he hits his fist
on the table and screams. His teacher says,
“oh, you’re still hungry? Here are a few
more crackers”.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee research various augmentative communication systems.
Have him/her choose a system and describe it in detail.
• Have supervisee identify the benefits of
using alternative communication systems for non-vocal-verbal students.
• Have supervisee describe situations
where they would seek the advice of
speech-language professionals for more
information regarding the pros and cons
of each system.
Relevant Literature:
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2002). Augmentative and alternative communication: knowledge and
skills for service delivery [Knowledge
and
Skills].
Available
from
www.asha.org/policy.
Charlop‐Christy, M. H., Carpenter, M., Le, L.,
LeBlanc, L. A., & Kellet, K. (2002). Using the picture exchange communication

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system (PECS) with children with autism: Assessment of PECS acquisition,
speech, social‐communicative behavior,
and problem behavior. Journal of applied
behavior analysis, 35(3), 213-231.
Dattilo, J., & Camarata, S. (1991). Facilitating
conversation through self‐initiated augmentative
communication
treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(2), 369-378.
Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Schwartz, A.
A. (1995). A history of facilitated communication: Science, pseudoscience, and
antiscience science working group on facilitated communication. American Psychologist, 50(9), 750.

Durand, V. M. (1999). Functional communication training using assistive devices: recruiting natural communities of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 32(3), 247.
Mirenda, P., Iacono, T., & Williams, R. (1990).
Communication options for persons
with severe and profound disabilities:
State of the art and future directions. Journal of the Association for Persons
with Severe Handicaps.
Related Lessons:
D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.
D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.
D-05: Use shaping.
F-07: Use functional communication training.

G-01 Review records and available data at
the outset of the case
An important part of understanding the client
you are working with is to take time to review
the treatment history of this individual. There
are records related to a medical history that
would be beneficial to see. This would include
medical procedures, medications, and any current health concerns. It’s also important to get
the history of treatment related to psychological/behavioral intervention as well.
Gresham, Watson, Steuart, & Skinner in
2001 recommend that FBAs should include a
record review to understand more about the
history of the client as well as information regarding previous interventions.
Matson (2010) summarized this position by
saying “The behavior analyst should carefully
review records relating to previous attempts
to change potential target behaviors. Records
indicating previous success with related target
behaviors or a history of limited impact on a
behaviour despite well-planned and faithfully
implemented change programmes may be
useful in selecting change targets which can be
achieved within meaningful timescales” (p.
35).
Assessment:
• Have the supervisee describe where
he/she would go to get access to
these records. Pick a client and have
him/her actually show you where
the information is located.
• Have the supervisee describe the
reasons why it’s important to do a
records review when getting a new
client or starting a new behavioral intervention.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

133

Relevant Literature:
Gresham, F. M., Watson, T. S., Steuart, T., &
Skinner, C. H. (2001). Functional Behavioral Assessment: Principles, Procedures,
and Future Directions. School Psychology Review, 30(2), 156–172.
Matson, J. L. (Ed.). (2010). Applied Behavior
Analysis for Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorders (2009 edition). New York:
Springer.
Related Lessons:
G-01 Review records and available data at the
outset of the case.
G-02 Consider biological/medical variables
that may be affecting the client.
G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of the
client in order to identify the referral problem.
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients.
G-07 Practice within one’s limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary.
I-03 Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures.
I-04 Design and implement the full range of
functional assessment procedures.
K-01 Provide for ongoing documentation of
behavioral services.

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G-02 Consider biological/medical variables that may be affecting the client

The Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) instructs that a “behavior analyst recommends seeking a medical consultation if
there is any reasonable possibility that a referred behavior influenced by medical or biological variables” in section 3.02 Medical
Consultation, of the BACB professional and
ethical compliance code for behavior analysts
(2014)
This is relevant both in research and practice. Therefore, the first step in the assessment
process should be to determine whether the
problem may be due to a medical/biological
issue and whether a medical evaluation has
been completed (Cooper, Heron & Heward,
2007). Failure to rule out medical needs would
be unethical as it would delay potentially necessary medical treatment that may even prove
life threatening dependent on the medical
concerns or the severity of the challenging behavior.
Possible pain related disorders or other
medical/biological disorders that restrict an
individual’s ability to engage in appropriate
behavior should be investigated. Some relevant behavioral topics correlated with a high
likelihood of medical and biological causes are
feeding disorders, toileting challenges (e.g.,
encopresis and incontinence), sleep problems
and self-injury. Take self-injury for example;
studies have shown that self-injurious behavior (SIB) has been maintained by pain attenuation which, can be categorized as automatic
negative reinforcement behavior (Carr &
Smith, 1995; O’Reilly, 1997). In detail, an increase in painful stimulation is an establishing
operation (EO), thereby increasing behavior
that has been reinforced by pain reduction.
Aside from the common examples presented above, it is possible that any form of
challenging behavior could be a result of an
underlying medical or biological issue. For example, aggressive behavior may also be related
to pain related disorders which act as an EO
(Carr et al., 2003; Skinner, 1953). The argu-

ment has also been made that aggressive behavior in response to painful stimulation may
be respondent behavior (Ulrich & Azrin,
1962). Furthermore, Kennedy and Meyer
(1996) found that the occurrence of allergy
symptoms and sleep deprivation were correlated with an increase in escape maintained
challenging behavior.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee what the first part
of assessment should be regarding specific situations that would require collaboration with medical professionals
to rule out any underlying medical issues. Have them give a rationale as to
why this is important.
• Ask the supervisee to list a few possible
medical/biological considerations that
should be ruled out when treating a
feeding disorder, toileting issue or
sleep problem.
• Provide supervisee with examples such
as this one: A student in a school setting is engaging in severe tooth picking
and the classroom teacher is calling you
for advice on what to do. Then ask the
supervisee what the first step of assessment should be to treating this challenging behavior.
Relevant Literature:
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved
from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Carr, E. G., Smith, C. E., Giacin, T. A.,
Whelan, B. M., & Pancari, J. (2003). Menstrual discomfort as a biological setting
event for severe problem behavior: Assessment and intervention. Journal Information, 108(2).

Carr, E. G., & Smith, C. E. (1995). Biological
setting events for self‐injury. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research
Reviews, 1(2), 94-98.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Kennedy, C. H., & Meyer, K. A. (1996). Sleep
deprivation, allergy symptoms, and negatively reinforced problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(1), 133135.
O'Reilly, M. F. (1997). Functional analysis of
episodic self‐injury correlated with recurrent otitis media. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(1), 165-167.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.
Simon and Schuster.

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135

Ulrich, R. E., & Azrin, N. H. (1962). Reflexive
fighting in response to aversive stimulation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, 5(4), 511.
Related Lessons:
G-01Review records and available data at the
outset of the case.
G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of the
client in order to identify the referral problem.
G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients.
G-07 Practice within one’s limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary.
FK-13 Reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-26 Unconditioned motivating operations

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G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of
the client in order to identify the referral
problem

Definition:
Behavioral assessment - “A form of assessment that involves a full range of inquiry
methods (observation, interview, testing, and
the systematic manipulation of antecedent or
consequent variables) to identify probable antecedent and consequent controlling variables. Behavioral assessment is designed to discover resources, assets, significant others,
competing contingencies, maintenance and
generality factors, and possible reinforcers and/or punishers that surround the potential target behavior" (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007, p. 691).
Five Phases of a Behavioral Assessment
Hawkins (1979) described behavioral assessment as being funnel shaped, beginning with
a broad scope and then moving to a narrow
focus.
1. Screening and general disposition
2. Defining and quantifying problems
or goals
3. Pinpointing the target behavior
4. Monitoring progress
5. Follow-up
The preliminary assessment consists of the
first 3 phases of this model. It is the broad
gathering of information needed in order to
pinpoint the target behavior. Once the target behavior is selected, a
formal
functional behavioral assessment is required.
Preliminary Assessment
Assessment Methods*
1. Interviews (client and significant
others)
2. Checklists
3. Standardized Tests
4. Direct Observations
Social Significance
Before selecting a target behavior, it is important to reflect on how important the behavior change is for the client, not to others

around the client. The rational for the behavior change must be critically analyzed. Cooper Heron, and Heward (2007)
suggest the following methods for determining the social significance of the target behavior
• Is the behavior likely to produce reinforcement in the natural environment?
• Is the skill useful?
• Will it increase the individual's access to
new reinforcing environments?
• Will it allow more social interaction?
• Is it a pivotal behavior?
• Is it a behavior cusp?
• Is it age-appropriate?
• If it is a behavior to be eliminated?
• What is the replacement skill?
• Is the identified behavior actually problematic?
• Is this the identified behavior just reports or is it real?
Prioritizing Target Behaviors
If a number of target behaviors are selected
which are socially significant, it is then important to prioritize the target behavior ensuring
dangerous
behavior
is
targeted first. Other guidelines are listed by
Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) as the following:
• Pose a danger to client or others?
• How often does it occur?
• How longstanding is the problem?
• Will changing the behavior produce
higher rates of reinforcement?
• What is the importance related to overall independence?
• Will changing the behavior reduce negative attention?
• Will changing the behavior produce
positive attention?
• How likely is success of changing the
behavior?

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

• How much will it cost to change the behavior?
Defining the Target Behavior
Before beginning, the target behavior must be
objectively and concisely defined in a
clear concrete observable manner.
Setting the Criteria for Behavior Change
Goals must be socially meaningful to the person's life.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee what assessment tools
can be used to do a preliminary assessment.
• Provide examples of targets, which are
and are not socially significant and ask
the supervisee to determine if these behaviors are appropriate target behaviors. Have supervisee explain why.
• Provide a list of five target responses
and have the supervisee prioritize them,
justifying their decisions using the
guidelines provided by Cooper, Heron
and Heward (2007).

137

Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied
behavior analysis:
2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Hawkins, R. P. (1979). The functions of assessment: Implications for selection and
development of
devices for assessing repertoires in clinical,
educational, and other settings. Journal of
Applied
Behavior Analysis, 12(4), 501-516.
Linehan, M. M. (1977). Issues in behavioral
interviewing. Behavioral assessment: New directions in clinical psychology. New York:
Brunner/Mazel.
Houten, R. V. (1979). Social validation: The
evolution of standards of competency
for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12(4), 581-591.
Related Lessons:
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
I-02 Define environmental variables inobservable and measurable terms
J-01 State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms

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G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using
nontechnical language

It is important for a behavior analyst to have
a strong verbal repertoire when speaking
about the science of behavior analysis. Jargon
used in journals, universities, and with other
behavior analysts is valuable to promote effective action on the part of the listener with precise discriminative control.
That being said, Skinner wrote that we
should choose words for the effects they have
on the listener (Skinner, 1957) and unless that
listener has extensive training in behavior
analysis, our use of technical language will
“fall on deaf ears” and not produce effective
action. When speaking with client family
members, friends, or professionals from other
closely related fields, it is important to remember that your verbal behavior is for the benefit
of your audience. Bailey (1991) describes this
phenomenon well:
“In our zeal to be scientific, we have stressed the
need to match the requirements of science in our writing
and publishing. Although this has given us muchneeded academic credibility (faculty can be promoted
and tenured by publishing in JABA) it doesn't help
at all in selling our technology to the masses” (p. 446)
During the supervision process, spend considerable amounts of time, working on precise
definitions for technical terms. This benefits
the supervisee in several ways. It allows
him/her to behave effectively as a listener and
speaker when interacting with other behavior
analysts in the field. It will also promote accurate translations to nontechnical language. If a
precise definition is practiced, a less technical,
more layperson-friendly definition will be easier to describe and it will be more likely to be
accurate.
Assessment:
• Ask Supervisee to give a precise definition of a behavioral term from a textbook. Then ask Supervisee to accurately

•

describe the term in nontechnical language. Work on this for the most commonly used terms. Provide feedback after, when in a supervision meeting.
Observe the Supervisee describing a behavior analytic concept to another person
(client, colleague, etc.) The Supervisee
should be able to answer basic questions
related to the topic using nontechnical
language. Provide feedback after, when in
a supervision meeting.

Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J. S. (1991). Marketing behavior analysis requires different talk. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 445-448.
Lindsley, O. R. (1991). From technical jargon
to plain English for application.Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 449-458.
Malott, R. W. (1992). Should we train applied
behavior analysts to be researchers?. Journal
of applied behavior analysis, 25(1), 83-88.Skinner B.F. Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1957.
Related Lessons:
G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints.
K-01 Provide for ongoing documentation of
behavioral services.
K-03 Design and use competency-based training for persons who are responsible for carrying out behavioral assessment and behaviorchange procedures.
K-08 Establish support for behavior-analytic
services from direct and indirect consumers.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (non-mentalistic) terms
Behavior analysts must have a strong verbal
repertoire when speaking about behavior
analysis. This includes using behavior-analytic
language when describing and explaining behavior, including private events.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism rejected psychological models of behavior that relied on
mentalistic explanations. Mentalistic approaches attributed the origination and cause
of behavior to “inner” dimensions or mental
entities (i.e., hypothetical constructs and explanatory fictions such as the unconscious or
psyche). Mentalistic explanations of behavior
often neglect the consideration and analysis of
controlling variables in the environment and
use circular reasoning to explain the cause and
effect of behavior. Understanding the philosophy of radical behaviorism and the principles
of behavior can assist behavior analysts in explaining behavior in behavior-analytic terms.
For example, you are conducting a functional behavior assessment in a school setting
for a student who engages in high rates of aggression in the classroom. The teacher tells
you that the student’s aggression occurs because the student is frustrated and lives in an
unpleasant environment at home. This is a
mentalistic explanation. After several observations, you have determined that when academic demands are placed, the student engages in aggression and their aggression is reinforced by escape (i.e., academic demands are
removed). This is a behavior-analytic explanation of behavior that accounts for behavior as
it is a function of environmental variables.
Using behavior-analytic language to explain
and describe behavior can be difficult as we
are often exposed to mentalistic explanations
(e.g., “wanting to” or “felt like it” as causes of
behavior). Read Malott and Trojan-Suarez
(2004) for a discussion about circular reasoning and talking about behavior.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

139

Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to explain and describe behavior in behavior-analytic
terms.
• Provide supervisee with examples of
mentalistic explanations of behavior
and ask supervisee to provide behavior-analytic explanations.
• Observe supervisee explain behavior
in behavior-analytic terms to a colleague or client.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Definition and characteristics of
applied behavior analysis. Applied Behavior
Analysis (pp. 1-23). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).
Reinforcement. Principles of Behavior (pp.
28-35). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Moore, J. (2008). Conceptual Foundations of Radical Behaviorism. Cornwall-on-Hudson,
NY: Sloan Publishing.
Related Lessons:
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) explanations of behavior
FK-08 Distinguish between radical and methodological behaviorism.
FK-31 Behavioral contingencies
FK-33 Functional relations
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-02 Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms.

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G-06 Provide behavior analytic services in
collaboration with others who support
and/or provide services to one’s clients

Content area 2.03 (a) (Behavior Analysts’ Responsibility to Clients) of the professional and
ethical compliance code for behavior analysts
states that, “When indicated and professionally
appropriate, behavior analysts cooperate with
other professionals, in a manner that is consistent with the philosophical assumptions and
principles of behavior analysis, in order to effectively and appropriately serve their clients.” In
other words, it is our ethical responsibility to collaborate and communicate with all service providers and other individual stakeholders if it will
best service our clients.
Example:
Mary has been exhibiting aggression during sessions with
her occupational therapist whenever a novel task is presented. The BCBA has come up with a general behavior
support plan for all staff working with Mary to decrease
these behaviors. The plan involves multiple options that
all are relevant to the addressing the function of the aggression. The BCBA sets up a training to discuss and
explain the proper implementation of these intervention
strategies, and get feedback from other service providers
such as the occupational therapist to increase the social
validity of the treatment and increase the likelihood of
treatment fidelity.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify and list all caregivers and professionals who may provide services to the individuals on their case load.
Have supervisee list ways that they can increase communication with these individuals to ensure the most effective interventions and treatment of their clients.
• Have supervisee discuss how to effectively
disseminate intervention information and
train others on behavior analytic techniques, while using non-technical language
that other service providers can comprehend and will be able to implement.
• Discuss behavioral skills training and how
this could be an effective tool to train others in the implementation of behavior analytic procedures.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice
Hall. 641-642, 675-676.
Kelly, A. & Tincani, M. (2013). Collaborative
training and practice among applied behavior analysts who support individuals
with autism spectrum disorder, Education
and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities. 48, 1, 120-131.
Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for
Behavior Analysts. Copyright © 2014 by
the Behavior Analysis Certification
Board®, Inc. (“BACB”), all rights reserved. (Content list items 2.02-2.03).
Related Lessons:
G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.
G-07: Practice within one’s limits of professional
competence in applied behavior analysis, and
obtain consultation, supervision, training, or
make referrals as necessary.
G-08: Identify and make environmental changes
that reduce the need for behavior analysis services.
I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained, increased, or decreased.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).
K-03: Design and use competency-based training for persons who are responsible for carrying
out behavioral assessment and behavior-change
procedures.
K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic
services from direct and indirect consumers.
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural
environments.

G-07 Practice within one's limits of professional competence in applied behavior
analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and training, or make referrals as
necessary
Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to
boundaries of competence in 1.02 of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts:
1.02 Boundaries of Competence.
(a) All behavior analysts provide services,
teach, and conduct research only within the
boundaries of their competence, defined as
being commensurate with their education,
training, and supervised experience.
(b) Behavior analysts provide services, teach,
or conduct research in new areas (e.g., populations, techniques, behaviors) only after first
undertaking appropriate study, training, supervision, and/or consultation from persons
who are competent in those areas… (BACB,
2014, p.4).
Practicing within your area of competence, training and experience
If, for example, a senior therapist working
within an intensive behavior intervention program for preschoolers suddenly began working with adults with phobias then they would
be in violation of this ethical guideline.
Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) go on further to say that even within one's competence
area, if a situation exceeds your training or experience then a referral to another behavior
analyst should be made. If there is a gap in expertise, available then workshops and conferences may be accessed. Mentors, supervisors
and colleagues can provide additional training.
Bailey and Burch (2011) relate this ethical
boundary to the Hippocratic Oath, "Do no
harm". The guideline addresses the responsible conduct of behavior analysts, ensures the
safety of clients, and protects the integrity of
the field.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

141

Assessment:
• Discuss case examples from Bailey and
Burch (2011).
• Have the supervisee come up with five fictitious examples of situations where the
ethical guideline 1.02 was broken and provide creative solutions to the situation.
• Use behavior skills training to teach your
supervisee how to respond to a client asking your supervisee to provide services
within an area in which they had no experience.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance
code for behavior analysts. 2014. Retrieved from www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd
Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J.
E., Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas,
O. I. (1988). The right to effective behavioral treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21(4), 381-384.
Related Lessons:
B-02: Review and interpret articles from the
behavior analytic literature.
G-02: Consider biological/medical variables
that may be affecting the client.
G-06: Provide behavior analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients.
K-08: Establish support for behavior analytic
services from direct and indirect consumers.
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain the client’s behavioral repertoires in their
natural environment.

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G-08 Make environmental changes that
reduce the need for behavior analysis services

“Behavior analysis is a science of studying how we
can arrange our environments so they make very
likely the behaviors we want to be probably
enough, and they make unlikely the behaviors we
want to be improbable” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 15). The behavior analyst assesses
the nature of the fit between an individual and the
environment in which he/she functions using a
three-part contingency (antecedent, behavior, consequences) structure of events. In this process, the
analyst identifies motivating operations associated
with antecedent events and the consequences that
maintain problem behaviors or prevent adequate
development of adaptive behaviors. This information can be used to identify relatively uncomplicated proactive environmental changes that will improve the functioning of the individual. As a result
of the individual’s increased access to positive reinforcement, more intrusive behavior interventions
may be less necessary.
Examples:
•
Parents found it difficult to get their daughter ready for the school bus on time. They
decided they would try giving her time to
shower at night instead of in the morning.
They added showering to her regular
nighttime routine and the daughter not
only got to the school bus on-time but began to go to sleep earlier after the expanded
nighttime routine.
•
A student refused to sit in his seat at school.
An occupational therapist suggested a gel
filled wedge for the student’s chair and the
student not only remained seated in one
class, but chose to use the wedge in all of
his classes.
Assessment:
•
If a student screams and covers his ears
when moderate noises occur in the classroom, what would the supervisee suggest as
the simplest environmental arrangement
that might be considered for that student?
•
A client throws objects at staff and pounds
the wall when they sit and watch the staff’s
favorite television shows at night in the client’s apartment. What might the staff be
told to change at night before the analyst

•

designs a program for reinforcing the client’s appropriate television behavior or
punishing his inappropriate behavior?
If an analyst determines that attention is a
major positive reinforcer for problem behaviors for a client, what would the supervisee consider to be an important consequence to increase following appropriate
behavior?

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
B-02 Review and interpret articles from the behavior-analytic literature.
D-21 Use differential reinforcement
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
E-03 Use instructions and rules.
I-03 Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors
that must be established, maintained, increased, or
decreased.
J-04 Select intervention strategies based on client
preferences.
J-05 Select intervention strategies based on the client’s current repertoires.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints.
J-08 Select intervention strategies based on the social validity of the intervention.
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an
acceptable alternative behavior to be established or
increased.
J-12 Program for maintenance.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the
client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.
FK-05 Parsimony
FK-06 Pragmatism
FK-23 automatic reinforcement and punishment
FK-26 unconditioned motivating operation
FK-33 functional relations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain representative data given the dimensions of the behavior and the logistics of
observing and recording
Assessment and treatment decisions of behavior analysts rely on data. A behavior analyst
can design and implement effective treatments only when the data accurately represent
the behavior of interest (validity) and have
been reliably recorded as they are observed.
To accomplish this goal, behavior analysts
choose behaviors and dimensions of those behaviors to facilitate accurate and consistent recording within a given context for each client.
Behavior analysts measure “three fundamental properties, or dimensional quantities”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 75) of behavior:
• Repeatability--Behavior can be counted
in the same way each time it occurs.
• Temporal extent--Behavior can be
measured in relation to time.
• Temporal locus—Behavior occurs in relation to other behaviors.
First, identify which of these three properties
will provide the most accurate method for
quantifying behavior. Then, decides what dimension of behavior to measure, such as a
count of occurrences, frequency of behavior
per unit of time, duration, latency, or other.
Last, decide who will record the behavior and
in what context. If a preferred measurement
system is unlikely to be effectively implemented, then the analyst has to reconsider
definitions or recording circumstances in order to obtain adequate and accurate data for
decision-making.
Examples:
• A teacher is asked to record the
number of times a student yells out
inappropriate language in class each
day. Since the time the student

•

143

spends in class varies widely during
the week, the behavior analyst designed a measurement system to record rate (number of occurrences divided by time in class) of yelling out
inappropriate language. With these
data, the behavior analyst can compare the student’s behavior across
time of unequal durations.
A parent is committed to accurately
recording data to show duration of a
child’s tantrums, but found that she
was not always in close proximity
with the child when the behavior begins. The behavior analyst identifies
two conditions during the day when
the mother can accurately record duration of each tantrum (the first 30
minutes after school and the last 30
minutes before bedtime). The
mother records duration of total tantruming behavior during each 30 mimute-observation twice a day.

Assessment:
• Have supervisee list and describe
each measurable unit of behavior.
• Have supervisee list and describe
each of the three fundamental properties of behavior.
• Provide the supervisee with a number of scenarios. Have the supervisee design/describe a data collection
procedure to measure target behavior.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

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Gast, D. L. (2010). Single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences. New York: NY:
Routledge.

Related Lessons:
A-01 Measure frequency
A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).
A-03 Measure duration
A-04 Measure latency
A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of
measurement procedures.
A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs.
D-05 Use shaping.
H-02 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variables (within & between sessions,
time series).
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral program.
FK-33 functional relations
FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages of using continuous measurement procedures and discontinuous
measurement procedures (e.g. partialand whole-interval recording, momentary time sampling.)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and
recording periods
BCBAs select the most appropriate forms of
measurement. The target behavior should
have a clear and observable operational definition so that it can be recorded during a period of observation. Using a consistent measurement procedure and schedule of observation will help ensure that the data are truly reflective of the target behavior you want to
measure. Specify a time interval (or observation period) for recording data. Additionally,
time intervals used in interval recording
should remain consistent across observations
(e.g., if you collect data on a target behavior
during a 15 minute observation using 30-second partial intervals then you should use the
same procedure on subsequent observations).
If you change any aspect of the operational
definition, observational period, or measurement procedures, explain the change when
presenting data.
Example:
• If your client’s parent reported that aggression only happens when the client
is asked to brush their teeth, then you
want to ensure that you can observe
the client during times they are asked
to brush their teeth.
• An instructor wanted to use the PLACHECK measurement procedure to
record his students’ involvement in an
in-class group assignment. It would be
appropriate to collect these data when
students separate into groups and start
the assignment. Recording data during
the lecture or a test would not be an
appropriate observation period.
Assessment:
• Provide supervisee with a target behavior and ask supervisee to explain what
measurement procedure should be
used and observation periods should
occur.

•

145

Provide supervisee with various scenarios of target behaviors, measurement procedure, and observation period and ask supervisee to determine
the appropriateness of the measurement procedure and observation.
Ask supervisee to develop procedures
for observing and recording a target
behavior in a client’s behavior intervention program.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Bailey, J. & Burch, M. (2010). 25 Essential Skills
and Strategies for the Professional Behavior Analyst: Expert Tips for Maximizing Consulting
Effectiveness. New York, NY: Routledge.
Related Lessons:
A-01 Measure frequency (i.e., count).
A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).
A-03 Measure duration.
A-04 Measure latency.
A-05 Measure interresponse time (IRT).
A-06 Measure percent of occurrence.
A-07 Measure trials to criterion.
A-12 Design and implement continuous measurement procedures (e.g., event recording).
A-13 Design and implement discontinuous
measurement procedures (e.g., partial & whole
interval, momentary time sampling).
A-14 Design and implement choice measures.
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).
FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages of
using continuous measurement procedures and
discontinuous measurement procedures (e.g.,
partial- and whole-interval recording, momentary time sampling).

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H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations

Behavior change is an ongoing process that must
be continuously evaluated. This evaluation occurs
through an analysis of data that reflects the quantifiable form of the behavior of interest. However,
understanding the extent of behavior change can
be difficult if one is looking at raw data alone. As
such, behavior analysts use graphic displays to analyze, interpret, and communicate the results of behavior interventions (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007). The most common graphic displays include
line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative records, Standard Celeration charts, and scatterplots. The clinical
utility of each graphic display varies so it is important to select the graphic display that will most
accurately illustrate what the behavior analyst wants
to understand.
Cooper et al. (2007) outlines the following purposes for the different graphic displays.
Line graphs are the most common form of
graphic display and can be used to (1) show multiple dimensions of one behavior, (2) two or more
different behaviors, (3) a behavior under different
conditions, (4) changes in the target behavior relative to the manipulation of an independent variable, (5) and the behavior of multiple learners.
Bar graphs are typically used to (1) display discrete data that cannot be captured by an underlying
dimension reflected on a horizontal axis and (2)
provide an easy comparison of variables during different conditions.
Cumulative records are useful when the behavior analyst wants to (1) illustrate the total number
of responses made over time, (2) the graph is used
as a means to provide feedback to the learner, (3)
the behavior of interest can only occur once during
the specified measurement period, and (4) an analysis of a specific instance during an experiment is
warranted.
The Standard Celeration Chart is a semilogarithmic chart that is used to reflect a linear measure of
change across time. Lastly, scatterplots illustrate
the comparative distribution of discrete measures
in a data set and can be useful to uncover relationships across different subsets of data.
Example:
•
If you want to see data paths across three behaviors and different intervention conditions,

•

then a line graph is the most appropriate
graphic display.
Your client has rapidly acquired several language targets. A cumulative record can illustrate acquisition and is more efficient than
creating a line graph for each acquired language target.

Assessment:
•
Ask supervisee to explain the utility of each
type of graphic display.
•
Provide supervisee with examples of graphs
and ask supervisee to identify which type of
display is used and interpret the data presented in the display.
•
Ask supervisee to create at least one of each
type of graphic display.
•
Provide examples of different measures of behavior and what information is desired from
each set of data and ask supervisee to identify
which graphic display would be most appropriate to communicate the results.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Constructing and interpreting
graphic displays of behavioral data. Applied
Behavior Analysis (pp. 126-157). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Parsonson, B. S., & Baer, D. M. (1978). The analysis and presentation of graphic data. In T. R.
Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research: Strategies for evaluating change (pp. 101-165). New
York, NY: Academic Press.
Related Lessons:
A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using equalinterval graphs.
A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using a cumulative record to display data.
A-12 Design and implement continuous measurement procedures (e.g., event recording).
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse
time).
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and variability.
H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variables (within &between sessions, time
series).

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and
variability
Definitions:
Level - “The value on the vertical axis scale
around which a set of behavioral measures
converge is called level. In the visual analysis
of behavioral data, level is examined within a
condition in terms of its absolute value (mean,
median, and/or range) on the y-axis scale, the
degree of stability or variability, and the extent
of change from one level to another… The
mean level of a series of behavioral measures
within a condition can be graphically illustrated by the addition of a mean level line: a
horizontal line drawn through a series of data
points within a condition at that point on the
vertical axis equaling the average value of the
series of measures” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, pp. 150-151).
Trend - “The overall direction taken by a data
path is its trend” (Cooper, Heron & Heward,
2007, p. 151). Trends can be described in
terms of their direction, i.e., ascending, descending or zero/no trend. They can also be
described in terms of their degree or magnitude, and the extent of variability, the data
points around the trend have. The direction
and degree of trend shown in a series of data
points can be visually represented on a graph
by drawing a straight line through the data.
This is called a trend line or line of progress
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
Variability - “How often and the extent to
which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes is called variability”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 150).
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisees to define
level/trend/variability.
• Ask your Supervisee to graph a set
of data and describe the
level/trend/variability shown in the
data.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

147

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd
ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Keohane, D. D., & Greer, R. D. (2005).
Teachers' use of a verbally governed algorithm and student learning. International Journal of Behavioral and Consultation
Therapy, 1, 249-268.
Lindsley, O. R. (1985). Quantified trends in the
results of behavior analysis. Presidential address at the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior
Analysis, Columbus, OH.
McCain, L. J., & McCleary, R. (1979). The statistical analysis of the simple interrupted
time series quasi-experiment. In T. D.
Cook & D. T. Campbell (Eds.), Quasi experimentation: Design and analysis issues for
field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally.
White, O. (2005). Trend lines. In G. Sugai &
R. Horner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavior
modification and cognitive behavior therapy,
Volume 3: Educational applications. Pacific
Grove, CA; Sage Publications.
Related Lessons:
A-10: Design, plot, and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs
A-11: Design, plot, and interpret data using a
cumulative record to display data
H-03: Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations
H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed data
FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions
of behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)

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H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between
observed variables (within & between sessions, time series)

Behavior analysts can analyze data across several temporal relations prior to visual inspection. “The manner in which data are aggregated before transforming them into a visual
display serves an equally influential role in data
analysis” (Fahmie & Hanley, 2008, p. 320).
Such aggregation occurs with the use of
within-session, between-session in time series
data.
Between-session analysis involves plotting
total number of occurrences of a dependent
variable within some unit of time (i.e., sessions) and visually inspecting point-by-point
(i.e., session-by-session). Another prevalent
type of aggregation occurrences of behavior is
within-session data (likely due to its universal application).
Within-sessing data can be analyzed via the
observation of data as it changes throughout
the duration of the session or at specific times
during the session. Fahmie and Hanley (2008)
outlined eight conditions under which withinsession data are valuable:
1.
Description of naturally occurring
behavioral relations (descriptive assessment)
2.
Determination of behavioral function (functional analyses)
3.
Detection of within-session trends
4.
Safeguard clients from any risks associated with prolonged session exposure
5.
Creation of sufficient data for analysis following abbreviated data collection
6.
Determination of observation session duration
7.
Clarification of counterintuitive response patterns
8.
Understanding behavioral processes

There are several methods of within-session
data analysis. In the descriptive assessment literature, within-session data are calculated via
conditional probabilities to determine possible temporal relations between behavior and
environmental events (e.g., occurrence/nonoccurrence of putative reinforcer delivery)
(Vollmer, Borrero, Wright, Camp, & Lalli,
2001). In the functional analysis literature,
within-session data have been used to compare the utility of two types of functional analyses (e.g., trial-based versus multi-element)
(Kahng & Iwata, 1999; LaRue et al., 2010).
Moreover, within-session data have been used
in an effort to further analyze unclear results
following an unclear analysis of full session
data (Call & Mevers, 2014; Kahng & Iwata,
1999; Payne et al., 2014; Roane, Lerman, Kelley, & VanCamp, 1999; Vollmer, Marcus,
Ringhdahl & Roane, 1995; Vollmer et. al.,
1993). For example, Kahng & Iwata (1999)
compared full 15-minute functional analysis
session data with within-session data by plotting the first session of each condition into a
minute-by-minute observation period. One of
their findings was that within-session data
clarified unclear (absence of function) results
of the full session data.
In another example, Payne et al., (2014) analyzed within-session data in different manner
by comparing data when the putative establishing operation (EO) was present versus
when the putative EO was absent across the
last five 10-minute sessions of each condition.
The results generated from the within-session
data analysis was used to develop a second experimental analysis that clarified the function
of the behavior for the two participants.
Assessment:
• Have the supervisee read the Fahmie
& Hanley (2008) article. Then provide the supervisee with examples of
different data analysis units along the

•

continuum the authors display in
Figure 1. Have them place the scenarios along the continuum and discuss.
Have the supervisee describe different methods of within session data
collection ( e.g. minute-by-minute,
event based observation period
comparisons) and their utility ( a review of the methods used in the relevant literature will assist with this
task)

Relevant Literature:
Call, N. A. and Lomas Mevers, J. E. (2014), The
Relative Influence of Motivating Operations for Positive and Negative Reinforcement on Problem Behavior During Demands. Behavioral Interventions, 29: 4–20.
doi: 10.1002/bin.1374
Fahmie, T. A., & Hanley, G. P. (2008). Progressing Toward Data Intimacy: A Review of
Within-Session Data Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41(3), 319.
Hartmann, D. P., Gottman, J. M., Jones, R. R.,
Gardner, W., Kazdin, A. E., & Vaught, R.
S. (1980). Interrupted time‐series analysis
and its application to behavioral data. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13(4), 543559.
Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lindberg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., &
Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisition in
the implementation of functional analysis
methodology. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 33(2), 181-194.
Krause, T. R., Seymour, K. J., & Sloat, K. C. M.
(1999). Long-term evaluation of a behavior-based method for improving safety performance: a meta-analysis of 73 interrupted
time-series replications. Safety Science, 32(1),
1-18.
LaRue, R. H., Lenard, K., Weiss, M. J., Bamond,
M., Palmieri, M., & Kelley, M. E. (2010).
Comparison of traditional and trial-based
methodologies for conducting functional
analyses. Research in Developmental Disabilities,
31(2), 480-487.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

149

Payne, S. W., Dozier, C. L., Neidert, P. L., Jowet,
E. S., & Newquist, M. H. (2014). Using Additional Analyses to Clarify the Functions
of Problem Behavior: An Analysis of Two
Cases. Education and Treatment of Children,
37(2), 249-275.
Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., &
Van Camp, C. M. (1999). Within-session
patterns of responding during functional
analyses: The role of establishing operations in clarifying behavioral function. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 7389.
Tryon, W. W. (1982). A simplified time‐series
analysis for evaluating treatment interventions. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 15(3),
423-429.
Vollmer, T. R., Borrero, J. C., Wright, C. S.,
Camp, C. V., & Lalli, J. S. (2001). Identifying possible contingencies during descriptive analyses of severe behavior disorders.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(3),
269-287.
Vollmer, T. R., Iwata, B. A., Zarcone, J. R.,
Smith, R. G., & Mazaleski, J. L. (1993).
Within-session patterns of self-injury as indicators of behavioral function. Research in
Developmental Disabilities, 14(6), 479-492.
Vollmer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., Ringdahl, J. E., &
Roane, H. S. (1995). Progressing from brief
assessments to extended experimental analyses in the evaluation of aberrant behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(4),
561-576.

Related Lessons:
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret observed
data
J-15 Base decision-making on data displayed
in various formats
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).

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I-01 Define behavior in observable and
measurable terms
The importance of defining behavior in observable and measurable terms:
• As Baer, Wolf and Risley said in
1968, “since the behavior of an individual is composed of physical
events, its scientific study requires
their precise measurement” (p. 93).
In order to be scientific in our study
of behavior, we must be very clear
about what behavior it is we are actually studying. Therefore, the target
behavior must be observable and
measurable. Cooper, Heron and
Heward (2007) also make the point
that one of the most basic tenets of
science is replication. In order for
other scientists to replicate an experiment or study, the definition of the
behavior under investigation and
how it was measured must be transparent enough, that future replication is possible.
Technically-sound written definitions of target behaviors
• Cooper, Heron, and Heward, (2007),
suggest that a good behavioral definition is:
o Operational (it allows the practitioner
to obtain complete information about
a behavior’s occurrence/non-occurrence and allows the accurate application of the procedures.)
• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)
also state that good definitions increase
the likelihood that an accurate evaluation
of the effectiveness of a study or experiment will be conducted.
Two types of target behavior definitions
• Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007, p.
65) suggest that there are two types of target behavior definitions:
o Functional (These types of definition label responses as part of the target behavior’s response class if they have the same
effect upon the environment.)

o Topographical (These types of definition look at the shape or form of the target behavior.)
How to write behavioral definitions
• Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) cite
Hawkins and Dobes (1977) as giving
three characteristics of good written target behavior definitions:
o Objective (should refer only to observable characteristics of the behavior and environment and shouldn’t utilize inferential terms, such as “feeling angry”.)
o Clear (the definition should be readable
and unambiguous.)
o Complete (it should outline the boundaries of what is included as an instance of
a response and what is not included.)
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to give you examples of behavior that is not observable or measurable.
• Ask your Supervisees to write target
behavioral definitions for the following behaviors:
o Hand flapping (Answer = Any repetitive, rapid motor movement of the
hands in a back and forth motion
which lasts at least 1 second)
o Vocal Manding (Answer = Any occurrence of requesting access to a preferred item/action/event using a vocalization such as “cookie please”)
o Throwing (Answer = picking up an
item and throwing it at least a 30 cm
distance from the body)
o Being angry (Answer = this is not an
observable or measurable behavior)

Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
(1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd
ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hawkins, R. P., & Dobes, R. W. (1977). Behavioral definitions in applied behavior
analysis: Explicit or implicit? In B. C. Etzel, J. M. LeBlanc, & D. M. Baer (Eds.),
New developments in behavioral research: Theory, method, and application
(pp. 167-188).
Van Houten, R. (1979). Social Validation: The
evolution of standards of competency
for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 197-203.

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Related Lessons:
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
H-02: Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
I-02: Define environmental variables on observable and measurable terms
J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms
FK-47: Identify the observable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)

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I-02 Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms

The importance of defining environmental
variables in observable and measurable terms
• As Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007)
state, in order to achieve a high level of
treatment integrity in an experiment, it is
of utmost importance to “develop complete and precise operational definitions
of the treatment procedures” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 235). In the
same way that it is critical to define target
behavior in observable and measurable
terms, so is the case with defining environmental variables.
• Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) stress that
the “technological” dimension of Applied Behavior Analysis refers simply to
the fact that “the techniques making up a
particular behavioral application are
completely
identified
and
described”(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p.
95). As such, the techniques, or environmental variables being manipulated, must
be defined in observable and measurable
terms to meet the technological dimension of applied behavior analysis
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
• However, historically, operationally defining independent variables has not
been conducted to the standard required
for a science of behavior that seeks to
achieve the technological dimension of
applied behavior analysis*. It has also not
been done to the same standard as that
of the dependent variables (Johnston &
Pennypacker, 1980; Peterson, Homer &
Wonderlich, 1982; Gresham, Gansle &
Noell, 1993). In 1982 Peterson, Homer
and Wonderlich called for researchers to
measure the independent variables in a
more stringent manner. Unfortunately,
an assessment of this area later on by
Gresham, Gansle and Noell (1993)
found that this had not been accomplished.
• Defining environmental variables in observable and measurable terms

• It is believed that environmental variable
definitions should be written to meet the
same standards as those required to be
met by target behavior definitions
(Gresham, Gansle & Noell, 1993). They
should be “clear, concise, unambiguous,
and objective” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, p. 235).
• Gresham et al. (1993, p. 261) suggest that
independent variable definitions can be
made along four dimensions: spatial, verbal, physical and temporal.
Example Definition
• Gresham et al. (1993, pp. 261-262) give an
example of an adequate definition of
an independent variable, a time-out
procedure, provided by Mace, Page,
Ivancic and O’Brien (1986).
o Immediately following the occurrence
of a target behavior (temporal dimension), (b) the therapist said, "No, go to
time-out" (verbal dimension), (c) led
the child by the arm to a prepositioned
time-out chair (physical dimension),
and (d) seated the child facing the corner (spatial dimension). (e) If the
child's buttocks were raised from the
time-out chair or if the child's head was
turned more than 45° (spatial dimension), the therapist used the least
amount of force necessary to guide
compliance with the time-out procedure (physical dimension). (f) At the
end of 2 min (temporal dimension), the
therapist turned the time-out chair 45°
from the corner (physical and spatial
dimensions) and walked away (physical
dimension).
• Gresham et al., (1993, p. 262) argued that
a failure to define operational variables
along these four dimensions, as done
so by Mace, Page, Ivancic and O’Brien
(1986), makes “replication and external
validation of behavior-analytic investigations difficult.”

Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to explain why
it’s important as a behavior analyst
to define environmental variable in
observable and measurable terms.
• Ask your Supervisee to write an operational definition for the following
independent variable:
o Verbal Praise (Answer = (a) Immediately following the occurrence of a
target behavior (temporal dimension), (b) the therapist delivered verbal praise, for example, "great
job/nice work/well done” (verbal
dimension), (c) but did not provide
any physical contact such as a hi-five
or pat on the back (physical dimension). The therapist was within 2 to
20 feet of the client at all times during the intervention (spatial dimension).
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
(1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.

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153

Gresham, F. M., Gansle, K. A. & Noell, G. H.
(1993). Treatment integrity in applied behavior analysis with children. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 257-263.
Johnston, J., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1980).
Strategies and tactics of human behavioral research. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Peterson, L., Homer, A. L., Wonderlich, S. A.
(1982). The integrity of independent variables in behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 477-492.
Related Lessons:
B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to determine the effective values of an independent
variable
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms
I-04: Design and implement the full range of
functional assessment procedures
J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms
FK-07: Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic explanations of behavior)
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-33: Functional relations
Footnotes
* See Baer, Wolf & Risley (1968) for more information on the seven dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis.

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I-03 Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures

“Behavioral assessment involves a variety of
methods including direct observations, interviews, checklists, and tests to identify and define targets for behavior change” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 49).
“Applied behavior analysis uses the methods
of FBA to identify antecedent and consequent
events and to use this information in designing interventions to change socially significant
behaviors (Gresham, Watson, & Skinner,
2001, p. 157).”
“FBA is designed to obtain information about
the purpose (function) a behavior serves for a
person….FBA is used to identify the type and
source of reinforcement for challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention efforts…
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 501).”
“Once the function of behavior is determined,
this information is used to design interventions to reduce problem behaviors and to facilitate positive behaviors” (Gresham et al.,
2001, p. 158).
The first step in the process is to define the
target behaviors that the assessment will focus
on. These behaviors are typically identified by
teachers, therapists, or caregivers due to their
interference with learning, adaptive functioning, and overall quality of life. In following the
principles of ABA, the behaviors targeted for
assessment must be socially significant.
Another direct method of determining the
function of a behavior is to conduct a functional analysis. This involves systematic manipulation of the environment, while controlling variables to evoke the target behavior under conditions representing each possible
function. The typical functions of behavior include access to attention, access to tangible
items, escape from demands, and automatic
reinforcement. During a functional analysis,
each function is assessed to determine if they

are maintaining the target behavior. FA is considered to be the most reliable source for determining the function of a behavior, but may
not be feasible in some settings due to the
time it takes to conduct, safety implications
(depending on the severity of the target behavior), and resources needed to conduct each
experimental phase.
Other methods used to gather information
about the function of target behaviors in a behavioral assessment include a thorough review
of the client’s previous records (academic reports, past evaluations, behavior support
plans, IEP’s, etc.), the use of behavioral rating
scales such as the FAST (functional analysis
screening tool), MAS (Motivational Assessment Scale), or PBQ (Problem Behavior
Questionnaire)), structured interviews with
caregivers (i.e., functional assessment interview form), direct observation in the target
environment (i.e., home, school, community),
behavior data collection and analysis, and AB-C data collection and analysis. These indirect assessments should be used to inform an
experimental functional analysis. They are not
designed to determine the function of a response on their own.
Once the direct and indirect assessments
are completed, this information is analyzed
and the BCBA makes recommendations for
intervention based on the results of assessments.
Example:
Rich is completing an FBA on the aggression of one of
his students. After teacher interviews, the completion
of rating scales, and several observations in various settings, Rich hypothesizes that the function of aggression
is escape from demands. He uses this information to
create an intervention plan to decrease aggression at
school.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee complete a behavior rating scale on an individual
based on one of their behaviors.

•

This can include the FAST, MAS,
PBQ, or another common rating
scale used in behavioral assessments.
Once the supervisee has completed
the rating scale, have them score the
form and present the results.
Supervisor will create role plays in
which each supervisee will collect
ABC data on specific topography of
problem behavior. After a number
of instances have been recorded, supervisee will analyze the data and
formulate a hypothesized function
of the problem behavior.
Have supervisee read Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, & Richman
(1982/1994) and describe the experimental conditions of a functional
analysis.

Relevant Literature:
Carr, E. (1993). Behavior analysis is not ultimately about behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 47-49.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 49-71, 300, 335-336, 364366, 457, 459-460, 499-524.
Gresham, F., Watson, T.S., & Skinner, C.H.
(2001). Functional Behavioral Assessment:
Principals, Procedures, and Future Directions.
School Psychology Review, 30, 2, 156172.
Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994).
Toward a functional analysis of self‐injury. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 27(2), 197-209.
O’Neill, R., Horner, R., Albin, R., Storey, K.,
& Sprague, J. (1997). Functional assessment
and program development for problem behaviors. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Sprague, J., Sugai, G. & Walker, H. (1998). Antisocial Behavior in Schools. In T.S. Watson

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155

& F.M. Gresham (Eds). Handbook of child
behavior therapy (pp. 451-474). New York:
Pleunum Press.
Witt, J., Daly, E., & Noell, G.H. (2000). Functional Assessment: A step by step guide to solving academic and behavior problems. Longmont, CO. Sopris West.
Related Lessons:
B-03: Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
G-01: Review records at the outset of a case.
G-04: Conduct a preliminary assessment of
the client in order to identify the referral problem.
G-05: Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
G-08: Identify and make environmental
changes that reduce the need for behavior
analysis services.
H-02: Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms.
I-04: Design and implement the full range of
functional assessment procedures.
I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms.
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.

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I-04 Design and implement the full range
of functional assessment procedures

Definitions:
Functional behavior assessment (FBA) - "A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purposes (functions) a
problem behavior serves for a person; results are
used to guide the design of an intervention for
decreasing the problem behavior and increasing
appropriate behavior" (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 696).
Functional analysis (FA) - "An analysis of the
purposes of problem behavior, wherein antecedents and consequences representing those in the
person's natural routines are arranged within an
experimental design so that their separate effects
on problem behavior can be observed and measured" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
696).* The FA is considered to be best practice
standard in conducting a functional assessment
(Hanley, Iwata, & McCord 2003).
Descriptive assessment - "Direct observation of
problem behavior and the antecedent and consequent events under naturally occurring conditions" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
693).* The advantages are that the information
yields what happens in the individual's natural
environment, does not disrupt the individual's
routine, and provides information for designing
a functional analysis. The disadvantages of these
assessments are false positives due to behavior
maintained by intermittent reinforcement or the
presence of antecedent and consequent events
which are often present but have no functional
relation, the time required in taking data, and inaccurate data collection. Also, there is little correspondence between descriptive analysis outcomes being compared to functional analysis
outcomes (Pence, Roscoe, Bourret, and Ahearn,
2009)
Indirect assessment - “Structured interviews,
checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires used
to obtain information from people who are familiar with the person exhibiting the problem
behavior" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
697). The advantages of indirect assessments are
that the forms can yield valuable information

and are convenient. The disadvantage is the lack
of research supporting the reliability of these
measurements.
The ethical guidelines of BACB requires BCBAs
to conduct a functional assessment according to
3.01 Behavior-Analytic Assessment. RBT
(a) Behavior analysts conduct current assessments prior to making recommendations or developing behavior-change programs. The type
of assessment used is determined by clients’
needs and consent, environmental parameters,
and other contextual variables. When behavior
analysts are developing a behavior-reduction
program, they must first conduct a functional assessment.
(b) Behavior analysts have an obligation to collect and graphically display data, using behavioranalytic conventions, in a manner that allows for
decisions and recommendations for behaviorchange program development (BACB, 2014,
p.8).
Role of Functional Behavior Assessment as outlined by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007).
• Identifies antecedent variables that may be
altered to prevent problem behaviors.
• Identifies reinforcement contingencies
which can be altered so problem behavior
no longer receives reinforcement.
• Identifies reinforcers for alternative replacement behavior.
• Reduces the reliance on default technologies such as punishment.
Conducting a functional behavior assessment as
outlined by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007).
• Conduct indirect assessments
• Conduct a descriptive assessment
• Analyze data from the indirect and descriptive assessment and create a hypotheses
• Test conditions the data suggest may be
contributing to the behavior using a functional analysis
• Develop intervention strategies based on
the results.

Assessment:
• Have supervisee list in order the process of
completing a functional assessment.
• Have supervisee describe the benefits and
limitations of each of the assessment procedures.
• Use behavior skills training techniques to
teach your supervisee how to conduct an
indirect assessment. Accompany the supervisee in completing their first indirect assessment and provide reinforcement and
feedback following the session.
• Use behavior skills training techniques to
teach your supervisee how to collect ABC
data. Explain the process, model and then
practice using you tube videos of challenging behaviors. Provide reinforcement and
feedback and continue practicing until the
supervisee clearly demonstrates skills in collecting ABC data. Accompany the supervisee in completing live ABC data, take interrater reliability and compare scores providing reinforcement and feedback.
• Use behavior skills training techniques to
teach your supervisee how to complete an
FA. Practice until the supervisee clearly
demonstrates skills in the control condition
and some test conditions of an FA. Accompany the supervisee in completing live
FAs, prompting and providing reinforcement and feedback. Continue to monitor
supervisee in this process until they have
demonstrated the completion of multiple
FA's accurately and are able to set up individualized FAs based on the descriptive
data.
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1987).
Some still‐current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 20(4), 313-327.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014. Retrieved from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc..

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157

Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & McCord, B. E.
(2003). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A review. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 36(2), 147-185.
Iwata, B. A., Pace, G. M., Dorsey, M. F., Zarcone,
J. R., Vollmer, T. R., Smith, R. G. Willis, K.
D. (1994). The functions of self-injurious behavior: An experimental-epidemiological
analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2), 215–240.
Pence, S. T., Roscoe, E. M., Bourret, J. C., &
Ahearn, W. H. (2009). Relative contributions
of three descriptive methods: Implications
for behavioral assessment. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 425-446.
Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J.,
Wacker, D., Berg, W., Steege, M. & Allaire,
A. (1992). Use of descriptive and experimental analyses to identify the functional
properties of aberrant behavior in school
settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
25(4), 809-821.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables
B-05 Use alternating treatment designs
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain representative data given the dimensions of the behavior
and the logistics of observing and recording
H-03 Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant quantitative relations
H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variables
I-03 Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures
Footnotes:
*Functional analysis may also be called an analog
analysis or experimental analysis.
*Descriptive analysis may also be called direct assessment.

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I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret observed data

Organize the data
and the scaling of each axis, prior to
attempting to interpret the data.
• Once data have been collected in
They argue “it’s impossible to intertheir raw format, it is then important
pret graphic data without being into organize the data into a format
fluenced by various characteristics of
that is easy to analyze (Cooper,
the graph itself” (cited from Cooper,
Heron & Heward, 2007). The most
Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 149).
effective way to do this, and the
most common method utilized by
Behavior Analysts, is to visually dis- Visual analysis within conditions
• Within given conditions, examinaplay the data in a graph (Cooper,
tion needs to occur to determine a
Heron, & Heward, 2007).
few relevant factors (Cooper, Heron
• As Parsonson and Baer (1978, p.
& Heward, 2007):
134) said “the function of the graph
o The number of data points in
is to communicate…..in an attractive
each condition (in general, the
manner, descriptions and summaries
more measurements of the deof the data that enable rapid and acpendent variable there are per
curate analysis of the facts” (cited
unit of time, the more confifrom Cooper, Heron & Heward,
dence one can have in the data).
2007, p. 128).
o Variability (A high degree of
• The visual formats most often used
variability usually indicates little
by behavior analysts are line graphs,
control has been achieved over
bar graphs, cumulative records,
the factors influencing behavsemilogarithmic charts and scatterior).
plots* (Cooper, Heron & Heward,
o
Level
(examined in terms of its
2007).
absolute value within a condition, the degree of stability/varAnalyze and interpret observed data
iability and the extent of change
• Behavior analysts use a systematic
from one level to another).
form of assessing graphically diso
Trend
(the trend indicates
played data called visual analysis
whether
a particular behavior
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
has increased, decreased or has
• Visual analysis encompasses examneither increased nor decreased
ining each of three characteristics in
within a condition).
a graphic display of data, both within
and across the different conditions
Visual analysis between conditions
and phases of an experiment. These
• After examining the data within each
three characteristics are:
condition or phase of a study, visual
o The level of the data
analysis now proceeds to examining
o The extent and type of varthe data between conditions
iability in the data
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007):
o The trends in the data
o Comparison needs to be made
• Johnston and Pennypacker (1993b,
between the different condip. 320) recommend that the viewer
tions of the level, trend and varshould carefully examine the graph’s
iability of the data (Cooper,
overall construction, paying attenHeron & Heward, 2007, p. 154).
tion to details such as the axis labels

The data are examined in terms
of the overall level of performance between conditions;
generally when there is no overlap of data points between the
highest values in one condition
and the lowest values in another
condition, there is a strong likelihood that the behavior
changed from one condition to
the next (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, p. 154).

Once an “examination and comparison of
changes in level, trend and variability between
conditions has occurred, a comparison needs
to be made of performance across similar conditions” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.
155). If a behavior change is found to have
occurred over the course of an intervention,
the next question to be asked is, “was the behavior change a result of the intervention?”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 155).
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to explain why
it’s important as a behavior analyst
to organize and interpret observed
data.
• Ask your Supervisee to organize a
set of data and display it graphically
in the most appropriate way.

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Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Fisher, W. W. Piazza, C. C. & Roane, H. S.
(2011). Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. New York: The Guildford Press.
Johnston, J., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993b).
Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavioral
research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Parson, B. S. & Baer, D. M. (1978). The analysis and presentation of graphic data. In T.
R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research:
Strategies for evaluating change (p. 101 – 165).
New York: Academic Press.
Related Lessons:
A-10: Design, plot and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs
A-11: Design, plot and interpret data using a
cumulative record to display data
B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs
B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multielement) designs
B-06: Use changing criterion designs
B-07: Use multiple baseline designs
B-08: Use multiple probe designs
B-09: Use combinations of design elements
J-15: Base decision-making on data displayed
in various formats
Footnotes
* See Cooper, Heron & Heward (2007), pages
129 – 154 for more information on these
graphic displays.

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I-06 Make recommendations regarding
behaviors that must be established, maintained, increased, or decreased.

Hawkins (1984, p. 284) (cited from Cooper,
Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 56) defined habilitation as “the degree to which the person’s
repertoire maximizes short and long term reinforcers for that individual and for others,
and minimizes short and long term punishers.”
When determining what behaviors to target,
one can use the relevance of behavior rule
(Ayllon and Azrin, 1968) as a guide. This rule
states that a target behavior should only be selected if it is likely to produce reinforcement
for the client in their natural environment.
Another key factor is deciding if the behavior
will generalize to other settings and be sustainable once the behavior change program has
ended.
Cooper et al. (2007) provide some considerations when choosing a target behavior to increase, decrease, or maintain. These include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Does this behavior pose any danger to
the client or others?
How many opportunities will the person
have to use this new behavior? Or how
often does this problem behavior occur?
How long-standing is the problem or skill
deficit?
Will changing the behavior produce
higher rates of reinforcement for the person?
What will be the relative importance of
this target behavior to the future skill development and independent functioning?
Will changing this behavior reduce negative attention from others?
Will the new behavior produce reinforcement for significant others?
How likely is success in changing this target behavior?
How much will it cost to change this behavior?

Example:
Dave has decided to implement an intervention to increase a student’s compliance. He chose this because
lack of compliance interferes with the student’s ability
to learn new skills and access reinforcement by completing their work and daily routines.
Assessment:
• Write a list of potential target behaviors.
Have supervisee rank the behaviors in order of social significance and give rationale for their decisions.
• Have supervisee present a case study on
a client they are familiar with, including
the maladaptive behaviors in their repertoire. Have the supervisee choose two
behaviors to target for intervention and
state why they chose those behaviors.
Relevant Literature:
Ayllon, T. & Azrin, N.H. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 55-65, 237-238.
Hawkins, R.P. (1984) What is “meaningful”
behavior change in a severely/profoundly retarded learner: The view of a
behavior analytic parent. In W.L.
Heward, T.E. Heron, D.S. Hill, & J.
Trap-Porter (Eds.) Focus on behavior analysis in education. (pp. 282-286). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall/ Merrill.
Hawkins, R.P. (1986) Selection of target behaviors. In R.O. Nelson & S.C. Hayes
(Eds.), Conceptual foundations of behavioral
assessment (pp. 331-385). New York: Guilford Press.
Rosales-Ruiz, J. & Baer, D.M. (1997). Behavioral cusps: A developmental and pragmatic concept for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 533544.

Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
G-03: Conduct a preliminary assessment of
the client in order to identify the referral problem.
G-05: Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.

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J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms.
J-05: Select intervention strategies based on
the client’s current repertoires.
J-08: Select intervention strategies based on
the social validity of the intervention.
J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.
J-13: Select behavioral cusps as goals for intervention when appropriate.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

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I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.

Definition:
Stimulus preference assessment-“a variety of
procedures used to determine (a) the stimuli that
the person prefers, (b) the relative preference
values of those stimuli, (c) the conditions under
which those preference values change when task
demands, deprivation states, or schedules of reinforcement are modified.” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, pp. 275-276)
Preference assessments allow for one to evaluate
a large number of stimuli in a brief period of
time (Hagopian, Long, & Rush, 2004). These
stimuli are likely to function as reinforcers for a
client/participant. Preference assessments also
take into account care provider options (Green
et al. 1988).
Example:
• Example: Marvin is working to teach a student to make requests for preferred edibles
using a picture exchange communication
system. Unfortunately, the child is not
demonstrating a preference and is equally
likely to choose either of the two cards presented. He is equally likely to consume any
edible that is associated with one of two
cards. Marvin decides to do a preference assessment to see if he can identify an edible
that the boy does not like. He conducts a
paired stimulus preference assessment with
eight items he thinks the student will potentially not prefer. He notices that initially the
boy chooses the black licorice but then spits
it out. Over several presentations the child’s
selection avoids this item. It is not consumed on any of the presentations scoring it
as 0% or “not preferred.”
• Example: The Zippadeedooda Perfume
Company is testing a new line of products.
They hire ten women to rate their new line
of fragrances. They ask the ladies to smell
each of the 8 samples provided and use a
Likert type scale to have them rate each of
the fragrances; really like, somewhat like, neutral,
somewhat dislike, and really dislike. Those that

score the overall lowest ratings according to
the test group are not marketed, as it is unlikely that their client base will find them appealing either.
• Non-example: Marvin’s student has
worked hard on his schoolwork and has
earned a choice of an edible. Marvin takes a
box of candies out of his desk containing
eight different types of sweets and tells his
student that he can pick one. The boy
chooses a chocolate candy over all the other
options and eats it. He cannot assume that
the child dislikes the rest of the candies because he did not observe the boy eating any
of the others.
Assessment:
•
Ask your supervisee to define a putative reinforcement assessment
•
Ask your supervisee to state the purpose of a
putative reinforcement assessment
•
Require your supervisee to run a couple different types of reinforcer assessments. Provide feedback during role play and other observations.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson
Green, C.W., Reid, D. H., White, L. K., Halford, R.
C., Brittain, D. P., & Gardner, S. M. (1988).
Identifying reinforcers for persons with profound handicaps: Staff opinion versus systematic assessment of preferences. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 31-43.
Hagopian, L. P., Long, E. S., & Rush, K. S. (2004).
Preference assessment procedures for individuals with developmental disabilities. Behavior Modification, 28(5), 668-677.
Related Lessons:
D-01-Use positive and negative reinforcement
I-07-Design and conduct preference assessments
to identify putative reinforcers
J-04-Select intervention strategies based on client
preferences

J-01 State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms
“Target behaviors are selected for study in applied behavior analysis because of their importance to the people involved. Applied behavior analysts attempt to increase, maintain,
and generalize adaptive, desirable behaviors
and decrease the occurrence of maladaptive,
undesirable behaviors” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 69).
Van Houten (1979) cited in Cooper et al.
(2007, p. 69) suggests “two basic approaches
to determining socially valid goals: (a) Assess
the performance of people judged to be highly
competent, and (b) experimentally manipulate
different levels of performance to determine
empirically which produces optimal results.
Regardless of the method used, specifying
treatment goals before intervention begins
providing a guideline for continuing or terminating treatment. Further, setting objective,
predetermined goals helps to eliminate disagreements or biases among those involved in
evaluating a program’s effectiveness.”
Examples:
• The intervention goal: Client’s aggression will decrease by 80% of
baseline levels across 5 consecutive
school days. Staff will record every
instance of hitting across the school
day on the data collection sheet.
• The intervention goal: Client will expressively identify 10 different col-

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ors with 80% accuracy, across 3 consecutive days. Staff will record data
on correct and incorrect responses.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee create a sample intervention goal that targets a response for increase.
• Have supervisee create a sample intervention goal that targets a response for decrease.
• Have supervisee explain why it’s important to have objective predetermined intervention goals.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Houten, R. V. (1979). Social validation: The
evolution of standards of competency
for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12(4), 581-591
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-02 Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms.
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) explanations of behavior

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J-02 Identify potential interventions based
on assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.

“Interventions should be functionally equivalent to
problem behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 513). In other words, the intervention
should serve as a more appropriate way of accessing a specific function than the interfering behavior. “One effective way to design interventions is
to review confirmed hypotheses to determine how
the ABC contingency can be altered to promote
more positive behavior” (Cooper, et al., 2007, p.
513). In other words if you can change the antecedents or consequences associated with a problem
behavior, you may be able to decrease occurrences
of that behavior.
Wolf (1978) recommended that interventions
should be assessed based on appropriateness and
the potential social significance of the outcomes.
Specific social validity assessments can be conducted “to help choose and guide (behavior
change) program developments and applications”
(Baer & Schwartz, 1991, p. 231).
Results of an FBA can help determine which interventions would not be appropriate to decrease
the target behavior. Once assessments are completed, monitor the progress of the interventions
put in place and conduct follow up assessments
regularly. Any intervention program should be
based on techniques found in behavior analytic literature. This ensures that the intervention is a
proven technology and has stood up to experimental manipulation and decreased or increased
similar types of behavior.
In regard to assessments that are not based on
the function of the behavior, (i.e., adaptive assessments, verbal behavior assessments, cognitive assessments) a profile of strengths and weaknesses as
well as standard scores and rankings are typically
provided once the assessment is completed. The areas that present as weaknesses should typically be
addressed first based on their social significance to
the client. Once these areas have been identified,
appropriate interventions can be put into place to
build the client’s missing repertoires and skill base.
Example:
George completed an FBA on Sam’s instances of aggression
in the classroom. The hypothesized function for this behavior
was escape from demands. George created an intervention
plan that would allow Sam to functionally ask for breaks to
briefly escape work demands.

Assessment:
•
Assign a specific behavior as well as a hypothesized function of that behavior. Have supervisee research and identify 3 potential interventions to decrease the target behavior based
on the hypothesized function.
•
Have supervisee explain under what circumstances they would use each intervention.
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D.M. & Schwartz, I.S. (1991). If reliance on
epidemiology were to become epidemic, we
would need to assess its social validity. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 321-334.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 55-65,
237-240, 513-523, 623-624.
Gresham, F., Watson, T.S., & Skinner, C.H. (2001).
Functional Behavioral Assessment: Principals, Procedures, and Future Directions. School Psychology
Review, 30, 2, 156-172.
Lerman, D.C., Iwata, B.A., Smith, R.G., Zincone,
J.R., & Vollmer, T.R. (1994). Transfer of behavioral function as a contributing factor in
treatment relapse. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 27, 357-370.
Related Lessons:
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
I-04: Design and implement the full range of functional assessment procedures.
I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors
that must be established, maintained, increased, or
decreased.
J-01: State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an
acceptable alternative behavior to be established or
increased.

J-03 Select intervention strategies based
on task analysis
What are the options for intervention strategies
when it comes to teaching a chain of behavior
through a task analysis?
• Once a person’s baseline level has been assessed (through the single or multiple-opportunity method*) to determine what components of the task analysis he/she can perform,
the appropriate intervention strategy needs to
be selected. Cooper, Heron & Heward (2007)
suggest there are four appropriate intervention
strategies which practitioners can choose from;
forward chaining, total-task chaining, and backward chaining.
• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007, p. 446) argue that research to date does not suggest a
clear answer to the question “which chaining
strategy to use?” As such, it is very important
to examine the results of the baseline level assessment, to consider the client and how they
learn best, and what the different intervention
strategies can offer in different situations, in order to select the most appropriate method.
Total-task chaining
• If the client performs quite a few steps in the
task analysis but is not performing them in the
correct sequence, the most appropriate method
to choose would probably be total-task chaining.
• Total-task chaining would also be an appropriate intervention strategy to select when the client has generalized motor imitation and moderate to severe disabilities (Test et al., 1990,
cited from Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
• When the chain is quite short and not too complex, this may also be an appropriate teaching
method to utilize (Cooper, Heron & Heward,
2007).
Forward chaining
• This approach may be more appropriate to use
when the client has demonstrated more proficiency with the first couple of steps in the chain
and/or the last steps in the chain are more
complex to complete.
• It may also be useful to use this approach when
it is necessary to link smaller chains into larger
ones. For example, if you have a skill such as
bed making and this is made up of perhaps

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four/five skill clusters, forward chaining is a
useful method to link the skill clusters altogether (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).
Backward chaining
• Backward chaining may be more appropriate to
use when the client has demonstrated more
proficiency with the last couple of steps in the
chain and/or steps that appear earlier in the
chain are more complex to complete.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in
which he/she might suggest forward chaining
• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in
which he/she might suggest backward chaining
• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in
which he/she might suggest total-task chaining
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior Modifications in applied
settings (6th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Miltenberger, R. G. (2001). Behavior Modification:
Principles and procedures (2nd ed). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Test, D. W., Spooner, F. Keul, P. K., & Grossi, T.
(1990). Teaching adolescents with severe disability to use the public telephone. Behavior Modification, 14, 157-171. Cited from, Cooper, J. O.,
Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007, p. 446).
Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
D-06: Use chaining
D-07: Conduct task analyses
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results & best scientific evidence.
J-05: Select intervention strategies based on the client’s current repertoire
Footnotes
* Please see task list item D-07 for more information on conducting task analyses
* Please see task list item D-06 for a more detailed
description of the different chaining procedures.

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J-04 Select intervention strategies based
on client preferences

The importance and ethical necessity of basing intervention strategies on client preferences
• As behavior analysts, it is our ethical responsibility to continually put our client’s
needs first, and this includes, considering
which type of intervention may be more
preferred by the clients we serve. As Bailey and Burch (2011) state, one of our
core ethical principles is treating others
with care and compassion and this encompasses giving our clients choices
(Bailey & Burch, 2011).
•

•

Historically, consideration of client preferences is an area that within behavior
analysis, perhaps has not been given as
much attention as it deserves. In one area
of study, Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, Contrucci & Maglieri (1997) reported that,
“few if any studies have examined the social acceptability of or consumer preferences” for the relevant treatment options
but had instead given more weight to the
opinions of the caregivers as opposed to
those of the client (Hanley et al., 1997, p.
460). Another interesting train of thought
has been that “choice making is often not
taught” (Bannerman, Sheldon, Sherman,
& Harchik, 1990, p. 81).
Another reason for considering clients’
preferences over treatment options is it
may make the intervention more successful.
Data from Miltenberger, Suda, Lennox
and Lindeman (1991) indicated it was
very important for successful treatment,
to consider client preferences when selecting interventions. Findings from
many other studies have also supported
this premise (e.g., Berk, 1976; Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, & Maglieri, 2005; Mendonca
& Brehm, 1983; Perlmuter & Montry,
1973).

Selecting interventions based on client preferences
• There are methods reported in the
literature for determining which
treatment method is more preferred
by a client*. As such, once it has
been established that an intervention
is necessary to treat a behavior, it is
imperative then to consider assessing a client’s preference for one
treatment option over others to assist with the behavior change program. In this way, treatment is more
likely to be successful, will likely
have more social validity (Schwartz
& Baer, 1991) and will be meeting
more of our ethical standards as behavior analysts.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to explain why
it’s important as behavior analysts to
select interventions based on client
preferences.
• Ask your Supervisee to investigate
what different methods are available
for evaluating clients’ preferences
for different interventions and report them back to you, along with
advantages and disadvantages of
each method.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J. & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior
Analysts, 2nd ed. New York, London:
Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Bannerman, D. J., Sheldon, J. B., Sherman, J.
A., & Harchik, A. E. (1990). Balancing the
right to habilitation with the right to personal liberties: The rights of people with
developmental disabilities to eat too many
doughnuts and take a nap. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 79–89.
Berk, R. A. (1976). Effects of choice of instructional methods on verbal learning
tasks. Psychological Reports, 38, 867-870.

Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W.,
Contrucci, S. A. & Maglieri, K. A. (1997).
Evaluation of client preferences for function-based treatment packages. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 459-473.
Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W. &
Maglieri, K. A. (2005). On The Effectiveness of And Preference For Punishment
And Extinction Components Of Function-Based Interventions. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 38, 51-65.
Mendonca, P. J. & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Effects
of choice on behavioral treatment of overweight children. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 1, 343-358.
Miltenberger, R. G., Suda, K. T., Lennox, D.
B. & Lindeman, D. P. (1991). Assessing
the acceptability of behavioral treatments
to persons with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 291–
298.
Perlmuter, L. C. & Montry, R. A. (1973). Effect of choice of stimulus on paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99, 120-123.

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Related Lessons:
E-08: Use the matching law and recognize factors influencing choice
I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-05: Select intervention strategies based on
the client’s current repertoire
J-06: Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments
J-07: Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints
J-08: Select intervention strategies based on
the social validity of the intervention
Footnotes
*1 See Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, Contrucci &
Maglieri (1997) and Miltenberger, Suda, Lennox & Lindeman (1991) for more information
about how to test clients’ preferences for different interventions.

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J-05 Select intervention strategies based
on the client’s current repertoires

The importance of considering the client’s current
repertoires
• Basing intervention strategies on the client’s
current repertoires is a key foundation of what
behavior analysts do. It is imperative that prior
to implementing any type of intervention or
strategy with a client, the behavior analyst is extremely clear about what the client already does
and can therefore, consider possible intervention strategies. Noell, Call, and Ardoin (2011)
state that “one of the considerable challenges
in teaching arises from identifying not only the
behaviors that are prerequisites for the target
response, but also the level of skill proficiency
needed to set the occasion for teaching the target skill” (Noell, Call, & Ardoin, 2011, cited
from Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2011, p. 251).
The importance of accurate assessments
• In order to assess a client’s current repertoires,
it is imperative that these repertoires are
properly assessed. For example, assessments to
evaluate the presence of a particular skill or repertoire should take place in a variety of different
environments, with many different examples of
stimuli, with the antecedent presented in a variety of different ways, and with many different
people presenting the skill. Novel examples of
the skill should also be tested. Noell et al. (2011)
emphasize this point by suggesting that “assessment of behavior under varied conditions
in a manner that tests consequences should be
an element of any pre-teaching assessment”
(Noell, Call & Ardoin, 2011, cited from Fisher,
Piazza & Roane, 2011, p. 255).
Once assessments of the client’s current repertoires
are complete
• Once the assessment stage is complete, it is
then appropriate to select possible intervention
strategies. As Noell et al. (2011) propose it is
important at this point that behavior analysts
“keep the long-term view in mind” (Noell, Call
& Ardoin, 2011, cited from Fisher, Piazza
&Roane, 2011, p. 266). We should be attempting to “not bring individual operants under
stimulus control” but instead “help clients and
students develop the complex, flexible repertoires that are adaptive, that remain in contact

with reinforcement, and that confer adaptive
advantage and endure” (Noell, Call & Ardoin,
2011, cf. Fisher, Piazza & Roane, 2011, p. 266).
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to explain why it’s important as a behavior analyst to select interventions based on the client’s current repertoires.
• Ask your Supervisee to conduct an assessment
with a client, if possible, and design potential
interventions or strategies. Give feedback as
appropriate.
• Have you Supervisee take the lead on assessing
and developing interventions with your supervision.
Relevant Literature:
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Roane, H. S. (Eds.).
(2011). Handbook of applied behavior analysis.
Guilford Press.
Noell, G. H., Call, N. A. & Ardoin, S. P. (2011).
Building complex repertoires from discrete behaviors by establishing stimulus control, behavioral chains, and strategic behavior.
Shapiro, E. S. (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct
assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). New York:
Guildford Press.
Related Lessons:
D-09: Use the verbal operants as a basis for language assessment.
G-03: Conduct a preliminary assessment of the client in order to identify the referral problem.
I-03: Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures.
J-03: Select intervention strategies based on task
analysis.
I-04: Design and implement the full range of functional assessment procedures.
J-02: Identify potential interventions based on assessment results & best scientific evidence.
J-06: Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments
J-07: Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints
J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the social validity of the intervention

J-06 Select intervention strategies based
on supporting environments.

“Achieving optimal generalized outcomes requires
thoughtful, systematic planning. This planning begins with two major steps: (1) selecting target behaviors that will meet natural contingencies of reinforcement, and (2) specifying all desired variations of the target behavior and the settings/situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction has ended” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 623). In other words, an intervention must be selected that will allow the client to
access reinforcement in a specific environment. If
that is not possible, then alternative interventions
should be explored.
Ayllon and Azrin (1968) state that an important
rule of thumb is to choose interventions that will
help produce reinforcement after the intervention
is discontinued. The intervention should support
the student until they can access naturally existing
contingencies (i.e., verbal praise from a teacher)
and then more intensive, contrived contingencies
should be systematically faded. The goal of most
intervention programs is to teach a skill and then
fade support so the client can implement that skill
across settings.
Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2007, p. 626) identify 5 strategic approaches to promote generalized
behavior change.
1. Teach the full range of relevant stimulus conditions and response requirements (i.e., teaching sufficient stimulus and response examples
based on the setting)
2. Make the instructional setting similar to the
generalization setting. (i.e., program common
stimuli and teach loosely)
3. Maximize the target behavior’s contact with
reinforcement in the generalization setting.
(i.e., ask people in the generalization setting to
reinforce the target behavior, teach the learner
to recruit reinforcement, and teach the target
behavior to levels of performance required by
natural existing contingencies of reinforcement.)
4. Mediate generalization (i.e., teach self-management skills & contrive mediating stimulus)
5. Train to generalize. (i.e., reinforce response
variability and instruct learner to generalize)
Example:
George set up a token economy for Bill that systematically increased the number of responses
needed to earn a token. After some time, Bill was
earning tokens for completing an entire worksheet

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rather than earning a token for each question answered. This allowed Bill to independently complete worksheets in his general education classroom without a paraprofessional by his side giving
him tokens after each answer.
Assessment:
•
Give supervisee a reinforcement program.
Have him/her create a fading procedure for
this program to increase the number of responses required to earn a token.
•
Have supervisee list the five strategies for promoting generalized behavior change and have
him/her give examples of each.
•
Have supervisee describe and differentiate between contrived contingencies and naturally
existing contingencies and give several examples of each.
Relevant Literature:

Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N.H. (1968). The token economy: A
motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Baer, D.M. (1999). How to plan for generalization (2nd ed.).
Austin, TX.: Pro-Ed.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 55-65, 623-624,
652.
Snell, M.E., & Brown. F. (2006). Instruction of students
with severe disabilities (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.
Stokes, T.F., & Osnes, P.G. (1989). An operant pursuit of generalization. Behavior Therapy, 20, 337355.
Related Lessons:
G-08: Identify and make environmental changes that
reduce the need for behavior analysis services.
J-07: Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints.
J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the social
validity of the intervention.
J-11: Program stimulus & response generalization
J-12: Program for maintenance.
K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral
program.
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.

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J-07 Select intervention strategies based
on environmental and resource constraints.

“The independent variable should be evaluated not
only in terms of its effects on the dependent variable, but also in terms of its social acceptability,
complexity, practicality, and cost” (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007, p. 250).
One method for determining the feasibility of an
intervention is by asking consumers (parents,
teachers, administrators) to rate the social validity
of the client’s performance. Questions that are typically posed to consumers before interventions are
implemented include asking the consumer how reasonable they feel the intervention is, asking the
consumer’s willingness to implement the intervention strategies, asking if the consumer would be
willing to change the environment to implement
the intervention, asking how disruptive the intervention may be to the natural environment, asking
how costly it would be to implement the intervention, asking if there will be any discomfort in the
client when implementing these procedures, and
asking if carrying out the intervention will fit with
the classroom or setting routines (Reimers &
Wacker, 1988 cited from Cooper et al., 2007, pp.
238-239).
Example:
Rob has decided to implement a reinforcement program based
on appropriate responses rather than a fixed time DRO program. He understands that there is no paraprofessional in
the classroom to help run the program and the teacher has
other educational duties so she cannot run a timer and deliver
reinforcement consistently enough for a rigorous DRO.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee come up create a list of
appropriate questions to ask consumers
when determining an interventions appropriateness and acceptability. Have
each supervisee create his/her own treatment acceptability rating form.
•
Have supervisee list and describe various
extraneous factors that must be taken
into consideration before implementing
an intervention. Have supervisee explain
why it is important to have consumer
satisfaction with an intervention program.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 240
(Figure 10.5), 250, 652, 674-676.
Hawkins, R.P. (1984). What is “meaningful” behavior change in a severely/ profoundly retarded learner: The view of a behavior analytic parent. In W.L. Heward, T.E. Heron,
D.S. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on
behavior analysis in education (pp. 282-286).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall/Merrill.
Reimers, T.M., & Wacker, D.P. (1988). Parent’s ratings of the acceptability of behavior treatment recommendations made in an outpatient clinic: A preliminary analysis of the influence of treatment effectiveness. Behavioral
Disorders, 14, 7-15.
Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social Validity: The case for
subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203-214.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of reinforcement.
G-06: Provide behavior-analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide
services to one’s clients.
G-08: Identify and make environmental changes
that reduce the need for behavior analysis services.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
1-02: Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
J-06: Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments.
J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the social validity of the intervention.
K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral
program.
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain the
client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class.

J-08 Select intervention strategies based
on the social validity of the intervention
A distinguishing characteristic of applied behavior analysis is assessing an individual’s
functioning within the context of natural environments. This applied aspect focuses the
behavior analyst on identifying meaningful
goals and acceptable methods for intervention
that will increase the individual’s independence and level of functioning in natural settings. The behavior analyst sets intervention
goals that comply with stated preferences of
the individual client, goals of those who live
and work with the individual, and consider
how typical individuals function in similar environments. Analysts seek goals that are socially valid and intervention methods that are
not only scientifically validated strategies for
accomplishing those goals, but strategies that
can be expected to be implemented consistently and with fidelity by those who will apply
the strategies. Although an intervention might
be effective in a clinical, controlled setting, the
behavior analyst must consider intervention
limitations related to “social acceptability,
complexity, practicality, and cost. Regardless
of their effectiveness, treatments that are perceived by practitioners, parents, and/or clients as unacceptable or undesirable for whatever reason are unlikely to be used” (Cooper
et al, 2007, p. 250).
Examples:
A child hits her six month-old sister even
when their parents model and reinforce appropriate behaviors toward the baby. The parents find it difficult to avoid explaining to the
child, at the same time that they block her
physically, reasons her behaviors are unkind
and even dangerous. The behavior analyst
talks to the parents about how the parent’s explanations might be reinforcing the big sister
aggression. The parents and the analyst increase the opportunities they have to individually attend to the child during appropriate

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play throughout the day. The parents ask the
analyst to help them design a structured plan
to teach appropriate sibling behaviors through
language, modeling, literature, role play, movies, and increased reinforcement for appropriate behaviors of the sister toward her younger
sibling.
A man hits his head and pulls at his ears
with such force that he has required emergency medical care. At the beginning of treatment, the behavior analyst recommends that
the man be given access to a helmet to prevent
significant injury when he is not adequately
staffed to stop his behavior. His family is
against the man appearing in public with a
protective helmet. The behavior analyst explains the reasons such equipment might be
important for protecting the man from harm
when his 1:1 staff person is distracted by driving a car or interacting with clerks or others in
the community. The analyst and the family
agree that until interventions stops the severe
self-injury, the man will participate in community activities with a helmet unless a family
member accompanies staff in the community
with him.
Assessment:
A behavior analyst wants to increase a nonverbal teenager’s independent functioning
during daily care routines by teaching him to
dress, brush teeth, and bathe independently.
The boy’s mother says she doesn’t mind physically prompting her son through those daily
care routines, but states that she hates his
screaming while she does it.
The analyst completes a functional assessment and learns the following: The boy can
complete most of the steps for dressing,
brushing teeth, and bathing independently,
but has not learned a consistent chain of steps
for each skill. The boy screams at other times
during the day when his mother uses physical

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prompting. Ask the supervisee to consider the
social validity of the behavior analyst’s goals
and the preferences expressed by the boy’s
mother.
1.

Ask the supervisee to write at least
one hypothesis to explain, based on
the information above, what might
be the relations between the self-care
skills and the screaming behavior.
Ask the supervisee to explain to the
mother why teaching the son
chained steps for each skill is important for ending the screaming behavior in non-technical language in
order to gain her support for teaching self-care routines.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Fawcett, S. B. (1991). Social validity: A note
on methodology. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(2), 235-239.
Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case
for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its
heart. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 11(2), 203-214.

Related Lessons:
G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients
G-08 Identify and make environmental
changes that reduce the need for behavior
analysis services.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-04 Select intervention strategies based on
client preferences.
J-05 Select intervention strategies based on
the client’s current repertoires.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments.
J-12 Program for maintenance.
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the
behavior of those responsible for carrying out
behavior-change procedures and design interventions accordingly.
K-03 Design and use competency-based training for persons who are responsible for carrying out behavioral assessment and behaviorchange procedures.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.

J-09 Identify and addresspractical and ethical considerations when using experimental designs to demonstrate treatment
effectiveness
The general goal of behavioral research is “to
demonstrate that measured changes in the target behavior occur because of experimentally
manipulated changes in the environment”
(Cooper, 2007, p. 160). Without a controlled
research design, practitioners cannot claim a
causal relation between intervention and behavior change. Practical and ethical concerns
limit practitioner’s use of experimental designs in most settings. Typical risks associated
with controlled research include the need to
delay treatment while collecting baseline data
or to withdraw interventions that are successful. Each research design has specific risks to
participants associated with its application. In
applied practice, meaningful, socially valid,
and lasting change is the goal. Clients, parents,
staff, and teachers prefer the most efficient
and effective path toward treatment goals. For
such reasons, practitioners seek to show evidence of a correlation rather than a causal relation between changes in a client’s behavior
and an intervention by providing comparison
of patterns of baseline (A) and intervention
(B) responding over time. The AB design has
poor experimental control but strong practical
and ethical value in natural settings.
Examples:
A researcher-practitioner designed a multiple
baseline study for a woman who hit and
scratched herself. The researcher’s review of
the first three days of baseline data showed
that occurrences of the behavior were highly
variable without an obvious pattern of responding. The researcher concluded that further delay of treatment that might decrease a
dangerous behavior was not ethical. The researcher knew that the strength of the results
of his research would be threatened if he began treatment before he had a clear pattern in

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baseline responding, but his responsibility to
his client, and those close to her, was his primary concern. He regretted not anticipating
this possibility by choosing a research design
that could have demonstrated experimental
control without depending on highly stable
baseline responding.
A student’s teacher did not want the student
to participate in a graduate supervisee’s study
because the supervisee planned to work with
the student during classroom reading instruction. Even though the research study was designed to provide a benefit to the student by
increasing sight-word reading, the boy’s parent refused to sign permission for his participation. The supervisee realized that social validity was threatened by his original plan and
he would have to arrange to work with the student after school or exclude him from the
study.
Assessment:
1. Ask the supervisee to explain what
baseline logic is and why it is important for showing causal (experimentally controlled research) or correlational (change over time) relations between an intervention and an
individual’s behavior change.
2. A graduate student supervisee was
planning to conduct single subject
research using a withdrawal (ABAB)
design. The supervisee wanted to
test for a causal relation between a
gel-filled wedge pillow and the fidgety, out-of-seat behavior of a middle
school student in his class. His supervisor warned that removing an
effective treatment might have longlasting results on the student’s performance. What design might the supervisee recommend that would
show repetitive positive effects of
the gel-filled pillow intervention

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without requiring the supervisee to
withdraw a beneficial treatment?
Ask the supervisee to demonstrate
his decision by drawing a rough line
graph showing both designs with the
gel-filled pillow as the intervention
and explain why one design is a better choice ethically while still meeting practical goals for the supervisee
and student.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Gast, D. L. (2010). Single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences. New York: NY:
Routledge.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.

G-08 Identify and make environmental
changes that reduce the need for behavior
analysis services.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
J-02 Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
06 Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints.
J-08 Select intervention strategies based on
the social validity of the intervention.
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased.
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the
behavior of those responsible for carrying out
behavior-change procedures and design interventions accordingly.
K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral program

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased,
select an acceptable alternative behavior to be established or increased.
Definition:
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - “a procedure for decreasing problem
behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for a
behavior that serves as desirable alternative to the
behavior targeted for reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behavior”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 693).
When choosing a replacement behavior, look at
behavior that would serve the same function or
would meet the same reinforcers for the problem
behavior. This response could be using vocal-verbal behavior, exchanging a symbol, using sign language, etc. Consider the pros and cons of each
mode. How quickly can the response be taught? Is
it likely to be less or more effortful than the problem behavior? Will the new response meet reinforcement in natural settings?
Initially, the response to be taught should be reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule
to ensure that the individual makes steady contact
with the reinforcer and that this new replacement
behavior occurs often and becomes strengthened
in the individual’s repertoire. Once the new response is at strength, the DRA schedule should be
thinned to reflect reinforcement rates that occur in
the natural environment (e.g., a child learning to request for a break in lieu of eloping will not likely be
granted a break every time he/she asks for one in a
typical classroom environment).
Challenging behavior may resurge when DRA
schedules are thinned. There are several techniques
that can be utilized to decrease this occurrence: increase the response requirement of the alternative
response (e.g., if the alternate response is to ask for
a break, allow a break only after completion of a set
amount of work), provide a delay for reinforcement for the alternative response (e.g., provide a
break after several minutes), decrease availability of
alternative response materials (e.g. if break is requested utilizing a break card, limit amount of
breaks or decrease presentation), and use of a multiple schedule of reinforcement such as providing
more reinforcement for completing work than asking for a break (Sweeney & Shahan, 2013).

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Assessment:
• At a job or during role-play, ask supervisee
what would be an appropriate alternative behavior that would allow the individual to access
same or similar reinforcer. Ask about alternative responses for a variety of reinforcer types.
• Have your supervisee list considerations when
selecting an appropriate alternative replacement behavior
• At a job or during role-play, have your supervisee design criteria for when DRA schedule
should be thinned and what that process
should look like.
Relevant Literature:
Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative
behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Analysis, 43(4), 569-589.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sweeney, M.M., & Shahan, T.A., (2013). Effects of
high, low, and thinning rates of alternative reinforcement on response elimination and resurgence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior, 100(1), 102-116.
Vollmer, T. R., Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E., &
Marcus, B. A. (1999). Evaluating treatment
challenges with differential reinforcement of alternative behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 32(1), 9-23.
Related Lessons:
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of
reinforcement.
D-18. Use Extinction.
D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement with
punishment and extinction.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors
that must be established, maintained, increased or
decreased.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints.

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J-11 Program for stimulus and response
generalization

Behavior analysts teach socially significant
skills to help clients function where they work
or live. Program interventions for the client
behavior to contact naturally occurring reinforcement contingencies in their typical environments using new skills. Generalization
might result in a “a great deal of generalized
behavior change; that is, after all components
of an intervention have been terminated, the
learner may emit the newly acquired target behavior, as well as several functionally related
behaviors not observed previously in his repertoire, at every appropriate opportunity in all
relevant settings, and he may do so indefinitely” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
621).
To increase stimulus generalization, the behavior analyst systematically varies where intervention is implemented, conditions under
which it is implemented, and people who implement it in a gradual manner from acquisition through practicing stages. To develop a
response class of functionally equivalent skills,
the behavior analyst trains using a variety of
responses that eventually may include incorrect responses and novel correct responses.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee read Stokes and
Baer (1977).
• Have supervisee list and describe the
ways one might program for generalization.
• Provide examples of skills that may
be taught to an individual. Have supervisee describe how they can program for generalization and indicate
which type of generalization (stimulus or response) they will be training.

Example:
Stimulus generalization strategies

Response generalization strategies

A range of appropriate
situations and people to
greet socially: Teacher;
peer; parent; sibling; or
stranger passing on
sidewalk.
A range of appropriate
math addition sentences: Two plus two
equals four;
2+2=4

A range of appropriate responses:
“Hello”; “HI”; head
nod; or “How are
you?”

Teach:

A range of ways for
others to ask for a
choice: “Tell me what
you want”; “point to
what you want”; “take
one”.

Teach:

A range of appropriate behaviors to
show the math problem total: written
number 4; saying
“four;” or holding
up four fingers.
A range of behaviors
for appropriately
making choices:
point; take; sign; or
tell.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit
technology of generalization. .Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 349-367.
Related Lessons:
E-02 Use discrimination training procedures.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-02 Identify potential interventions based on
assessment results and the best available scientific evidence.
J-12 Program for maintenance.
FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-12 stimulus equivalence
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-36 response generalization

J-12 Program for Maintenance
Response maintenance refers to “the extent to
which a learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention responsible for the behavior’s initial
appearance in the learner’s repertoire has been
terminated” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007,
p. 703). Rusch and Kazdin (1981) note that
withdrawing or gradually fading components
of an individual’s treatment package can support response maintenance.
Program for behavior learned in structured
environments to be maintained with contingencies in the client’s natural environment.
Thin reinoforcement schedules so that the
natural environment can support and continue to maintain similar rates in behavior (e.g.
While learning to mand, a child may be given
a chip every time she asks for a chip. However, as she becomes more adept with this
goal, the schedule of reinforcement should
move from a continuous schedule to an intermittent schedule because the child will not always be given a chip upon request in her natural environment.)
Response maintenance can often be confused
with generalization across multiple exemplars.
The key difference is that response maintenance is said to occur if the response can be
maintained in settings and situations in which
it was previously exhibited, after generalization
to that setting and/or situation has already occurred at least once in the past. For instance,
if an individual was taught how to purchase
items at a store and did so successfully at some

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point at Starbucks, McDonald’s and Target
but did not exhibit this skill at Starbucks a
month later, a lack of response maintenance is
said to occur. If, however, the individual did
not exhibit the skill at Macy’s where the individual has never performed the skill, a lack of
generalization is said to occur (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Assessment:
• Have supervisee give examples of response maintenance.
• In a role-play or on the job, ask supervisee how he/she would program
for response maintenance.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rusch, F. R. & Kazdin, A.E. (1981). Toward
a methodology of withdrawal designs for
the assessment of response maintenance.
Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 14 (2),
131-140.
Related Lessons:
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on
supporting environments
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on
environmental and resource constraints
J-08 Select intervention strategies based on
social validity of intervention
J-11 Program for stimulus and response generalization

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J-13 Select behavioral cusps as goals for intervention when appropriate.

“A behavior that has consequences beyond
the change itself, some of which may be considered important…What makes a behavior
change a cusp is that it exposes the individual’s repertoire to new environments, especially new reinforcers and punishers, new contingencies, new responses, new stimulus controls, and new communities of maintaining or
destructive contingencies. When some or all
of these events happen, the individual’s repertoire expands; it encounters a differentially selective maintenance of the new as well as
some old repertoires, and perhaps that leads
to some further cusps.” (Rosales-Ruiz & Baer,
1997, p. 534).
Bosch and Fuqua (2001) cited 5 criteria for a
behavior to be considered a behavioral cusp.
“They stated that a behavior might be a cusp
if it meets one or more of five criteria: “(a) access to new reinforcers, contingencies, and environments; (b) social validity; (c) generativeness; (d) competition with inappropriate responses; and (e) number and the relative importance of people affected.” (Bosch &
Fuqua, 2001, p. 125 via Cooper et al., 2007, p.
59).
Examples:
Common behavioral cusps include crawling,
reading, imitation skills, walking, talking, and
writing. These skills set the stage for the client
to develop and learn many other skills (i.e.,
reading allows a client to access leisure material, access information, and is necessary in regards to reading street and safety signs, and
accessing various other forms of reinforcement).

Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify 5 behaviors that
he/she feels are behavioral cusps. Have
him/her describe why the behavior is a
behavioral cusp.
• Have supervisee read Rosales-Ruiz &
Baer (1997) article on behavioral cusps.
Have him/her summarize the main
points of this article.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 58-59.
Rosales-Ruiz, J., & Baer, D. M. (1997). Behavioral cusps: A developmental and pragmatic concept for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 533–
544.
Bosch, S. & Fuqua, R.W. (2001). Behavioral
cusps: a model for selecting target behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
34(1), 123-125.
Related Lessons:
G-08: Identify and make environmental
changes that reduce the need for behavior
analysis services.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms.
J-08: Select interventions based on the social
validity of the intervention.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

J-14 Arrange instructional procedures to
promote generative learning (i.e., derived
relations).
Generative learning involves applying learning
to novel contexts without being explicitly taught
and is related to language and cognition. Deriving relations is based on the stimulus equivalence
paradigm and procedures (Sidman, 1971). A
small number of taught relations among stimuli
may generate numerous derived relations (Wulfert & Hayes, 1988). Readers are encouraged to
understand stimulus equivalence prior to arranging instructional procedures to promote generative learning. Experimental procedures often utilize matching-to-sample tasks or a computerized
program called Implicit Relational Assessment
Procedure (IRAP) to teach derived relations. It
has been extensively studied in children with autism (Kilroe, Murphy, Barnes-Holmes, &
Barnes-Holmes, 2014). The general instructional
procedure involves providing explicit reinforcement for a series of conditional discriminations,
after which untrained relations (i.e., derived relations) will emerge and can be subsequently reinforced.
Stimulus equivalence is one of several empirically supported examples of derived relations, as
relations can be derived based on opposition,
temporality, analogy, comparison, and distinction (Stewart, McElwee, & Ming, 2013). Relational Frame Theory (RFT) was developed as a
behavior analytic account of human language
and cognition (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche,
2001) and addresses the need for a theoretical
explanation for generative learning, Resources
for learning RFT are included in the relevant literature section.
Example:
• A learner is taught that spoken word “apple”
= picture of an apple = written word “apple”
= picture of an apple. These two relations are
directly taught. However, through this explicit training, the learner can derive that the
spoken word “apple” = written word “apple.” In this example, reinforcement should
occur for successful matching of the two
trained relations. Once the third relation is
derived, the response should be reinforced.

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Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to provide a definition of derived relations.
• Ask supervisee to provide examples of derived relations.
• Supervisor should ensure that supervisee
thoroughly understands stimulus equivalence, matching-to-sample procedures, and
conditional discriminations, in order to arrange instructional procedures to promote
generative learning. Once this foundational
learning has occurred, supervisor can ask supervisee to demonstrate teaching procedures
that will facilitate generative learning.
Relevant Literature:
Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B.
(2001). Relational frame theory: A post-skinnerian account of human language and cognition.
New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and
behavior: A research story. Boston, MA:
Author’s Cooperative.
Stewart, I., McElwee, J., & Ming, S. (2013). Language generativity, response generalization,
and derived relational responding. Analysis
of Verbal Behavior, 29, 137-155.
Torneke, N. (2010). Learning RFT: An introduction
to relational frame theory and its clinical application. Oakland, CA: Context Press.
Wulfert, E., & Hayes, S. C. (1988). Transfer of a
conditional ordering response through
conditional equivalence classes. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 125144.
Related Lessons:
E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class.
FK-24 stimulus control.
FK-34 conditional discriminations.

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J-15 Base decision-making on data displayed in various formats

Behavior analysts make decisions during assessment and intervention based on data.
Graphic displays (e.g., line graphs, bar graphs,
and cumulative graphs) aid accurate and efficient interpretation of quantitative data and
facilitate communication with others. “The
primary function of a graph is to communicate without assistance from the accompanying text” (Spriggs & Gast, 2010, p. 167). Line
graphs are most often used by behavior analysts to show effects and possible functional
relations between intervention (independent
variable) and a defined behavior (dependent
variable). Bar graphs are often used by behavior analysts to summarize or compare discrete
aspects of recorded behavior. Cumulative
graphs show the rate of change in responding
across time. Although they may be used with
duration or latency data, they are most often
used to show frequency data. Behavior analysts often use tables to summarize data or
other information. “An informative table supplements—rather than duplicates—the text”
(APA, 2010). As with graphs, a table should
communicate efficiently but include enough

Toy
Car
Blocks
Bubbles
Doll

Chosen
1st
5
0
1
1

Chosen
2 nd
2
3
1
1

Chosen
3rd
0
4
3
0

Assessment:
Example 1 data display: Ask the supervisee to
interpret results of the constant time delay intervention using only the graphic data. Would
the supervisee recommend CTD for teaching
discrete skills to this student? Ask the supervisee to write a title for this graph.

information to be understood alone without
explanations in the text.
Examples:
Example 1: A behavior analyst interprets the
effectiveness of a constant time delay procedure for teaching a student 10 sight words using
the
following
line
graph:

2: A behavior analyst uses a table to summarize the number of times a child chose a specific toy during seven sessions of free-play
with four toys available.

Chosen 4th
0
0
2
5

Frequency of toy as 1st or
2 nd choice
7
3
2
2

Example 2 data display: Ask the supervisee to
interpret information in the table to decide
which toys she would place in a free time area
for this child to enjoy. Would the supervisee
consider adding different types of any one toy
to the playtime area based on this data? If so,
which type? If not, why not? Ask the supervisee to write a title for this table.

Relevant Literature:
American Psychological Association. (2010).
Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC:
Author.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Spriggs, A. D., & Gast, D. L. (2010). Visual
representation of data. In D. L. Gast
(Ed.), Single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences (pp 166-198). New York,
NY: Routledge.
Related Lessons:
A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using
equal-interval graphs.
A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using a
cumulative record to display data.
A-12 Design and implement continuous
measurement procedures (e.g., event recording).

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A-14 Design and implement choice measures.
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and
variability.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
I-07 Design and conduct preference assessments to identify putative reinforcers.
J-01 State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
K-04 Design and use effective performance
monitoring and reinforcement systems.
FK-33 functional relations

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K-01 Provide for Ongoing Documentation
of Behavioral Services
Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to
documentation in 2.10 and 2.11 of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board professional
and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts Boundaries of Competence:

2.10 Documenting Professional Work and
Research.
(a) Behavior analysts appropriately document
their professional work in order to facilitate
provision of services later by them or by other
professionals, to ensure accountability, and to
meet other requirements of organizations or
the law.
(b) Behavior analysts have a responsibility to
create and maintain documentation in the
kind of detail and quality that would be consistent with best practices and the law.
2.11 Records and Data.
(a) Behavior analysts create, maintain, disseminate, store, retain, and dispose of records and
data relating to their research, practice, and
other work in accordance with applicable
laws, regulations, and policies; in a manner
that permits compliance with the requirements of this Code; and in a manner that allows for appropriate transition of service
oversight at any moment in time.
(b) Behavior analysts must retain records and
data for at least seven (7) years and as otherwise required by law. (BACB, 2014, p.9)
Written documentation of work products
(such as raw data sheets, reports and spreadsheets) must be kept be kept in secure locations in the event that this information may
need to be transferred to other professionals
that are also supporting the client. Ongoing
documentation and record-keeping also ensures accountability for services rendered.
Documentation should be thorough and wellmaintained; should the behavioral analysts’

professional services be involved in legal proceedings, documentation must be detailed and
comprehensive enough to meet judicial scrutiny (Bailey & Burch, 2011).
Record disposal must sufficiently eliminate
all confidential records that may reveal client’s
private health information. Electronic transfer
of client’s identifying information and records
under any insecure medium (e.g. public areas,
fax and email) are prohibited by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Assessment:
• Provide hypothetical scenarios and
ask your supervisee if documentation of behavioral services was sufficient.
• Ask your supervisee where current
work products are stored. Request to
see written documentation of work
products assess to see if documentation is thorough and well-maintained.
• Use behavioral skills training to
practice documenting sessions with
clients or observations of staff members.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved from www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the behavior of those responsible for
carrying out behavior-change procedures
and design interventions accordingly.
Behavior is understood to be a product of the
environment in which it occurs. This is the
same for all organisms, including the client,
the caretakers, the professionals working with
the client, and ourselves. A well trained behavior analyst accounts for the environmental arrangement for all of the individuals involved
in the behavior change process.
For instance, if a procedure is very effortful
and will not produce an effect for several
weeks, what will reinforce the behavior of the
family member/teacher who will be implementing it? If a procedure produces lots of aggression or screaming, it should be considered
that these are often aversive stimuli to the
people implementing it.
“Treatment drift occurs when the application of the independent variable during later
phases of an experiment differs from the way
it was applied at the outset of the study.”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 235).This is often the
result of a practitioner’s behavior meeting
competing contingencies after having followed the plan for a period of time.
High treatment integrity can be achieved by
creating a thorough and precise definition for
the independent variables, simplifying the
treatment procedures, providing ample training and practice to all individuals responsible
for treatment, and assessing the contingencies
each person’s behavior will meet while following through with these interventions.
Other factors that can help improve treatment integrity and regulate the behavior of
those involved in the experiment include using less expensive and less intrusive procedures, seeking help and input from the participants family members and other people close
to them, setting socially significant but easyto-meet criterion for reinforcement, eliminat-

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183

ing reinforcement gained outside of performing the target response, and contrive contingencies that will compete with natural contingencies.
Example:
Don has been asked to help deliver a new differential reinforcement program to decrease
his student’s self-injury. However, he has been
short of staffing lately and cannot do this consistently throughout the day. This has caused
the program to be run without integrity and
the self-injury to remain at the same rates.
Rick, the BCBA who designed the program,
started observing the classroom to see why
the program was not working. After noticing
that Don was only delivering the reinforcers
intermittently and missing opportunities for
reinforcement, Rick decided to retrain Don
and ask the principal for extra staff when
someone calls out sick.
Non-example:
Roger is implementing a new response cost
program to decrease verbal protesting for one
of his students. However, even though the
program has been run as designed for several
weeks, there has been no effect on the verbal
protesting of the student. The supervisor collected integrity data and found that the plan
had been run as prescribed. The problem is
likely related to the procedure itself and not its
implementation.
Assessment:
• Make sure the supervisee makes considerations about the effort and practicality
of the treatment they attempt to get other
people to implement.
• Have supervisee identify several strategies for increasing treatment integrity.

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Have him/her describe how they would
use these strategies in an applied setting.
Have supervisee read several articles in
which an intervention was implemented
to decrease or increase a target behavior.
Have him/her identify the strategies the
researcher used to increase treatment integrity.
Have supervisee define and describe
treatment drift. Have him/her describe
how they would account for the occurrence of treatment drift and adjust an intervention or experiment accordingly.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 235-236, 603-604, 607-609,
652, 659-678.
Fryling, M.F., Wallace, M.D., & Yassine, J.N.
(2012). Impact of treatment integrity on
intervention effectiveness. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45, 2, 449-453.
DiGennaro-Reed, F.D, Reed, D.D, Baez,
C.N, & Maguire, H. (2011) A parametric
analysis of errors of commission during
discrete-trial training. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 44,611–615.
Wheeler, J.J, Baggett, B.A, Fox, J., & Blevins,
L. (2006). Treatment integrity: A review
of intervention studies conducted with
children with autism. Focus on Autism and
Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 45–54.
Wilder, D.A, Atwell, J., & Wine, B. (2006).
The effects of varying levels of treatment

integrity on child compliance during
treatment with a three-step prompting
procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 39, 369–373.
McIntyre, L.L, Gresham, F.M, DiGennaro,
F.D, & Reed, D.D. (2007). Treatment integrity of school-based interventions
with children in the Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis 1991–2005. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 659–672.
Peterson, L, Homer, A.L, & Wonderlich,
S.A.(1982). The integrity of independent
variables in behavior analysis. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 477–492.
St. Peter Pipkin, C, Vollmer, T.R, & Sloman,
K.N. (2010). Effects of treatment integrity failures during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior: A translational model. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 43, 47–70.

Related Lessons:
J-01: State intervention goals in observable
and measurable terms.
K-03: Design and use competency-based
training for persons who are responsible for
carrying out behavioral assessment and behavior-change procedures.
K-04: Design and use effective performance
monitoring and reinforcement systems.
K-05: Design and use systems for monitoring
procedural integrity.
K-06: Provide supervision for behaviorchange agents.
K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic
services from direct and indirect consumers.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

K-03 Design and use competency-based
training for persons who are responsible
for carrying out behavioral assessment
and behavior change procedures
Rationale
In order for staff and family members to collect accurate data and to carry out a behavior
intervention plan effectively and consistently,
all staff must receive training. Inconsistent
applications of procedures may lead to slow
improvement or have effects that make behavior worse than before treatment.
Training models
Much research has studied competency based
training for staff, teachers and parents. Parsons and Reed (1995) increased staff performance by using classroom-based instruction,
observation, and feedback on the work site.
Shore et al. (1995) provided training in data
collection, calculation, and review of treatment procedure, followed by training in treatment implementation in-situ with feedback
and assistance. A third phase of instructing
supervisors how to train direct service providers was implemented. Sarokoff and Sturmey
(2004) provided staff with a written definition
of the plan, feedback regarding their baseline
performance, rehearsal with reinforcement
and corrective feedback, and in-situ modeling
and rehearsal for 10 minutes. Miles and Wilder (2009) used Behavior Skills Training
(BST) that involved providing a written description, reviewing baseline performance, rehearsal and feedback, and then repeating
modeling and rehearsal until the staff completed three trials accurately.
BST has also been used to train individuals to
conduct behavioral assessments such as functional analyses. For example, Iwata et al.
(2000) and Lambert, Bloom, Clay, Kunnavatanna, and Collins (2014) trained participants
to conduct functional analysis conditions with
adequate fidelity.
Elements of competency-based training
• Clear instructions

•
•
•
•
•

185

Modeling
Rehearsal
Feedback
Repetition until skills mastered
Treatment Integrity data monitored

Threats to accuracy and reliability
Poor staff training can lead to inaccurate baseline, functional assessment and treatment
data. Systematic training of occurrence and
nonoccurrence and other critical data collection information and providing booster training will help to minimize the following challenges:
• Observer drift
• Observer reactivity
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to list elements
of competency-based training.
• Ask your supervisee to create an example curriculum for training staff
to collect ABC data collection.
• Use behavior skills training to teach
your supervisee to teach a treatment
procedure to staff.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd
Edition. Pearson
Education, Inc..
Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lindberg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., ...
& Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisition in the implementation of functional
analysis methodology. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 33(2), 181-194.
Lambert, J. M., Bloom, S. E., Clay, C. J., Kunnavatana, S. S., & Collins, S. D. (2014).
Training residential staff and supervisors to conduct traditional functional

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analyses. Research in developmental disabilities, 35(7), 1757-1765.
Miles, N. I., & Wilder, D. A. (2009). The effects of behavioral skills training on
caregiver implementation of guided
compliance. Journal of applied behavior
analysis, 42(2), 405-410.
Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1995). Training
residential supervisors to provide feedback for maintaining staff teaching skills
with people who have severe disabilities.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3),
317-322.
Sarokoff, R. A., & Sturmey, P. (2004). The effects of behavioral skills training on staff
implementation of discrete‐trial teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
37(4), 535-538.

Shore, B. A., Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., Lerman, D. C., & Zarcone, J. R. (1995). Pyramidal staff training in the extension of
treatment for severe behavior disorders.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3),
323-332.
Related Lessons:
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training
D-05 Use shaping
E-03 Use instructions and rules
F-03 Use direct instruction
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the
behavior of those responsible for carrying out
behavior-change procedures and design interventions accordingly

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

K-04 Design and use effective performance monitoring and reinforcement systems
Rationale
Staff performance in the application of behavioral
strategies is critical to the success of the behavior
intervention plan. Developing a system to monitor
staff performance and motivate staff performance
is just as important as developing an effective intervention plan.
Staff performance models
Richman, Riordan, Reiss, Pyles, and Bailey (1988)
found that self-monitoring and supervision feedback increased staff performance.
Arco (2008) found that defining the process before training, providing on-the job supervisory
feedback, and having staff provide self-generated
outcome feedback before and after training was effective at increasing and maintaining the performance in behavioral treatment programs.
Codding, Feinberg, Dunn, and Pace (2004)
found that treatment integrity increased following
a one hour performance feedback session every
other week. Social validity ratings provided favorable feedback for the frequent supervisions.
Iwata, Bailey, Brown, Foshee, and Alpern (1976)
found that performance-based lottery improved
the performance of institutional staff.
Elements of providing effective performance
based monitoring and reinforcement systems
•
Provide clear instructions and objectives in
observable measurable terms
•
Develop treatment integrity checklist
•
Train the supervisor to provide supervision
and frequent on the job feedback (both corrective and positive)
•
Train staff to collect a self-monitoring system
for their performance
•
Train the supervisor to provide social or tangible reinforcement based on performance of
the staff
•
Teach the supervisor to graph and monitor
staff performance while looking for trend
lines
Assessment:
•
Ask your supervisee to list elements of
providing effective performance based monitoring and reinforcement systems.

•

187

Ask your supervisee to create an example of
performance based monitoring and a reinforcement system for a current intervention
plan.
Use behavior skills training to teach your supervisee to implement the approved procedure with staff.

Relevant Literature:
Arco, L. (2008). Feedback for improving staff
training and performance in behavioral treatment programs. Behavioral Interventions, 23(1),
39-64.
Codding, R. S., Feinberg, A. B., Dunn, E. K., &
Pace, G. M. (2005). Effects of immediate performance feedback on implementation of behavior support plans. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 38(2), 205-219.
Iwata, B. A., Bailey, J. S., Brown, K. M., Foshee, T.
J., & Alpern, M. (1976). A performance-based
lottery to improve residential care and training
by instituational staff. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 9(4), 417-431.
Richman, G. S., Riordan, M. R., Reiss, M. L., Pyles,
D. A., & Bailey, J. S. (1988). The effects of self‐
monitoring and supervisor feedback on staff
performance in a residential setting. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 21(4), 401-409.
Related Lessons:
D-01 Use positive reinforcement
F-01 Use self-management strategies
F-02 Use token economies and other conditioned
reinforcement systems
F-03 Use direct instruction
H-03 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods
H-04 Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant qualitative relations
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and variability
I-01 Define behavior in observable measurable
terms
K-03 Design and use competency-based training
for persons responsible for carrying out behavioral
assessment & behavior-change procedures
K-05 Design and use systems for monitoring procedural integrity

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K-05 Design and use systems for monitoring procedural integrity

Definitions:
Procedural Integrity - "The extent to which
the independent variable is applied exactly as
planned and described and no other unplanned variables are administered inadvertently along with the planned treatment"
(Cooper Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 706-707).
Treatment Drift - "An undesirable situation
in which the independent variable of an experiment is applied differently during later stages
than it was at the outset of the study" (Cooper
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 706).
Low treatment integrity is not only bad for research (confounding, cannot interpret the results) but can also lead to inconsistencies and
poor outcomes in treatments. These can be
related to many factors such as experimenter
bias (unfair advantage to see positive results),
staff implementing only procedures they favor, treatment too difficult to implement,
poor staff training, or staff turnover.
Systems to Avoid Treatment Drift
• Precise operational definition
• Make behavioral plan simple and easy
to administer
• Provide competency-based training
(use behavior skills training)
• Assess treatment integrity
Assessing Treatment Integrity
• Provide a brief checklist of each of the
components in the treatment plan
• May be self-monitored but important
to conduct inter-rater reliability
• Establish a schedule to complete the
treatment integrity
• Graph the percent of treatment integrity and monitor to ensure treatment
drift does not occur

Assessment:
1. Ask supervisee to describe why procedural integrity is important.
2. Ask supervisee to create a procedural
integrity checklist for a behavioral program.
3. Ask supervisee to collect data using
the procedural integrity checklist in the
natural environment and take interrater reliability measurement with
yourself, discuss discrepancies, repeat
if necessary.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.
(2011). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Routledge.
Wolery, M. (1994). Procedural fidelity: A reminder of its functions. Journal of Behavioral
Education, 4(4), 381-386.
Related Lessons:
F-01 Use self-management strategies
H-03 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods
H-04 Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant qualitative relations
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and variability
K-03 Design and use competency-based training
for persons who are responsible for carrying out
behavioral assessment and behavior-change procedures
K-04 Design and use effective performance
monitoring and reinforcement systems
Footnotes:
Also called procedural fidelity, treatment integrity, procedural reliability, or treatment adherence

K-06 Provide supervision for behaviorchange agents
Smith, Parker, Taubman, and Lovaas (1992) found
that knowledge transfer from a staff training workshop did not generalize to the group home. Research suggests that training is most effective if
there is training and ongoing supervision in the environment where the behavior change program is
occurring (Parsons & Reed, 1995; Sarokoff & Sturmey, 2004; Miles & Wilder, 2009)
Codding, Feinberg, Dunn and Pace (2004)
found that treatment integrity increased following
a one hour performance feedback session every
other week. Social validity ratings provided favorable feedback for the frequent supervisions.
Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007) suggest that
supervision of data takers and booster training is
necessary to avoid observer drift.
Observing and graphing data will provide immediate feedback on the participant's performance.
This can lead to quick decisions, modifications if
necessary, or the termination of ineffective programs. This supervision is necessary to create the
most effective interventions and troubleshoot areas
for improvement. It is also important to observe
the intervention in the natural environment in order to determine if the intervention is realistic and
practical in the natural environment.
Summary of Rationale for Supervision of Behavior
Change Agents
•
Provides effective knowledge transfer for individuals implementing the intervention
•
Increases motivation and treatment integrity
•
Reduces error associated with data collection
•
Allows for quick clinical decisions to modify
or terminate programs which ensures the
most effective treatment
Assessment:
•
Ask supervisee to describe why it is important
to provide supervision of behavior change
agents.
•
Look at data with supervisee and ask them to
discuss what modification they may consider
•
Have supervisee observe intervention in the
home environment and ask them to write
down suggestions to increase the effectiveness of the plan.

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Relevant Literature:
Codding, R. S., Feinberg, A. B., Dunn, E. K., &
Pace, G. M. (2005). Effects of immediate
performance feedback on implementation of
behavior support plans. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(2), 205-219.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc.
Miles, N. I., & Wilder, D. A. (2009). The effects of
behavioral skills training on caregiver implementation of guided compliance. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 405-410.
Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1995). Training residential supervisors to provide feedback for
maintaining staff teaching skills with people
who have severe disabilities. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 28(3), 317-322.
Sarokoff, R. A., & Sturmey, P. (2004). The effects
of behavioral skills training on staff implementation of discrete‐trial teaching. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(4), 535-538.
Smith, T., Parker, T., Taubman, M., & Ivar Lovaas,
O. (1992). Transfer of staff training from
workshops to group homes: A failure to generalize across settings. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 13(1), 57-71.
Related Lessons:
H-03 Select a schedule of observation and recording periods.
H-04 Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant qualitative relations
H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and variability.
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the behavior of those responsible for carrying out behavior-change procedures and design interventions accordingly.
K-03 Design and use competency-based training
for persons who are responsible for carrying out
behavioral assessment and behavior-change procedures.
K-04 Design and use effective performance monitoring and reinforcement systems.

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K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral program

In the field of applied behavior analysis, it is
crucial to have ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of behavior programs. This helps
to ensure that the most effective treatments
are being offered to a client based on ethical
practices, the most current research, and the
individual’s needs.
Birnbrauer (1999) lists the following steps
for evaluating the effectiveness of treatment:
1. Describe the exact purposes of the
treatment –what is it intended to
achieve?
2. Describe exactly how the treatment is
conducted –there should be no mystery
or secrecy about the methods and procedures being used.
3. Describe how treatment effects were
measured –what numerical data were
collected and how were they collected?
4. Show before and after data collected by
independent, unbiased evaluators
5. Show follow up data –do the persons
maintain gains? Do they continue to improve? Do they regress?
“The data obtained throughout a behavior
change program or a research study are the
means for that contract; they form the empirical basis for every important decision: to continue with the present procedure, to try a different intervention, or to reinstitute a previous
condition” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 167). It is important that if there is evidence
of behavioral regression or that the treatment
package is ineffective, that the team re-evaluate, make changes or adjustments, or discontinue a behavioral program entirely. It is unethical to continue a behavioral program that
is deemed ineffective.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to state why ongoing
evaluation of a behavioral program is
important.
• Ask the supervisee to state what all important program decisions should be
driven by.

• Ask the supervisee to state who should
be evaluating data.
• Ask the supervisee under which conditions to discontinue a behavioral program.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Birnbrauer, J.S (1999). How to Evaluate Intervention Programs. Cambridge Center
for Behavioral Studies, Inc.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, &Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time).
G-01 Review records and available data at the
outset of the case.
H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors that must be established, maintained,
increased, or decreased.
J-01 State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral program.

K-08 Establish support for behavior analytic services from direct and indirect consumers
As a behavior analyst, it is important to conduct yourself with professionalism to your clients and their family and also to individuals
from other disciplines that may support your
client. You must enlist a circle of care around
your client, which will help you to better understand your client through the lenses of another discipline. For example if you have a
child who has feeding refusal, taking the time
to enlist information from the nutritionist,
speech pathologist, doctors and occupational
therapists will help you to provide safe and effective treatment.
In addition, when providing treatment having help from people within the client's family,
the community, and from the circle of care
around your client will enable you to generalize skills to new environments, new people
and new activities. These individuals can be a
great asset in troubleshooting and providing
additional data as well.
Additionally, when your goals are met, you
will leave. In order for the continued support
of your client and the maintenance of the
goals, it is important to enlist individuals who
will be with the client for a longer period.
Bailey and Burch (2010) provide a useful
book on professional strategies. He provides
several suggestions on how to establish a
working relationship in the best interest of the
client. Establishing yourself as a positive reinforcer for your colleagues by demonstrating
integrity, basic meeting etiquette, providing a
professional image, using nontechnical language, listening to others, and bringing their
opinions into the assessment.

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191

Assessment:
1. Ask supervisee to describe the importance of enlisting the help of direct and indirect consumers.
2. Use behavior skill tracking to teach
and practice describing interventions
in nontechnical terms.
3. Discuss challenges in dealing with
colleagues within different fields and
strategies to help.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J. S., & Burch, M. R. (2009). 25 Essential
Skills & Strategies for the Professional Behavior Analyst: Expert Tips for Maximizing Consulting Effectiveness. Taylor & Francis.
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved
from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Related Lessons:
G-07 Practice within one's limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision,
training, or make referrals as necessary.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain
the client's behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.
K-10 Arrange for the orderly termination of
services when they are no longer required.

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K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the client’s behavioral repertoires in
their natural environments.

Foxx (1996, p. 230) stated that in programming
successful behavior change interventions, “10% is
knowing what to do; 90% is getting people to do
it…Many programs are unsuccessful because these
percentages have been reversed.” (Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 652).
Being explicit yet simplistic in describing programs and protocols will help secure support from
other individuals in a client’s environment. If a behavior change procedure or program is too difficult, technical, or places unreasonable demands on
the other individuals involved, they are less likely to
implement these programs. In addition, adequate
training of behavior procedures should be provided
to ensure proper implementation by those interacting with the client in the natural environment. Specifically, training pertaining to the delivery of reinforcers, which maintain the individual’s newly acquired behavioral repertoires.
Jarmolowicz et al. (2008) compared the effectiveness of conversational language instructions
and technical language instructions when explaining how to implement a treatment to caregivers.
They found that the caregivers that were given conversational language instruction implemented the
treatment more accurately.
Example:
Richard is trying to generalize skills learned in the
special education classroom for one of his students.
He went to each teacher to explain how this will
help the student in their class and answered any
questions they may have about the programs. In
addition, he conducted a training on the specific
program and offered to consult with each teacher
in order to make sure generalization was successful
and the repertoire was maintained.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee identify ways they can build a
rapport with other service providers and help
support them when they have a student who
needs to generalize and maintain skills in new
settings.
• Have supervisee choose a particular behavior
change program or strategy. Have him/her describe and explain this program to an individual

•

who does not have a background in applied behavior analysis.
Have supervisee choose a specific behavior
change program. Have him/her practice explaining the benefits of this program to others
in order to get them on board with implementing this program.
Give supervisee a complex behavior change
program. Have him/her simplify this program
and create guidelines and instructions that they
could give to an individual who does not have
knowledge of applied behavior analytic strategies and techniques.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 641-642, 652.
David P. Jarmolowicz, SungWoo Kahng, Einar T.
Ingvarsson, Richard Goysovich, Rebecca
Heggemeyer, Meagan K. Gregory, and Steven
J. Taylor (2008) Effects of Conversational Versus Technical Language on Treatment Preference and Integrity. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: June 2008, Vol. 46, No. 3,
pp. 190-199.
Stokes, T.F., Baer, D.M., & Jackson, R.L. (1974).
Programming the generalization of a greeting
response in four retarded children. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 599-610.
Related Lessons:
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain…
J-01: State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
K-03: Design and use competency-based training
for persons responsible for carrying out behavioral
assessment & behavior-change procedures.
K-04: Design and use effective performance monitoring and reinforcement systems.
K-06: Provide supervision for behavior-change
agents.
K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic services from direct and indirect consumers

K-10 Arrange for the orderly termination of
services when they are no longer required
Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to
arranging for termination of services in 2.15
of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board
professional and ethical compliance code for
behavior analysts:
2.15 Interrupting or Discontinuing Services.
(d) Discontinuation only occurs after efforts
to transition have been made. Behavior
analysts discontinue a professional relationship in a timely manner when the
client: (1) no longer needs the service,
(2) is not benefiting from the service, (3)
is being harmed by continued service, or
(4) when the client requests discontinuation.
(e) Behavior analysts do not abandon clients.
Prior to discontinuation, for whatever
reason, behavior analysts: discuss the
client’s views and needs, provide appropriate pre-termination services, suggest
alternative service providers as appropriate, and take other reasonable steps
to facilitate timely transfer of responsibility to another provider if the client
needs one immediately, upon client consent. (BACB, 2014, P. 10).
Before services are terminated, behavior
analysts must discuss the client’s needs with all
pertinent parties (e.g. client’s parents, legal
guardians, school administrators). The client’s
welfare should be prioritized above all else

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and a transition plan should be put in place
well before services are discontinued. Referrals to other professionals should be given if
appropriate. (Bailey & Burch, 2005)
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to describe conditions under which services should be
discontinued for a client
• Ask supervisee what steps they
should undergo before discontinuing a client’s services
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor
& Francis.
Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification
Board professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. 2014.
Retrieved from
http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.
Related Lessons:
G-07 Practice within one’s limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.

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FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior

Definition:
Lawfulness of behavior – “behavior is the
result of some condition that has caused it to
happen” (Malott, 2012, p. 168)
The lawfulness of behavior makes a science of
behavior possible. “Science is, of course, more
than a set of attitudes. It is a search for order,
for uniformities, for lawful relations among
the events in nature” (Skinner, 1953, p.13).
If behavior did not follow universal laws related to the environment that hosts it, it would
not be possible to predict or control responding in a scientific way. Skinner describes the
necessity for lawfulness of behavior in this
quote: “If we are to use the methods of science in the field of human affairs, we must assume that behavior is lawful and determined.
We must expect to discover that what a man
does is the result of specifiable conditions and
that once these conditions have been discovered, we can anticipate and to some extent determine his actions” (Skinner, 1953, p. 6).

Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to describe why an
understanding of lawfulness of behavior
is important when designing treatments
for their client.
• Ask your supervisee to role-play a scenario in which he/she discusses lawfulness of behavior with a caretaker or
teacher of a client.
Relevant Literature:
Malott, R. (2012). Issues in the Analysis of Behavior. Behaviordelia.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,
cultural)
FK-03 Determinism
FK-04 Empiricism
FK-05 Parsimony
FK-06 Pragmatism

FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic, cultural)
Definition:
Selectionism - refers to selection by consequences, a scientific paradigm, which asserts
that all forms of operant behavior evolve as a
result of the consequences that occurred during one’s lifetime.
Skinner (1981) wrote:
“Human behavior is the joint product of (i)
the contingencies of survival responsible for
the natural selection of the specific and (ii) the
contingencies of reinforcement responsible
for the repertoires acquired by its members,
including (iii) the special contingencies maintained by the social environment. (Ultimately,
of course, it is all a matter of natural selection,
since operant conditioning is an evolved process, of which cultural practices are special applications.)” (p. 502).
Skinner’s paradigm emphasizes the role of
function and draws on evolutionary theory
and natural selection (phylogeny). Ontogeny
refers to the learning history of an individual.
Skinner viewed cultural practices as an
evolved process maintained by operant conditioning. Variation in behavior is required for
selection by consequences, meaning the most
adaptive behavioral repertoire persists because it serves a valuable function for the organism (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Maladaptive, unhealthy, and harmful behavior
can persist because it serves a function for the
individual (e.g., substance abuse, non-suicidal
self-harm, etc.).
Example:
• In evolutionary history, our ancestors ate
certain foods because it had an adaptive
value as it helped ensure survival (natural
selection of behavior; phylogenic selection). The food did not necessarily need
to be a reinforcer but was necessary for
survival. However, in modern times, we
all have food preferences and may eat
food that has no nutritional value or

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health benefits, indicating that specific
foods are eaten because of their reinforcing value (ontogenic selection). This type
of eating habit is not adaptive (e.g., think
about overeating, binge eating, obesity
and the subsequent health problems that
can emerge from this type of eating behavior) but it is strengthened and maintained by operant conditioning, thus reflecting selection by consequences (Skinner, 1981).
• Cultural Selection: Pennypacker (1992)
provides examples of how selection by
consequences is observed in education,
economics, and politics and social organization.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to define selectionism.
• Ask supervisee to read and summarize the relevant literature, while
highlighting examples that reflect selectionism.
• Ask supervisee to provide an example of behavior maintained by selectionism.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Pennypacker, H. S. (1992). Is behavior analysis undergoing selection by consequences? American Psychologist, 47, 14911498.
Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 212, 501-504.
Related Lessons:
FK-15 operant conditioning
FK-31 behavioral contingencies
FK-33 functional relations
FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior
FK-42 rule-governed behavior

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FK-03 Determinism

Definition:
Determinism - the assumption that “the universe
is a lawful and orderly place in which all phenomena occur as the result of other events” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.5).
The implication here is that events don’t just occur
by accident; they occur as the result of something
else happening. This is an important attitude of science because if the behavior of organisms was not
orderly or lawful, scientists would be unable to
identify why a behavior was occurring and therefore modify it. (Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2011, p. 9)
Example:
A window banging
A window does not just randomly bang shut; it
bangs shut because a gust of wind has blown it and
this has exerted enough force upon the window to
close it.
Example:
A pipe bursting
A water pipe does not just spontaneously burst; it
bursts because there is a fault somewhere in the system, which has caused a build up of water in the
pipes, resulting in so much pressure within the system that the pipe has burst.
Example:
Self-injurious behavior (SIB)
A client’s self-injurious behavior does not just suddenly decrease after days of high rates of SIB. It
decreases because the sensory-blocking procedure
that’s in place has begun to extinguish the behavior.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to give an explanation to
the scenarios below as they align with determinism.
o A glass breaks. (Possible answers could include = someone knocks it over causing it to
break, the wind blows through the window
and knocks it over causing it to smash, the dog
kicks the glass as he runs past it, resulting in it
breaking).

o A client begins to emit correct responses
when tacting the colors purple and green,
which he has previously had a low rate of correct responses for. (Possible answers could include = the intervention which is in place has
resulted in the appropriate stimulus control
being acquired for purple and green, leading
to an increased rate of correct responding; the
client’s Mother has been working on the colors green and purple at home with him; the
client has been observing a peer tact the colors purple and green during play).
o A client’s sleep pattern changes and he begins
to refuse to go to bed at 10 pm but instead will
not go to bed until 3 am. (Possible answers
could include = the client has been reinforced
when he has been up late as his Mother has
permitted him to watch TV; the client has not
been woken until 4 pm in the afternoon after
not going to bed until 3.30 am the night before; a client’s medication has been changed
and this results in disturbed sleep and periods
of insomnia).
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Delprato, D. J., & Midgley, B. D. (1992). Some fundamentals of B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism.
American Psychologist, 48, 1507-1520.
Fisher, W.W., Piazza, C. C., Roane, H. S. (2011).
Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. The
Guildford Press, New York London.
Related Lessons:
FK-01: Lawfulness of behavior
FK-04: Empiricism
FK-05: Parsimony
FK-06: Pragmatism
Footnotes
* Please refer to FK04-FK06 for a description of
the other attitudes of science

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

FK-04 Empiricism
Definition:
Empiricism - “the practice of objective observation of the phenomena of interest” (Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 5).
According to Fisher (2011), scientists make observations about the world by using information available to the senses. Sensory evidence is the primary
source of information and should maintain the attitude of empiricism by believing what they observe
the world to be and not what they have been taught
that it should be.
Example:
Mr. Johnson, a BCBA, conducts a functional analysis to determine the function of Billy’s aggressive
behavior in class. He completes rating scales, interviews, and other indirect assessment procedures,
but doesn’t use these to guess the reinforcer for
Billy’s aggression. Mr. Johnson uses the indirect assessment procedures to inform his experiment. He
designs a pairwise functional analysis and runs out
several phases of direct observation until results are
conclusive. He concludes that Billy’s aggressive behavior is sensitive to attention as a maintaining variable. At the IEP meeting, Billy’s parents applaud
Mr. Johnson’s empiricism for completing such a
thorough assessment and analyzing all the possible
factors before determining a function.
Non-example:
Mr. Riley is a district BCBA and has been asked to conduct
a functional behavior assessment for Mary in regards to her
aggressive behavior. Mr. Riley hypothesizes that Mary is engaging in aggressive behavior to get access to her dolls because
all little girls like dolls. Based on his reasoning he has already decided that Mary’s aggression is maintained by access
to dolls. Since he already has a strong hypothesis for the function of aggression, Mr. Riley writes a report and creates a
treatment for Mary.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee describe the term empiricism
and how it relates to applied behavior analysis.
Have him/her identify ways that they can
make sure that their work is empirically based.

•
•

197

Have supervisee read an article on decreasing
problematic behavior. Have him/her identify
what makes this article empirically sound.
Have supervisee list practices that are not empirically based and then identify what the individual could do to make sure that they were
practicing appropriate empiricism.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 5, 22, 159.
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).
Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
1, 1, 91-97.
Fisher, W.W., Piazza, C. C., Roane, H. S. (2011).
Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. The
Guildford Press, New York London.
Schmidt, F.L. (1992). What do data really mean?
Research findings, meta-analysis, and cumulative knowledge in psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 10, 1173-1181.
Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate
whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain representative data given the dimensions of the behavior and the logistics of observing and recording.
H-03: Select a data display that effectively communicates relevant quantitative relations.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-03: Design and implement individualized behavioral assessment procedures.
I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data.
J-01: State intervention goals in observable and
measurable terms.
J-15: Base decision making on data displayed in various formats.
K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral
program.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

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FK-05 Parsimony

Definition:
Parsimony - The concept “that “simple, logical explanations must be ruled out, experimentally or conceptually, before more complex, or abstract experimentations are considered” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, p. 22).
Behavior analysts attempt to identify the simplest explanation for an individual’s observed
responses and then apply the least complex intervention that results in improved behavior.
Examples:
• A non-verbal client hits her head repeatedly for a period of days each
month. Although the analyst considered multiple environmental antecedent and consequent factors that
might influence the client’s behavior,
she first looked at the calendar to see
if the client’s head hitting each
month corresponded to her monthly
menstrual cycle. She found that
head-hitting occurred the last days
immediately before her period began
and the first day of her period. The
analyst asked a nurse to review the
data and recommend a medical intervention before the analyst continued to assess the influence of external environmental factors.
• An analyst was asked to design strategies for staff when responding to a
client’s aggressive behavior after asking him to brush his teeth. He reviewed the data staff had recorded
about self-care behaviors and saw
that aggression was a relatively new
behavior during teeth-brushing. He
learned that the client became aggressive toward staff shortly after
they began buying a discounted
toothpaste instead of the client’s
usual brand. When the analyst offered the client a choice between the
two brands, the client chose his old

brand and aggression did not occur
after asking him to brush his teeth.
Assessment:
• Give the supervisee 3 scenarios and
ask the supervisee to consider what
might be a parsimonious (simplest
that works) first approach for each
situation.
• Example of a scenario for assessment: An adult client sometimes
asks to go outside before breakfast.
He screams and refuses to eat when
he is made to sit at the table instead
of going outside. Staff believe he
should eat a good breakfast as part
of his regular morning routine before he begins activities. A parsimonious response from the analyst
might be to suggest that staff add a
choice step before breakfast in
which staff ask the client if he would
like to go outside for 5 minutes before he eats.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 113-122.
Etzel, B. C., & LeBlanc, J. M. (1979). The simplest treatment alternative: The law of
parsimony applied to choosing appropriate instructional control and errorless-learning procedures for the difficult-to-teach child. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 9(4), 361-382.
Related Lessons:
* FK-01: Lawfulness of behavior.
* FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,
cultural)
* FK-03: Determinism
* FK-04: Empiricism
* FK-06: Pragmatism

FK-06 Pragmatism
Definition:
Pragmatism – “a reasonable and logical way of
doing things or of thinking about problems that
is based on dealing with specific situations instead of on ideas and theories” (Merriam-Webster.com, 2015).
ABA is an inclusive approach that is easily replicable for socially significant effects by a variety
of individuals that may benefit from its methodology. Jon Bailey (2000, p. 477) stated that “It
seems to me that applied behavior analysis is
more relevant than ever before and that it offers
our citizens, parents, teachers, and corporate and
government leaders advantages that cannot be
matched by any other psychological approach…”
“Classroom teachers, parents, coaches, workplace supervisors, and sometimes the participants themselves implemented the interventions
found effective in many ABA studies. This
demonstrates the pragmatic element of ABA.
Although doing ABA requires far more than
learning to administer a few simple procedures,
it is not prohibitively complicated or arduous.”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 19).
In other words, the pragmatism of ABA is in its
practicality and justification of methods that give it
appeal to a wider audience compared to other
sciences searching for “truth”.
Example:
Gloria was looking for a reinforcement program
for her classroom because her students were not
turning their homework in on time. She consulted with the district BCBA and was able to
come up with an effective and simple class-wide
reinforcement program that helped her students
to turn their homework on time.
Non-example:
Richard was a first grade teacher and wanted to represent
his student’s data using a scatterplot graph. However, he
did not have previous training in this area and was unable to accomplish this task. He felt that this method for
graphical display was too difficult to figure out.

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Assessment:
• Have supervisee explain reinforcement,
punishment, mand, and tact in simple, pragmatic terms that a layperson could apply.
• Have supervisee identify and describe some
common ABA practices and techniques
that are used by professionals who have not
been directly trained in ABA. Have
him/her describe why these approaches
represent the pragmatic nature of applied
behavior analysis.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J.S. (2000). A futurist perspective for applied behavior analysis. In J. Austin & J.E.
Carr (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis (pp. 473-488). Reno, NV: Context
Press.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice
Hall. 19, 22.
Heward, W.L. (2005). Reasons applied behavior
analysis is good for education and why
those reasons have been insufficient. In
W.L. Heward, T.E. Heron, N.A. Neef, S.M.
Peterson, , D.M. Sainato, G. Cartledge, R.
Gardner, III, L.D. Peterson, S.B. Hersh, &
J.C. Dardig (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis
in education: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities (pp. 316-348). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate
whether interventions are behavior analytic in
nature.
G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.
G-06: Provide behavior analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide services to one’s clients.
K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic
services from direct and indirect consumers.
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural
environments.

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FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to
mentalistic) explanations of behavior

Definition:
Mentalism-“An approach to explaining behavior
that assumes that a mental, or ‘inner,’ dimension
exists that differs from a behavioral dimension and
that phenomena in this dimension either directly
cause or at least mediate some forms of behavior,
if not all” (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007, p. 699).
An environmental explanation of behavior can be
described by physical events in the phylogenetic or
ontogenetic history of the organism that cause behavior to occur. A behavior analyst believes that all
behavior is a result of these physical events and that
there is no reason to believe that there are some
causes of behavior outside of physical dimensions.
It can be difficult sometimes, as we learn behavior
analysis, to describe behavior without the use of
mentalistic explanations (e.g., the hit me because
he’s frustrated). This is because in non-behavior
analytic cultures, where many behavior analysts
spend most of their lives, behavior is described this
way and there is reinforcement available from that
verbal community to perpetuate mentalistic explanations of behavior. For instance, it is common for
people to believe that we each are responsible for
our own actions and that the choices we make are
done so with “free-will”. Johnston (2014) mentions that, “After a lifetime of explaining behavior
in terms of such apparent freedom, it is understandably difficult to accept what appears to be a
helpless or passive role…” (p.5)
Much of behavior in society is controlled by consequences. Johnston (2014) says “…we assign the responsibility for behavior not to the individual but
to sources of control in the physical environment.
From this perspective, holding individuals responsible for their behavior by specifying the consequences for certain actions remains an important
contingency because it helps manage those tendencies to act in one way or another” (p.11).

Assessment:
•

•

Provide scenarios for a supervisee describing
repetitive problem behaviors that might lead
to a conclusion that internal events are controlling variables for behavior. Tell the supervisee to write a mentalistic explanation
that might explain the behavior and then
identify a radical behaviorist approach to explaining the same response.
Present a scenario in which a supervisee is
working with parents or staff who insist that
their child is hitting them because she is angry or frustrated. Ask the supervisee to role
play explaining to care givers that behavior
analysts look at anger and frustration a different way.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Emotion. In Science and human
behavior (pp.160-170). New York: Macmillan.
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical
language.
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private
events, in behavior-analytic (non-mentalistic) terms.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable
terms.
I-02 Define environmental variables in observable and
measurable terms.
K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the behavior of those responsible for carrying out behaviorchange procedures and design interventions accordingly.
FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior
FK-03 Determinism
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) explanations of behavior

FK-08 Distinguish between radical and
methodological behaviorism
Definition:
Radical behaviorism – “the philosophy of a
science of behavior treated as a subject matter
in its own right apart from internal explanations, mental or physiological” (Skinner, 1989,
p. 122).
Methodological behaviorism – “represents
a formal and strategic agreement to regard the
relation between publicly observable stimulus
variables and publicly observable behavior as
the appropriate subject matter for psychology
as a science” (Moore, 2008, p. 385).
The distinction between radical and methodological behaviorism can be summed up by
the views on private events. Private events, or
events observable by only the individual engaging in the response, are not included in the
analysis of behavior by a methodological behaviorist position. Radical behaviorists consider private events to be no different than any
other behavior, therefore, allowing it to be understood within the same conceptual framework understood for overt behavior.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to describe the
distinction between radical and
methodological behaviorism.
• Have your supervisee describe the
advantages of the methodological
behaviorist’s view.
• Have your supervisee describe the
advantages of the radical behaviorist’s view.
Relevant Literature:
Baum, W. M. (2011). What is radical behaviorism? A review of Jay Moore's Conceptual

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Foundations of Radical Behaviorism. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 95(1), 119-126.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Moore, J. (2011). A review of Baum's review
of Conceptual Foundations of Radical
Behaviorism. Journal of the experimental
analysis of behavior, 95(1), 127-140.
Moore, J. (2009). Why the radical behaviorist
conception of private events is interesting, relevant, and important. Behavior and
Philosophy, 21-37.
Moore, Jay (2008). Conceptual Foundations of
Radical Behaviorism. Sloan Pub.
Skinner, B. F. (1989). Recent issues in the analysis
of behavior. Prentice Hall. Chicago.
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) explanations of behavior

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FK-09 Distinguish between the conceptual analysis of behavior, experimental
analysis of behavior, applied behavior
analysis, and behavioral service delivery.
The conceptual analysis of behavior is a combination of philosophical, theoretical, and historical investigations behind the science of behavior. The modern philosophy of behavior
analysis is specifically referred to as Radical
Behaviorism and was coined by B.F. Skinner.
Radical Behaviorism is rooted in the idea that
the science of behavior is a natural science encompassed by behavioral events that happen
due to the way the universe is arranged (determinism) and explained by other natural events
(Baum, 1995) like the phenomenon of gravity.
These behavioral events are analyzed in relation to the past and present environment (ontogenic and cultural contingencies) and evolutionary history (phylogenic contingencies).
This approach sets itself apart from other behavioral philosophies (e.g., methodological
behaviorism) by including overt behavior as
an important variable but also acknowledging
unobserved behavior (i.e., private events) (
Skinner, 1953). Moreover, internal states, intervening variables and hypothetical constructs (mentalistic explanations) are not used
to understand or analyze behavior (Baum,
2011). This philosophy sets the foundation for
the other three domains described below.
The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)
is a natural science approach to the study of
behavior. The methodology includes rate of
response as a basic dependent variable, repeated or continuous measurement of clearly
defined response classes, within subject comparisons, visual analysis of data and an emphasis on describing functional relations between
behavior and controlling variables. EAB
methodology was founded by B.F. Skinner
and first publicly presented in his book The Behavior of Organisms (1938/1966) (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007). EAB is often referred to as basic research.
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a science
that develops its technology based on the

principles of behavior and applies them systematically to produce socially significant behavior change. Furthermore, experimentation
is used to identify the independent variables
responsible for behavior change. Lastly, the
adequacy of ABA work is determined by the
seven characteristics (applied, behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptually systematic
effective and generalizable) set forth by Baer,
Wolf and Risley (1968) (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Behavioral service delivery consists of putting
ABA principles that have been experimentally
validated into practice. Behavioral service
providers design, implement an evaluate behavior change procedures applied to socially
significant behavior (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007). It is important that behavioral
service providers apply a conceptual framework in order to offer a thorough explanation
of the causes of behavior that are consistent
with the established science of behavior.
However it is also important that they can explain these concepts to non-behavioral service
providers and families in everyday language by
essentially, strengthening two verbal repertoires (Johnston, 2013).
The four above mentioned domains have
been described as an overlapping continuum
that includes similarities and differences between each domain. This view emphasizes the
fact that the four domains should be dependent on each other and mutually influenced by
developments in each of the other domains
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward 2007; Moore &
Cooper, 2003). Moore and Cooper (2003) argue that students of behavior analysis be offered a balanced approach by incorporating all
four domains into their training experience.

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to define each of
the domains and then state how each
influences the other domains.
• Throughout the course of supervision, when reading behavior analytic
articles have the supervisee describe
the implications of the article in
terms of its relation to each of the
four domains
• Require the supervisee to speak in
technical dialect but also provide the
supervisee with opportunities to
practice restating their precise understanding of behavioral concepts
in everyday language that can be understood by families and non-behavioral providers while retaining the
underlying philosophy of behavior.
• Have a discussion with the supervisee about how the four domains are
interrelated and why it is important
that the domains influence each
other and not operate in isolation.
Relevant Literature:
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.
(1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of applied
behavior analysis, 1(1), 91-97.
Baum, W. M. (1995). Radical behaviorism and
the concept of agency. Behaviorology, 3,
93-106.
Baum, W. M. (2011). What is radical behaviorism? A review of Jay Moore's Conceptual Foundations of Radical Behaviorism. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 95(1), 119-126.

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Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Johnston, J.V. (2013). Radical Behaviorism for
ABA Practitioners. Publisher Sloan Publishing
Moore, J., & Cooper, J. O. (2003). Some proposed relations among the domains of
behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst,
26(1), 69.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.
Simon and Schuster.
Related Lessons:
B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in
collaboration with others who support and/or
provide services to one’s clients.
FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior
FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,
cultural)
FK-03 Determinism
FK-04 Empiricism
FK-05 Parsimony
FK-06 Pragmatism
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) explanations of behavior
FK-08 Distinguish between radical and methodological behaviorism

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FK-10 Behavior, response, response class

Definitions:
Behavior - “The activity of living organisms;
human behavior includes everything that people do” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
25).
Response - A single instance or occurrence
of a specific class or type of behavior”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).
Response Class - “A group of responses of
varying topography, all of which produce the
same effect on the environment” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).
Example:
Opening a door
a. Example (behavior): Beezus stands
up from her chair, heads towards a
closed door, and pushes on it. The
door is now open.
b. Example (response): When encountering a closed door, Beezus extends
an open palm and pushes on it. The
door is now open.
c. Example (response class): Beezus
encounters many doors during her
day. Sometimes she opens them with
an open palm and sometimes with a
closed palm. Some times she opens
them with her left hand and at other
times with her right hand. No matter which way she chooses to open a
door, the result is always the same.

Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to define behavior, response, and response class.
• Ask your supervisee to identify the
behavior(s), responses, and response
class from the above examples.
• Ask your supervisee to create other
examples and non-examples of
his/her own.
• Have your supervisee describe how
these three terms are related.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993a).
Strategies and Tactics for Human Behavioral
Research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo,
MI: Society for the Advancement of
Behavior Analysis.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Related Lessons:
FK-36 Response Generalization
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (nonmentalistic) terms.
I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable terms

FK-11 Environment, Stimulus, Stimulus
Class
Definitions:
Environment - “The conglomerate of real
circumstances in which the organism or reference part of the organism exists; behavior cannot occur in the absence of environment”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 694).
Stimulus - “Any physical event, combination
of events, or relation among events” (Catania,
2013, p. 466).
Stimulus class - “A group of stimuli that
share specified common elements along formal (e.g. size, color), temporal (e.g. antecedent
or consequent), and/or functional (e.g., discriminative stimulus) dimensions” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 705).
• “Any group of stimuli sharing a predetermined set of common elements
in one or more of these dimensions”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.
27).
Example: A trip to the mall
• Environment: Willis is shopping at
the local mall. The local mall would
be an environment.
• Stimulus: Willis is walking through
the food court. He smells some
pizza cooking from one of the establishments and suddenly his stomach
starts growling. He stops and gets
some food. All of the things in the
food court, including the smells, the
changes in his stomach, and the food
are stimuli.
• Stimulus class: At the food court,
Willis will buy items that will all
function as reinforcers for eating behavior. In this case, the burger, the

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fries, and the cookie he bought are in
the same stimulus class.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to define environment, stimulus, and stimulus
class.
• Ask your supervisee to identify the
environment, the stimulus (stimuli),
and the stimulus class(es) from the
above examples. Use examples of
stimulus classes related to the formal, temporal, and functional dimensions.
• Ask your supervisee to create other
examples and a non-examples of
his/her own.
• Have your supervisee to compare
and contrast these terms.
Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993a).
Strategies and Tactics for Human Behavioral
Research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo,
MI: Society for the Advancement of
Behavior Analysis.
Related Lessons:
FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class

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FK-12 Stimulus Equivalence

Definition:
Stimulus equivalence - “The emergence of
accurate responding to untrained and nonreinforced stimulus-stimulus relations following
the reinforcement of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations. A positive demonstration of reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity is
necessary to meet the definition of equivalence” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.
705)”.
Related definitions:
Reflexivity - “A type of stimulus-to-stimulus
relation in which the student, without any
prior training or reinforcement for doing so,
selects a comparison stimulus that is the same
as the same stimulus” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, p. 702).
• Example: Without prior reinforcement or training, when shown a picture of a dog and given a picture of
the same dog, a rat, and a cow, student matches the picture of the two
dogs (e.g. A=A).
Symmetry - “A type of stimulus-to-stimulus
relationship in which the learner, without
prior training or reinforcement for doing so,
demonstrates the reversibility of matched
sample and comparison stimuli” (Cooper,
Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 705).
• Example: Student is taught that
when given the written word dog to
select the picture of a dog. Without
further reinforcement or training,
when given the picture of the dog,
student selects the written word dog
(e.g. If A=B, then B=A).
Transitivity - “A derived stimulus-stimulus
relation that emerges as a product of training
two other stimulus-stimulus relations”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 706).
• Example: Student is taught that
when given the written word dog to
select the picture of the dog (e.g.
A=B). Student is also taught to select the picture of the dog when
hearing the spoken word dog (e.g.

B=C). Without further reinforcement or training, student selects the
written word dog after hearing the
spoken word dog (e.g. C=A).
Example of Stimulus Equivalence:
• When learner responds without
prior reinforcement and training that
A=A (exhibiting reflexivity) and if
A=B, then B must also = A (exhibiting symmetry) and finally that if
A=B and B=C, then C must also
equal A (exhibiting transitivity).
Non-Example of Stimulus Equivalence:
• When learner responds without
prior reinforcement and training that
A=A (exhibiting reflexivity) and if
A=B, then B must also equal A (exhibiting symmetry) but cannot show
that if A=B and B=C, then C must
also equal A (failure to exhibit transitivity).
Assessment:
• Have supervisees display equivalence
with respect to the words “reflexivity”,
“transitivity”, and “symmetry” in the
spoken form, written form, and written
definitions.
• Have supervisee assess for stimulus
equivalence on the job or during role-play
• Have supervisee demonstrate an example
of stimulus equivalence during role-play
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sidman, M. (1997). Equivalence relations. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68(2), 258-266.
Sidman, M. (2009). Equivalence relations and
behavior: An introductory tutorial. The
Analysis of verbal behavior, 25(1), 5.

FK-13 Reflexive relations (US-UR)
Definition:
Unconditioned stimulus (US) - is a “stimulus change that elicits respondent behavior
(i.e., unconditioned response) in the absence
of prior learning. The UR is typically regarded
as a built-in bodily mechanism that exists
through natural evolution” (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007, pp. 30, 39). The US-UR
relation is an unconditioned reflex.
Example:
• Air blowing in eye (US)  blinking
(UR)
• Cold/low temperature (US)  shivering (UR)
• Hot/high temperature (US) 
sweating (UR)
• Food in mouth (US)  salivation
(UR)
• Hot surface (US)  move hand
away (UR)

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Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to provide examples
of US-UR relations.
• Ask supervisee to discriminate between respondent behavior and operant behavior.
Relevant Literature:
Bijou, S. W., & Baer, D. M. (1961). Child Development: Volume 1. A Systematic and Empirical Theory. New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Basic concepts. Applied Behavior
Analysis (pp. 24-46). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the
Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford University Press.
Related Lessons:
FK-14 Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15 Operant conditioning
FK-16 Respondent-operant interaction

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FK-14 Respondent Conditioning (CS-CR)

Definitions:
Reflex - “The reliable production of a response by a stimulus” (Catania, 1998, p. 8).
Respondent behavior - “behavior that is
elicited by antecedent stimuli. Respondent behavior is induced, or brought out, by a stimulus
that precedes the behavior; nothing else is required for the response to occur” (Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 29).
“New stimuli can acquire the ability to elicit
respondents. Called respondent conditioning,
this type of learning is associated with Russian
physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlolv…” (Cooper
et al., 2007, p. 30).
Pavlov’s experiments consisted of a group of
dogs who were trained to salivate at the sound
of a metronome started just prior to feeding
them. Before initial training, the presence of
food (US) elicited salivation (UR), but the metronome (NS) was not paired with this response.
After numerous trials of food being paired with
the sound of the metronome, the dogs began salivating whenever they heard the metronome. After being paired with the presentation of food
for several trials, the metronome became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and a conditioned reflex
(CR) was elicited.
Example:
Roger usually drinks soda every day for lunch.
When drinking soda, the sugar (US) inside his
blood elicits the release of insulin from his pancreas (UR). Now, when he opens the soda, the
snap of the can (CS) starts to elicit the release of
insulin (CR) before he takes a drink.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee list various examples of respondent behavior. Have him/her explain
respondent conditioning and define stimulus-stimulus pairing, unconditioned stimulus, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus,
and conditioned reflex.
• Have supervisee identify and describe an
example of respondent conditioning (not

•

an example from the Cooper et al. 2007 text
or Pavlov’s experiments).
Have supervisee create an abstract for an
experiment involving respondent conditioning. Have him/her describe how they
would conduct the experiment to achieve
respondent conditioning.
Have supervisee compare and contrast respondent conditioning and operant conditioning.

Relevant Literature:
Catania, A.C. (1998). Learning (4th Ed.), Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice
Hall. 29-31 (Figure 2.1), 33 (Table 2.3), 393,
606.
Skinner, B.F. (1984). The Evolution of Behavior.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
41, 2, 217-221.
Poling, A., & Braatz, D. (2001). Principles of
learning: Respondent and operant conditioning and human behavior. Handbook of organizational performance: Behavior analysis and management, 23-49.
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms:
an experimental analysis. Oxford, England:
Appleton-Century. (457 pp.)
Pavlov, I.P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned reflexes: Twenty-five years of objective study
of the higher nervous activity (behaviour) of
animals. (Horsley, G.W., Trans.). New York,
NY, US: Liverwright Publishing Corporation. (414 pp.).
Related Lessons:
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.
FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR).
FK-15: Operant conditioning
FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions
FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement
FK-24: Stimulus control
FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations
FK-35: Stimulus discrimination

FK-15 Operant Conditioning
Definition:
Operant Conditioning - “The basic process
by which operant learning occurs; consequences (stimulus changes immediately following responses) result in an increased (reinforcement) or decreased (punishment) frequency of the same type of behavior under
similar motivational and environmental conditions in the future” (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007, pp. 700-701).
Examples:
• A rat is deprived of food. The rat walks
near a specific part of their cage and receives food. As a result, the future probability of the rat walking toward that area
of the cage increases.
• A child hits their sibling when fighting
over a toy. The child is sent to timeout.
As a result, the future probability of hitting their sister decreases.

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Assessment:
• Have supervisee provide examples of operant conditioning.
• Have supervisee describe ways of determining if operant conditioning is occurring (detect a reinforcing or punishing effect on behavior).
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
McAllister, L. W., Stachowiak, J. G., Baer, D.
M., & Conderman, L. (1969). The application of operant conditioning techniques in a secondary school classroom.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,2(4),
277-285.
Related Lessons:
FK-15 Operant conditioning
FK-31 Behavioral contingencies
FK-33 Functional relations

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FK-16 Respondent-operant interactions

Definitions:
Respondent behavior - “A response component
of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by
antecedent stimuli” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 703).
Operant behavior – “Behavior that is selected,
maintained, and brought under stimulus control as
a function of its consequences” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 701).
Operant and respondent behavior interact very
commonly. They may occur concurrently when a
stimulus both evokes an operant response while at
the same time elicits a respondent response on the
part of the organism. The procedures involved with
what we call operant or respondent conditioning
are names of procedures for the ease of use of our
field. There are respondent and operant interactions occurring whenever an organism behaves.
Pierce and Cheney (2013) describe it this way:
“When biologically relevant stimuli such as food
are contingent on an organism’s operant behavior,
species-characteristic, innate behavior is occasionally elicited at the same time” (p. 194). The presence
of stimuli that have been paired with aversive or
appetitive stimulation will elicit respondent behavior at the same time operant behavior is occurring
to access or avoid those stimuli.
“The neural capacity for operant conditioning
arose on the basis of species history; organisms that
changed their behavior as result of life experience
had an advantage over animals that did not do so”
(Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 194).
Certain respondent behavior interacts with operant behavior. The effects are often described as
motivating operations. For instance, behavior
changes before and after meal times, with or without medications, after traumatic events, or disruptions in family life.
Examples:
• After a traumatic event involving physical abuse,
every time a male walks into the room, your client “freezes” and does not follow instructions.
This could be due to elicited behavior (“freezing” in the presence of conditioned aversive

stimuli) in competition with operant behavior
(following instructions).
• A medication, when consumed, will elicit respondent behavior that makes certain things
more or less aversive. Consider if your client
starts taking a medication to decrease aggression
maintained by access to toys. The effect of the
medication may decrease the likelihood that toys
function as a reinforcer in effect decreasing the
amount of aggression. It may increase the likelihood that food functions as a reinforcer.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to describe how respondent
behavior can interact with operant behavior.
• Ask your supervisee to give an example of when
this might occur with one of his/her clients during a specific treatment procedure.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed).
Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/MerrillPrentice Hall.
Cheney, C. D., & Pierce, W. D. (Eds.). (2013). Behavior analysis and learning (5th ed). New
York, NY: Psychology Press.
Davis, H., & Hurwitz, H. M. B. (Eds.). (1977). Operant-Pavlovian interactions. Hillsdale, N.J. :
New York: L. Erlbaum Associates ; distributed by the Halsted Press Division of J.
Wiley.
Related Lessons:
G-02 Consider biological/medical variables that
may be affecting the client.
G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic terms.
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic)
explanations of behavior
FK-13 reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15 operant conditioning

FK-17 Unconditioned reinforcement
Definition:
Unconditioned reinforcer - “A stimulus
change that increases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism’s learning history with the
stimulus. Unconditioned reinforcers are the
product of the evolutionary development of
the species (phylogeny) Also called primary or
unlearned reinforcer” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007 p.707).
“…momentary effectiveness of an unconditioned reinforcer is a function of current motivating operations” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.
39).
Example:
• Food, water, oxygen, warmth, and
sexual stimulation are some examples of unconditioned reinforcers.
• A teacher gives a child a pretzel after
the child does a task. The child’s engagement in the task increases in the
future.
• This is an example of unconditioned
reinforcement.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee create a list of unconditioned reinforcers. Have
him/her define and describe the role
satiation and deprivation plays in unconditioned reinforcement.
• Have supervisee give examples of
unconditioned reinforcers. Have
him/her describe the difference between conditioned and unconditioned reinforcement.
• Have supervisee explain the relationship between conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers and the role
unconditioned reinforcers may play
in creating conditioned reinforcers.

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Relevant Literature:
Bijou, S.W., & Baer, D.M. (1965). Child Development: Vol. 2. Universal Stage of infancy. New
York, NY. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 38-40, 269-270, 295.
Gerwirtz, J. & Pelaez-Nogueras, M. (2000).
Infant emotions under the positive-reinforcer control of caregiver attention and
touch. In J.C. Leslie & D. Blackman (Eds.),
Issues in experimental and applied analyses of human behavior. Reno, NV. Context Press. 271291.
Malott, R.W., Tillema, M., & Glenn, S. (1978).
Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification:
An introduction. Kalamazoo, MI. Behaviordelia. 9.
Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Gerwirtz, J.L., Field, T.,
Cigales, M., Malphurs, J., Clasky, S., &
Sanchez, A. (1996). Infants’ preference for
touch simulation in face-to-face interactions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 199-213.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York, NY. McMillan.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for unwanted effects of
reinforcement.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,
cultural)
FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions
FK-19: Unconditioned punishment
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment.
FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations.
FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operations and reinforcement effects

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FK-18 Conditioned reinforcement

Definition:
Conditioned reinforcer - “A stimulus
change that functions as a reinforcer because
of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers; sometimes called secondary or
learned reinforcers” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.
692).
Conditioned reinforcement – “the operation, or process, of a response producing a
conditioned reinforcer that increases the likelihood that response occurs in the future”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 40).
Example:
• Money, tokens, stickers.
• A teacher says “good job” after a
student returns their homework.
The student continues to return their
homework in the future.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee explain the differences between conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers.
• Have supervisee explain the process
of producing a conditioned reinforcer (i.e., token systems). Have
him/her give an example from their
professional experience.
• Have supervisee read and summarize a journal article on the topic of
conditioned reinforcement.
Relevant Literature:
Alessi, G. (1992) Models of proximate and ultimate causation in psychology. American
Psychologist, 48, 1359-1370.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 40-41, 269-270, 295.
Higgins, J.W., Williams, R.L., & McLaughlin,
T.F. (2001). The effects of a token economy employing instructional consequences for a third grade student with
learning disabilities: A data-based case

study. Education and Treatment of Children,
24, 1, 99-106.
Michael, J. (2004) Concepts and principles of behavior analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo, MI. Society for the Advancement of Behavior
Analysis. 66.
Morse, W.H., & Kelleher, R.T. (1977). Determinants of reinforcement and punishment. In W.K. Honig & J.E.R. Staddon
(Eds.), Handbook of Operant Behavior, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall. 176177, 180.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects
of reinforcement.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-20: Use response-independent (time based)
schedules of reinforcement (i.e., noncontingent reinforcement).
D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,
DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)
F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned reinforcement systems
J-04: Select intervention strategies based on
the client’s preferences.
K-04: Design and use effective performance
monitoring and reinforcement systems.
FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,
cultural)
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15: Operant conditioning
FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions.
FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations

FK-19 Unconditioned Punishment
Definition:
Unconditioned punisher – “A stimulus
change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism’s learning history with the
stimulus” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 707).*
Examples:
Bright lights, loud sounds, extreme temperatures, certain tastes (sour, bitter), physical restraint, loss of bodily support, extreme muscular efforts, etc.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to describe an example of unconditioned punishment.
• Use the supervisee to describe the
difference between unconditioned
punishment and an unconditioned
punisher.
• Ask the supervisee to list as many
unconditioned punishers as possible
in one minute.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition.Pearson Education, Inc.

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Herman, R. L., & Azrin, N. H. (1964). Punishment by noise in an alternative response situation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7(2), 185-188.
Related Lessons:
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment
D-16 Use positive and negative Punishment
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditioned reinforcers and punishers
G-07 Practice within one's limits of professional competence in applied behavior analysis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and
training, or make referrals as necessary
J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an acceptable alternative behavior to be
established or increased
FK 20 Conditioned punishment
Footnotes:
*Conditioned punishers are products of the
evolutionary development of the species
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
*Conditioned punishers are also called primary or unlearned punishers (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007).

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FK-20 Conditioned punishment

Definition:
Conditioned punisher – “a stimulus that
functions as a punisher as the result of being
paired with unconditioned or conditioned
punishers” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 40).
Conditioned punishment as defined by
Hake and Azrin (1965) is a process that “results when it can be shown (1) there is little or
no punishment effect before the stimulus is
paired with an unconditioned punisher, but
(2) a punishment effect occurs after (3) the
stimulus has been paired, or is being paired,
with an unconditioned punisher” (p. 279).
Evidence of conditioned punishment was
suggested in early research when a reduction
in a response was observed following the process of pairing a stimulus with an electric
shock followed by discontinuing the shock
and making the stimulus contingent upon a
selected response (Hake & Azrin, 1965).
Example:
• Similar to classical conditioning, a tone
(neutral stimulus) is repeatedly paired
with an electric shock (unconditioned
punisher) whenever a dog barks, in time
the tone (conditioned punisher) suppresses the bark in the absence of the
electric shock.
• A child engages in aggression. A parent
responds to aggression by taking away
their child’s favorite video game contingent on every instance of aggression.
The parent begins to pair removal of the
video games with a reprimand. The reprimand may function as a conditioned
punisher if aggression continues to decrease following the presentation of a
reprimand without taking away the
video games. This process illustrates
conditioned punishment.
• Conditioned punishers may be referred
to as learned or secondary punishers.

Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to explain the process of
conditioned punishment.
• Ask supervisee to define a conditioned
punisher.
• Ask supervisee to provide examples of
conditioned punishment and a conditioned punisher.
• Ask supervisee to identify examples of
conditioned punishment in a client’s environment.
Relevant Literature:
Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics in Behavior
Analysis (2nd ed). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hake, D. F., & Azrin, N. H. (1965). Conditioned punishment. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 8, 279-293.
Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and
adoption of controversial default technologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11, 149157.
Related Lessons:
C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted
effects of punishment.
D-15 Identify punishers.
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment.
D-18 Use extinction.
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-17 unconditioned reinforcement
FK-18 conditioned reinforcement
FK-19 unconditioned punishment
FK-21 schedules of reinforcement and punishment

FK-21 Schedules of Reinforcement and
Punishment
Definition:
Schedule of reinforcement/punishment –
“rule that specifies the environmental arrangements and response requirements that will result in reinforcement or punishment”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 703).
Related Definitions:
A continuous schedule of reinforcement: reinforcement is given for each occurrence of
behavior
• Also known as a 1:1 schedule of reinforcement or (CRF)
A continuous schedule of punishment: punishment is given after each occurrence of behavior
• Also known as 1:1 schedule of punishment
An intermittent schedule of reinforcement:
reinforcement is given after some, but not all
occurrences of behavior
• Types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement:
o A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement: Requires a completion of a
specified number of responses to gain
access to reinforcement
 Example: A student may have to
complete 5 correct math problems on
a computer game before progressing
to the next level (this is a FR-5 schedule of reinforcement).
o A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement: Requires the completion of a
varied number of responses to gain
access to reinforcement
 Example: A young girl may be called
on when she raises her hand quietly in
class on average once every 5 times.
Sometimes, the teacher calls on her
every 4 times she raises her hand.
Other times the teacher calls on her
every 6 times she raises her hand. The
teacher provides attention on average
every 5 times (this is a VR-5 schedule
of reinforcement).

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o A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement: provides reinforcement for the
first response after a fixed duration of
time
 Example: An alarm clock is set for
7:00 am every morning. If an individual presses snooze, it will allow the individual to sleep in again for 10
minutes. The individual cannot press
snooze before the alarm rings (this is
a FI-10 minute schedule of reinforcement).
o A variable interval schedule of reinforcement: produces reinforcement
for the first response after a variable
duration of time
 Example: A person goes to a fast food
restaurant. Sometimes he has to stand
in line, while other times, he may order immediately upon entering. This
interval varies each time he goes to
the restaurant.
Intermittent schedule of punishment: punishment is delivered after some but not all occurrences of behavior.
Assessment:
• During a job or during role-play,
have your supervisee determine
what schedule of reinforcement or
punishment is being used
• Use SAFMEDS or flashcards to
practice definitions related to the
various types of schedules.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Related Lessons:
D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement
D-17 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment

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FK-22 Extinction

Definition:
Extinction - “The discontinuing of reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior; the
primary effect is a decrease in the frequency
of the behavior until it reaches a pre-reinforced level or ultimately ceases to occur”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 695).

•

an aversive stimulus/event is no
longer reinforced.
Extinction of behavior maintained
by automatic reinforcement: This
occurs when behavior that provides
a natural and automatic sensory consequence is no longer reinforced.
(e.g., a child is blocked each time he
raises both hands above his mid-line
to engage in hand-flapping.)

Example:
Screaming to avoid/escape washing hands
• Example: A young woman at a
group home was observed to scream Assessment:
loudly every time she was instructed
• -Provide a hypothetical scenario and
to wash her hands. Each time she
have your supervisee determine if an
began screaming, she was allowed to
extinction procedure is in place. If
avoid the task for an average of ten
so, have your supervisee define
minutes or escape the task altowhich type of extinction.
gether. A behavioral analyst in• -Have your supervisee give you 3
structed group home staff to put this
various examples of extinction.
behavior on extinction. After being
• Describe the pros and cons of exinstructed to wash her hands, group
tinction procedures based on readhome staff physically guided her to
ings assigned.
comply even if she began screaming.
After a week, screaming decreased Relevant Literature:
to near zero levels.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
• Non-example: A young woman at a
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
group home was observed to scream
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
loudly every time she was instructed Lerman, D. C., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.
to wash her hands. Each time she
(1999). Side effects of extinction: prevabegan screaming, she was allowed to
lence of bursting and aggression during
avoid the task for an average of ten
the treatment of self-injurious behavminutes or escape the task altoior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analygether. When she engaged in
sis, 32(1), 1-8.
screaming, group home staff would Magee, S. K., & Ellis, J. (2000). Extinction eftell her that if she stopped screaming
fects during the assessment of multiple
and complied she would be given
problem behaviors. Journal of Applied Bechips, a preferred food.
havior Analysis, 33(3), 313-316.
Different types of extinction:
• Extinction of behavior maintained
by positive reinforcement: This occurs when behavior to access tangibles, activities, and/or attention is
no longer reinforced.
• Extinction of behavior maintained
by negative reinforcement: This occurs when behavior to avoid/escape

Related Lessons:
C-03 State and plan for unwanted effects of
extinction
D-18. Use Extinction.
D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

FK-23 Automatic reinforcement and punishment
Definition:
Automatic reinforcement - "Reinforcement
that occurs independent of the social mediation of others" (Cooper Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 267).
Example:
• Scratching an insect bite removes an
itch; eating food when hungry removes hunger, humming may be auditory reinforcement; nonfunctional
movements such as hand flapping
may produce a sensation, which is
automatically reinforcing; some selfinjurious behavior may produce a
sensation, which the individual may
enjoy.
• Automatic punishment - "Punishment that occurs independent of the
social mediation by others”(Cooper
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 534).
• Albert bites his canker sore, causing
a shocking pain. Albert is becomes
cautious as he eats with his canker
sore until the canker disappears. A
dog gets a thorn in his paw. He experiences pain when he steps down
on his foot. He begins to walk on
three legs.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to come up with
several examples of automatic punishment and automatic reinforcement.

•

217

Ask your supervisee provide examples of how extinction of the following automatically reinforced behavior may occur: child making sounds
by tapping the table, child receiving
kinesthetic stimulation by flapping
his arms, child throws up and eats
vomit for the taste, child scratching
surface for tactile stimulation on fingers, child flipping light switch on
and off to gain a visual sensation
Ask supervisee if they will likely have
to treat clients with an automatic
punishment function (yes-many
food refusal behavior may have an
automatic punishment for example).

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition.Pearson
Education, Inc.
Vollmer, T. R. (1994). The concept of automatic reinforcement: Implications for
behavioral research in developmental
disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15(3), 187-207.
Related Lessons:
FK-17 Unconditioned reinforcement
FK-19 Unconditioned punishment
FK-22 Extinction

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FK-24 Stimulus control

Definitions:
Stimulus control - "A situation in which the
frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a
behavior is altered by the presence or absence
of an antecedent stimulus” (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007, p. 705).
Example: When the telephone rings, George
picks up the receiver. Picking up the receiver
is under the stimulus control of a ringing
phone.
Discriminated operant - "An operant that
occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than under others” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.694).

Discriminative
Stimulus

Assessment:

•

Discriminative stimulus (SD) - "A stimulus
in the presence of which responses of some
type have been reinforced and in the absence
of which the same type of responses have occurred and not been reinforced” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 694).
Example: In the above example, the telephone's ring is the discriminative stimulus.

Response

•"What is your
name?"

•

Example: In the above example, picking up
the receiver is the discriminated operant.

Label the following: The traffic light
turns red, John steps on the break.
What is under stimulus control?
What is the discriminated operant?
What is the discriminative stimulus?
Ask the supervisee to explain how he
can bring a student's behavior of saying "dog" under the stimulus control
of the picture of a dog.
Ask supervisee how they could use
stimulus control to reduce the jumping behavior of a man who jumps up

•"John"

Stimulus
Change
•"That's right,
good for you!"

and down so much that he is damaging his feet.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Related Lessons:
D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction
FK-22 Extinction
FK-29 Distinguish between discriminative
stimulus and motivating operation

FK-25 Multiple functions of a single stimulus
The same stimulus may serve multiple functions depending on the context. For instance,
an aversive stimulus can function as a positive
punisher or a negative reinforcer depending
on whether it is added or removed contingent
on a response. An appetitive stimulus can
function as a positive reinforcer or a negative
punisher depending on whether it is added or
removed contingent on a response.
In a behavior chain, a stimulus can function
as a discriminative stimulus and a reinforcer
depending on how much of the chain has
been completed. Behavior chains are described by Catania as “a sequence of discriminated operants such that responses during one
stimulus are followed by other stimuli that reinforce those responses and set the occasion
for the next ones” (Catania, 2013, p. 431).
Respondent behavior interacts with operant behavior in ways that can cause a single
stimulus to be an eliciting stimulus for respondent behavior as well as a discriminative
stimulus for operant behavior. For example,
when seeing your best friend arrive to your
home for a visit, this may elicit respondent behavior one might describe as “excitement”.
Seeing your friend may also serve as a discriminative stimulus for waving at him/her.

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Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to give examples of a single stimulus serving multiple functions.
• Look at a task analysis with your supervisee. Have him/her pick a stimulus that serves as a discriminative
stimulus and a reinforcer at certain
parts of the performance.
Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Pub.
Catania, A. C., & Overmier, J. B. (1971). Discriminative stimulus functions of drugs:
Interpretations. In Stimulus properties of
drugs (pp. 149-160). Springer New York.
Bullock, C. E., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2015).
The several roles of stimuli in token reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 103(2),
269–287.
http://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.117
Related Lessons:
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.
FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15 operant conditioning
FK-16 respondent-operant interactions

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FK-26 Unconditioned motivating operations

Definition:
Unconditioned motivating operations “…events, operations, and stimulus conditions
with value-altering motivating effects that are unlearned” (Michael, as cited in Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 377).
Deprivation of basic human needs such as water,
food, and sleep all create “evocative effects” that
establish these items as reinforcers.
Cooper et al., 2007 identifies nine unconditioned
motivating operations (UMOs) including food deprivation, water deprivation, sleep deprivation, activity deprivation, oxygen deprivation, sex deprivation, becoming too warm or cold, and an increase
in painful stimulation. The withholding of any of
these will lead to an increase in the reinforcing
value of obtaining that which has been deprived.
On the other hand, when there is no longer deprivation, this serves as a UMO having an abative
effect on behavior, making it less likely to occur.
Example:
Roger has not slept in three days because he has
been studying for his chemistry final. Sleep becomes more valuable the more deprived of sleep he
gets.
Non-example:
Roger lost his key to his apartment and cannot get
in. The locked door serves as motivation for him to
find his key to get into his apartment. The key
serves as a reinforcer because his learning history
identifies this as the only way to unlock his door
and get into his apartment.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee identify at least 7 unconditioned motivating operations. Have him/her
describe their reinforcer-establishing effect as
well as their evocative effect. (see page 379,
table 16.1 in Cooper et al., 2007)
•
Have supervisee identify UMOs that decrease
reinforcer effectiveness and abate relevant behavior. Have him/her describe the reinforcerabolishing effect and the abative effect of each
UMO. (See page 380, table 16.2 in Cooper et
al., 2007).
•
Have supervisee explain how to weaken the
effects of a UMO. (See page 380-381 in
Cooper et al., 2007).

•

Have supervisee explain the difference between motivating operations and discriminative stimuli. (See page 377 in Cooper et al.,
2007).

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A.
(2001). The abative effect: A new term to describe the action of antecedents that reduce
operant responding. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 101-104.
Lotfizadeh, A.D., Edwards, T.L., Redner, R., &
Poling, A. (2012). Motivating operations affect stimulus control: A largely overlooked
phenomenon in discrimination learning. Behavior Analyst, 35, 1, 89-100.
Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and motivational functions of stimuli.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
37, 149-155.
Michael, J. (2000). Implications and refinements of
the establishing operation concept. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 401-410.
Ulrich, R.E., & Azarin, N.H. (1962). Reflexive
fighting in response to aversive stimulation.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5,
511-520.
Related Lessons:
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and
Discriminative stimuli.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic, cultural)
FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement.
FK-19: Unconditioned punishment
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.
FK-28: Transitive, reflexive, and surrogate motivating operations.
FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative
stimulus and the motivating operation.
FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation
and reinforcement effects.

FK-27 Conditioned motivating operations
Definition:
Conditioned motivating operation - “A motivating operation whose value-altering effect depends
on a learning history” (Michael, as cited in Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 384).
Three types of conditioned motivating operations
(CMOs): surrogate (CMO-S), reflexive (CMO-R),
and transitive (CMO-T)
•
Surrogate CMOs replace and have the same
effect as the motivating operation that it was
previously paired with.
o Example: A rat is placed in a distinctive environment when food deprived. This is repeated a
number of times. Over time, the rat is placed in the
same environment when they have not been deprived of food. The distinctive environment and
it’s relation to a state of food deprivation results in
an increase in the value of food as a reinforcer and
an increase in the frequency of behavior with a history of producing food. In this example, the distinctive environment is paired with a unconditioned motivating operation (food deprivation).
Over time, the distinctive environment functions
as a motivating operation in the absence of food
deprivation.
•
Reflexive CMOs create a circumstance in
which its own removal serves as the reinforcement.
o Example: The presence of instructional materials often precedes the presentation of instructional tasks. If an individual engages in behavior
maintained by access to escape from instructional
tasks, in time they may engage in escape maintained
behavior in the presence of instructional materials
and the removal of these materials may function as
a reinforcer. In this example, the instructional materials serve as a CMO-R.
•
Transitive CMOs make other stimuli more effective reinforcers.
o Example: A locked door functions as a CMOT to establish a key as a reinforcer.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee describe the three types of
CMOs. Have him/her give examples of each.
•
Have supervisee explain the definitions for
conditioned and unconditioned motivating
operations in simple terms that someone who
does not have ABA experience can understand.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

•

221

Have supervisee explain how to weaken the
effects of each of the three types of CMO.

Relevant Literature:
Catania, A. C. (1993). Coming to terms with establishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16,
219-224. Catania, A. C. (1994). Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Clark, F. C.
(1958). The effects of deprivation and frequency of reinforcement on variable interval
responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1, 221-228.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 384-389.
Endicott, K., & Higbee, T.S. (2007). Contriving
motivating operations to evoke mands for information in preschoolers with autism. Research
in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1, 3, 210-217.
Hesse, B. (1993). The establishing operation revisited. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 215- 217.
Iwata, B. A., Smith, R. G., & Michael, J. (2000).
Current research on the influence of establishing operations on behavior in applied settings.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 411418.
Lotfizadeh, A.D., Edwards, T.L., Redner, R., &
Poling, A. (2012). Motivating operations affect
stimulus control: A largely overlooked phenomenon in discrimination learning. Behavior
Analyst, 35, 1, 89-100.
Michael, J. (1993). Establishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16(2), 191.
Related Lessons:
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and
Discriminative stimuli.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
FK-02: Selectionism
FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement.
FK-19: Unconditioned punishment
FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations.
FK-28: Transitive, reflexive, and surrogate motivating operations.
FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative
stimulus and the motivating operation.
FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation
and reinforcement effects.

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FK-28 Transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating operations

Conditioned motivating operations consist of
“…motivating variables that alter the reinforcing
effectiveness of other stimuli, objects, or events,
but only as a result of an organism’s learning history…” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 384).
The 3 types of conditioned motivating operations are surrogate (CMO-S), reflexive (CMO-R),
and transitive (CMO-T).
“Any stimulus that systematically precedes the
onset of painful stimulation becomes a CMO-R
(reflexive- CMO), in that its occurrence will evoke
any behavior that has been followed by such reinforcement” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 385).
“When an environmental variable is related to
the relation between another stimulus and some
form of improvement, the presence of that variable
functions as a transitive CMO, or CMO-T, to establish the second condition’s reinforcing effectiveness and to evoke the behavior that has been followed by that reinforcer” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.
387).
Surrogate CMO’s are stimuli that have been
paired with another motivating operation and “acquired a form of behavioral effectiveness by being
paired with a behaviorally effective stimulus”
(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 384). There is not strong
evidence for this type of CMO.
Example:
• (CMO-R) A child engages in escape-maintained
problem behavior during matching to sample instruction. In time, the child engages in escapemaintained problem behavior when the materials for matching to sample are brought out, before instruction has begun.
• (CMO-T) You walk up to your front door and
turn the knob, but the door is locked. You reach
into your pocket and grab your keys and unlock
the door.
• (CMO-S) In the presence of a stimulus that has
been paired with a cold environment, the value
of stimuli that produce warmth increases.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee list and define the 3 types of
conditioned motivating operations.
•
Have him/her give examples of each type of
conditioned motivating operation.

•

Have supervisee explain the difference between conditioned and unconditioned motivating operations.

Relevant Literature:

Carbone, V.J., Morgenstern, B., Zecchin-Tirri, G., &
Kolberg, L. (2007). The role of the reflexive conditioned motivating operation (CMO-R) during
discrete trial instruction of children with autism.
Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 4,
4, 658-680.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 384-388, 390391.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A.
(2003). Motivating operations and terms to describe them: Some further refinements. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 3, 407-414.
McGill, P. (1999). Establishing Operations: Implications for assessment, treatment, and prevention of
problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 393-418.
Michael, J. (1993). Concepts and Principles of Behavior
Analysis. Kalamazoo, MI. Society for the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.
Michael, J. (1993). Establishing Operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 191-206.
Mineka, S. (1975) Some new perspectives on conditioned hunger. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Animal Behavior Processes, 104, 143-148.
Rosales, R., & Rehfeldt, R.A. (2007). Contriving transitive conditioned establishing operations to establish derived manding skills in adults with severe
developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 1, 105-121.

Related Lessons:
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation…
FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)
FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-15: Operant conditioning
FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions.
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.
FK-20: Conditioned punishment
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.
FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative
stimulus and the motivating operation
FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation
and reinforcement effects.

FK-29 Distinguish between the discriminative stimulus and the motivating operation
Definitions:
Discriminative stimulus (SD) - “A stimulus in
the presence of which responses of some type have
been reinforced and in the absence of which the
same type of responses have occurred and not been
reinforced; this history of differential reinforcement is the reason an SD increases the momentary
frequency of the behavior” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 694).
Motivating operation - “An environmental
variable that (a) alters (increases or decreases) the
reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of some
stimulus, object, or event; and (b) alters (increases
or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior
that has been reinforced or punished by that stimulus, object, or event” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 699).
Examples:
•
A child often asks their parents to play video
games after school. The child’s father often
says “yes” to this request, while the child’s
mother says “no” and tells the child to get
started on their homework. Over time the
child continues to ask their father if they can
play video games, but has stopped asking their
mother. In this example the presence of the
father likely functions as an SD due to the history of requests being granted in his presence,
but not in the presence of their mother.
•
After playing outside for an hour, a child
walks into the house and gets a drink of water.
In this example, playing outside likely functions as a motivating operation, more specifically as establishing operation, in that it increases the value of water as a reinforce and
increases the frequency of behavior with a history of producing water.
•
A student earns tokens throughout the school
day and can trade them in for a preferred item
or activity. Usually the student chooses to
trade in their tokens for a small snack, accept
after lunch. Usually after lunch the student
chooses computer over snacks. In this example, consuming food during lunch likely functions as a motivating operation, more specifically an abolishing operation, in that it decreases the value of food as a reinforcer and

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decreases the frequency of behavior with a
history of producing food.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee explain the difference between SD s and MOs.
•
Have the supervisee to create additional examples of SD s and MOs.
•
Provide the supervisee with examples of responses and the reinforcers for those responses. Have the supervisee describe potential ways to increase and decrease the value of
the reinforcer.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and motivating functions of stimuli.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 149–155.
Related Lessons:
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of
antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
G-08 Identify and make environmental changes
that reduce the need for behavior analysis services.
I-02 Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
J-04 Select intervention strategies based on client
preferences.
J-06 Select intervention strategies based on supporting environments.
J-07 Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints.
K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the
client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environments.
FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic)
explanations of behavior
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-26 unconditioned motivating operation
FK-31 behavioral contingencies
FK-33 functional relations

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FK-30 Distinguish between motivating
operation and reinforcement effects.

Understanding motivating operations (MO)
and reinforcement effects are critical components in the analysis of behavior. To briefly
explain the difference, MOs are antecedent
variables that have behavior-altering effects in
that they alter the current frequency of relevant behaviors whereas the process of reinforcement is a consequence-based process (as
is extinction and punishment) said to have
repertoire-altering effects in that the future
frequency of the behavior that preceded the
consequence is altered (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007). While this explanation can
help clarify the difference between MO effects and reinforcement effects, it is also important to understand the basic features of
MOs. Specifically, MOs have a value-altering
effect or a behavior-altering effect. As defined
by Cooper et al., (2007),
The value-altering effect is either (a) an increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of some
stimulus, object, or event, in which case the
MO is an establishing operation (EO); or (b)
a decrease in reinforcing effectiveness, in
which case the MO is an abolishing operation
(AO). The behavior-altering effect is either
(a) an increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event, called an evocative effect; or (b) a decrease in the current frequency
of behavior that has been reinforced by some
stimulus, object, or event, called an abative effect (p. 375).
Examples:
• Being deprived of food or water increases
the reinforcing value of food and water (i.e.,
a value altering effect in which the MO
functions as an EO), and there will likely be
an increase in the current frequency of all
behavior that has previously been reinforced with food and water (i.e., an evocative behavior-altering effect). Conversely, if
a large meal was just consumed then it is
unlikely that food will be reinforcing (i.e., a

value-altering effect in which the MO functions as an AO) and there will be a reduction in the current frequency of all behavior
previously reinforced with food (i.e., an
abative behavior-altering effect).
• This next example can illustrate the difference between MO effects and reinforcement/punishment effects (i.e., repertoirealtering effects). Before leaving for work
you realize that it is going to be a cold day.
The heater in your car does not work well
so you plan ahead by putting a blanket and
extra jacket in your car to use if it becomes
too cold. During your drive to work, it becomes increasingly cold so you turn on your
car heater, put your extra jacket on, and lay
the blanket over you so you become much
warmer. In this example, there was an increase in the current frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced by becoming
warmer (i.e., an evocative behavior-altering
effect). For the rest of the winter, to avoid
becoming too cold on your drive to work,
you leave every morning already wearing an
extra jacket and put a blanket on you as
soon as you get in the car (i.e., repertoirealtering effect on future behavior).
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to define MOs and explain
the basic characteristics.
• Ask supervisee to discriminate between behavior-altering effects and repertoire-altering
effects.
• Ask supervisee to identify potential MOs
for client’s behavior.
• Ask supervisee to provide examples of behavior-altering effects and repertoire-altering
effects that are operating in a client’s environment.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Motivating operations. Applied
Behavior Analysis (pp. 374-391). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Iwata, B. A., Smith, R. G., & Michael, J.
(2000). Current research on the influence
of establishing operating on behavior in
applied settings. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 33, 411-418.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. (2001). The abative effect: A new
term to describe the action of antecedents that reduce operant responding. The
Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 101-104.
Schlinger, H., & Blakely, E. (1987). Functionaltering effects of contingency-specifying
stimuli. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 41-45.

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Related Lessons:
E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
FK-25 multiple functions of a single stimulus
FK-26 unconditioned motivating operations
FK-27 conditioned motivating operations
FK-28 transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating operations
FK-29 distinguish between the discriminative
stimulus and the motivating operation

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FK-31 Behavioral contingencies

“The AB because of C formulation is a general
statement that the relation between an event (B)
and its context (A) is because of consequences
(C)….Applied to Skinner’s three-term contingency,
the relation between (A) the setting and (B) behavior exists because of (C) consequences that occurred for previous AB (setting-behavior) relations.
The idea [is] that reinforcement strengthens the setting-behavior relation rather than simply strengthening behavior” (Moxley, 2004, p. 111).
“The three term contingency- antecedent, behavior, and consequence- is sometimes called the
ABC’s of behavior analysis…The term contingency has several meanings signifying various types
of temporal and functional relations between behavior and antecedent and consequent variables…When a reinforcer (or punisher) is said to be
contingent on a particular behavior, the behavior
must be emitted for the consequence to occur”
(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 41-42).
Example:
When John has not eaten in a while he asks his
caregiver for a snack. When John asks he’s given a
snack. In this case the antecedents are food deprivation and the presence of someone who can provide food. The behavior would be the request for a
snack and the consequence is being provided with
a snack.
Assessment:
•
Have supervisee identify and describe the
ABC three term contingency.
•
Have supervisee give specific examples of the
ABC three term contingency.
•
Have supervisee identify and describe other
principles and terms related to the three term
contingency (i.e., motivating operations, setting events, establishing operations, discriminative stimulus, stimulus control, etc…)
•
Have supervisee state how the ABC three
term contingency related to both punishment
and reinforcement.
Relevant Literature:
Azrin, N.H. & Holz, W.C. (1966). Punishment. In
W.K. Honig (Ed.), Operant Behavior: Areas of research and application (pp. 380-447). New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 35, 41-42, 258259, 261, 263-265, 292-294, 331 (Figure 14.2).
Glenn, S.S., Ellis, J., & Greenspoon, J. (1992). On the
revolutionary nature of the operant as a unit of
behavioral selection. American Psychologist, 47,
1329-1336.
Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior
Analysis (rev. ed.) Kalamazoo, MI: Society for
the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. (pp. 7, 114) New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
Moxley, R.A. (2004). Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst
Today, 5, 108-125.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G.R. (1977). Applying behavior analysis procedures with children and youth. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Vollmer, T.R. (2002). Punishment happens: Some
comments on Lerman and Vorndran’s review.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 469-473.
Vollmer, T.R. & Iwata, B.A. (1991). Establishing Operations and reinforcement effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 279-291.
Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of antecedents, such as motivating operations and discriminative stimuli.
G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical
language.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable
terms.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable
and measurable terms.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class.
FK-15: Operant Conditioning
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment
FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.
FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation and
reinforcement effects.
FK-33: Functional relations
FK-34: Conditional discriminations
FK-35: Stimulus discrimination
FK-41: Contingency-shaped behavior

FK-32 Contiguity
Definition:
Contiguity - “The juxtaposition of two or
more events when they occur simultaneously
or very closely together (e.g. the succession of
a response and a reinforcer in a superstition
procedure or of a CS and a US in a respondent
procedure)” (Catania, 1998, p. 383).
Example:
• Perseus wears his favorite lucky socks to
the Patriots game for the first time. On
the same day he wears his socks the team
wins the game.
• Dr. Zeus is working in an experimental lab
with rats. He trips on a banana peel immediately after a rat pulled a level in the
operant chamber.
• Perseus also loves to play Monopoly. He
needs a 4 to land on free parking. He
blows on the dice and says “come on 4!”
He rolls a 4.

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Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to define contiguity.
• Ask your supervisee to give an example and a non-example of contiguity
• Ask your supervisee to explain how
contiguity could result in superstitious behavior.
Relevant Literature:
Buehner, MJ. (2005). Contiguity and Covariation in Human Causal Inference. Learning
and Behavior, 33, 230–238.
Catania, A. C. (1998). Learning (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Shanks, D.R., Pearson, S.M., & Dickinson A.
(1989). Temporal Contiguity and the
Judgment of Causality by Human Subjects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41B, 139–159
Related Lessons:
FK-14 Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-32 Contiguity
FK-36 Response generalization

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FK-33 Functional relations

Definition:
Functional relation - “An experimentally determined relation that shows that the dependent variable depends on or is a function of the
independent variable and nothing else”
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 2009, p. 358).
“A ‘cause’ becomes a ‘change in an independent variable’ and an ‘effect’ a ‘change in a
dependent variable.’ The old ‘cause-and-effect
connection’ becomes a ‘functional relation.’
The new terms do not suggest how a cause
causes its effect; they merely assert that different events tend to occur together in a certain
order” (Skinner, 1953, p.23).
For every response are a number of factors
that influence the likelihood that it occurs.
Each one of these factors can be used as an
independent measure in an experiment. If an
experiment shows that there is a different between a context in which this variable is present vs when this variable is absent, we consider it to be a functional relation (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007).
For behavior analysts, functional relations
are important to discover. When we understand how a behavior is related to the environment, we can then decide what treatment to
use.
Example:
• Sonny has been engaging in some eloping
behavior within a school building. He has
been known to leave his classroom area
and to run to other rooms within the
building. His teachers have started delivering small pieces of candy for on-task behavior, as he works on his schoolwork.
The teachers have started seeing an increase in on-task behavior and a decrease
in elopement. A substitute teacher came
into the classroom for a week but did not
know about the on-task candy delivery the
first couple of days. Sonny started eloping

again. When the aides told the substitute
teacher about the contingency for on-task
behavior, the substitute started delivering
the candy on the same schedule as the
other teacher. Sonny again started sitting
down, remaining on task, and elopement
decreased. It can be said that there is likely
a functional relation between the schedule
of candy delivery and the elopement
and/or on-task behavior.
• Three semi-busy 3-way intersections in the
small town of Passamaquoddy has had a
series of accidents over the past few years.
These intersections have had yield signs up
but there have been several accidents at
each location. The town decides to replace
the yield signs with 3 stop signs instead.
They use a multiple baseline design across
locations. After seeing that when, and only
when, the new stop signs are implemented,
accidents have decreased in that location.
It can be said that there is a functional relation between the placement of the stop
signs and the change in accidents reported
there.
• Non-example:
A child with autism has been engaging in
some eloping behavior within a school
building. He has been known to leave his
classroom area and to run to other rooms
within the building. His teachers have explained to him that the other rooms are off
limits but this has not had an impact on his
behavior nor has simply ensuring that the
doors are closed. His teacher decides to put
up a green light on rooms that it is o.k. to
enter. There has been no change in behavior from the previously recorded levels of
entering the off-limits classrooms. It can be

said that there is no functional relation between the presence of green light signs and
the off-limits classroom entering behavior.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to give a definition
for functional relation.
• Ask your supervisee to create other examples and a non-example of his/her own.
• Ask the Supervisee why it is important to
only manipulate one variable at a time
• Ask the Supervisee to state how you would
know if a functional relation exists between the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.
(2009). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Routledge.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.
Simon and Schuster.
Related Lessons:
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
FK-33 Functional relations
H-03 Select a data display that effectively
communicates relevant quantitative relations.
H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between observed variables (within &between sessions,
time series).
I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed
data

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FK-34 Conditional discriminations

Definition:
Conditional discrimination – “refer to a concept related to stimulus equivalence and can be
created using matching-to-sample procedures.
Conditional discriminations operate within a
four-term contingency that accounts for the environmental context, such that the contingency
appears as the following: contextual stimulus 
SD response  reinforcement” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 400).
The contextual events operating within this
four-term contingency become conditional discriminations (Sidman, 1994). Moreover, a specific conditional discrimination implies that
there is a specific conditional relation, referring
to the direct outcome of the reinforcement contingency (Carrigan & Sidman, 1992). Different
conditional relations are reflected in the properties of stimulus equivalence (e.g., reflexivity,
symmetry, and transitivity). In order for new
conditional discriminations to emerge, at least
one conditional discrimination must be directly
trained. This initial discrimination is often arbitrary (e.g., training A > B implies that B < A).
Example:
• In a matching-to-sample trial, “A” is given
as the conditional sample and is then presented in a series of five letters “z”, “k”,
“a”, “t”, and “b.” By correctly matching
“A” to “a” the learner is discriminating
stimuli and selecting the correct comparison that will be reinforced. The learner’s
response will not be reinforced if a stimulus
other than “a” is selected. In this example,
the conditional sample “A” reflects the
contextual stimulus as it creates a context
for which stimulus to discriminate.
Assessment:
• Conditional discriminations can be a difficult concept to understand without having
adequate knowledge of stimulus control,
stimulus equivalence, and matching-tosample procedures. Therefore, in order to
assess for learning, the supervisee should be
asked to define and provide examples of

conditional discriminations within the context of explaining stimulus control, stimulus
equivalence, and matching-to-sample procedures.
• Once the supervisee can explain conditional discriminations, applied knowledge
can be assessed by asking supervisee to
demonstrate direct training of conditional
discriminations by using matching-to-sample and stimulus equivalence procedures.
The supervisor will model these procedures, have supervisee demonstrate the skill
and provide feedback based on their performance.
Relevant Literature:
Bush, K. M., Sidman, M., & De Rose, T. (1989).
Contextual control of emergent equivalence relations. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 51, 29-45.
Carrigan, P. F., & Sidman, M. (1992). Conditional discrimination and equivalence relations: A theoretical analysis of control by
negative stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 58, 183 204.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Stimulus control. Applied Behavior
Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Johnson. C. & Sidman, M. (1993). Conditional
discrimination and equivalence relations:
Control by negative stimuli. Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 59, 333347.
Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story. Boston, MA: Author’s
Cooperative.
Related Lessons:
E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-35 Stimulus discrimination
FK-37 Stimulus generalization
J-14 Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).

FK-35 Stimulus discrimination
Definition:
Stimulus discrimination – “is when a response consistently occurs in the presence of
S
a specific or controlling antecedent stimulus
and not in the presence of new or related stimuli. This is in direct contrast to stimulus generalization in which related antecedent stimuli
may evoke the same response” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 395-396).
D

Example:
• During a tooth brushing routine, a
child selects their tooth brush from
the cup that holds a number of
toothbrushes.
• You own a small white car and can
walk directly to your car after leaving
the mall even though there are several small white cars parked around
your car.
• You are taking three graduate level
ABA classes. Two of the professors
keep track of attendance and incorporate that into your final grade and
one professor does not track attendance or incorporate that into your final grade. As a result, you periodically miss this class since that your

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grade will not be lowered due to attendance and you regularly attend
the other two classes.
Assessment:
• Ask supervisee to identify natural examples of stimulus discrimination.
• Ask supervisee to compare and contrast stimulus discrimination and
stimulus generalization.
• Observe supervisee use stimulus discrimination procedures with clients.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Stimulus control. Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Green, G. (2001). Behavior analytic instruction for learners with autism: Advances
in stimulus control technology. Focus on
Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities,
16, 72-85.
Related Lessons:
E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-24 Stimulus control
FK-34 Conditional discriminations
FK-37 Stimulus generalization

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FK-36 Response Generalization

Definition:
Response generalization - “The extent to
which a learner emits untrained responses that
are functionally equivalent to the trained target behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 620).
“Improvements in behavior are most beneficial when they are long lasting, appear in other
appropriate environments, and spill over to
other related behaviors…When evaluating applied behavior analysis research, consumers
should consider the maintenance and generalization of behavior change in their evaluation
of a study” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 250).
Example:
• A young child learns to open a door
at their house by turning a door
knob. One day, while at a friend’s
house, they encounter a door that
has a handle rather than a knob. The
child is able to turn the handle and
open the unfamiliar door. This is an
example of response generalization
because functional both responses
are equal (they open result in the
door being opened) but the response
topographies are different.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee provide examples
of response generalization.
• Provide examples of both response
generalization and stimulus generalization and have supervisee indicate
which type of generalization the example is referring to and describe
why.
• Have supervisee describe why response generalization is important
when assessing behavior change and
skill acquisition.

Relevant Literature:
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).
Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 1, 91-97.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 250-251, 620-622.
Fantuzzo, J.W., & Clement, P.W. (1981). Generalization of the effects of teacher and selfadministered token reinforcers to nontreated students. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 14, 435-447.
Goetz, E.M., & Baer, D.M. (1973). Social control of form diversity and the emergence of
new forms in children’s block building.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 209217.
Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story. Boston: Author’s
Cooperative.
Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate
whether interventions are behavior analytic in
nature.
E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
E-11: Use pairing procedures to establish new
conditioned reinforcers.
I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable terms.
I-02: Define environmental variables in observable and measurable terms.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
J-12: Program for maintenance.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).
K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain
the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural
environments.
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-12: Stimulus equivalence
FK-37: Stimulus generalization.

FK-37 Stimulus generalization
Definitions:
Stimulus generalization - “When an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behavior tends to be
evoked by stimuli that share similar physical
properties with the controlling antecedent
stimulus” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 705).
Example:
A child says, “mommy” in the presence of her mother,
but also says “mommy” when she sees her grandmother
or daycare provider.
•
•

•

Have supervisee identify the difference between response generalization and stimulus generalization.
Have supervisee identify the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.
Have him/her identify the qualities
of each and give examples.
Have supervisee give examples from
their workplace of stimulus generalization.

Relevant Literature:
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).
Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 1, 91-97.

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Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd
Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 394-396, Figure 17.1,
616, 632.
Cuvo, A.J. (2003).On stimulus generalization
and stimulus classes. Journal of Behavioral
Education, 12, 77-83.
Guttman, N., & Kalish, H. (1956). Discriminability and generalization. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 79-88.
Johnston, J.M. (1979). On the relation between generalization and generality. The
Behavior Analyst, 2, 1-6.
Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit
technology of generalization. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.
Related Lessons:
B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior
analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether interventions are behavior analytic in nature.
E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.
J-11: Program for stimulus and response generalization.
J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).
FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.
FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class
FK-12: Stimulus equivalence
FK-36: Response generalization.

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FK-38 Behavioral contrast

Definition:
Behavioral contrast - “The phenomenon in
which a change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the
rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate in
the opposite direction on the other, unaltered
component of the schedule; behavior punished in one situation may increase in other
situations where it's not punished…..Contrast
effects of punishment can be minimized, or
prevented altogether, by consistently punishing occurrences of the target behavior in all
relevant settings and stimulus conditions,
withholding or at least minimizing the person’s access to reinforcement for the target
behavior, and providing alternative desirable
behaviors” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 337)
Example:
Rich sneaks candy from home and eats it in
class. His teacher catches him one day and he
stops eating candy in the classroom. However,
he now asks to go to the bathroom every
morning and eats candy in the bathroom
where the teacher cannot see him.
Assessment:
• Have supervisee describe the principles
of punishment and reinforcement and
how behavioral contrast relates to each.
• Have supervisee explain why rates may
fluctuate based on punishment and reinforcement contingencies in multiple
schedules.
• Have supervisee give examples of behavioral contrast from their experiences and
what they have done in those circumstances.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 337-338, 349.
Gross, A.M. & Drabman, R.S. (1981) Behavioral contrast and behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 12, 2, 231-246.
Koegel, R.L. & Williams, J.A. (1980). Behavioral contrast and generalization across
settings in the treatment of autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 3, 422-437.
Nevin, J.A. (1992). Behavioral contrast and
behavioral momentum. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes,
18, 2, 126-133.
Reynolds, G.S. (1961) Behavioral Contrast.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 4, 1, 57-71.
Related Lessons:
C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of reinforcement.
C-02: State and plan for the possible unwanted effects of punishment.
D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.
D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of reinforcement.
D-15: Use positive and negative punishment.
D-16: Identify and use punishers.
D-17: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of punishment.
D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement
with punishment and extinction.
E-07: Plan for behavioral contrast effects.
FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement
FK-20: Conditioned punishment
FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment

FK-39 Behavioral momentum
Definition:
Behavioral momentum - “A metaphor to
describe a rate of responding and its resistance
to change following an alteration in reinforcement conditions” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 691).
“In classical physics, momentum is defined
as the product of velocity and mass. Translating metaphorically, behavioral momentum is
the product of response rate and resistance to
change” (Nevin, 1992, p. 302).
Response rate had been used as the measure of response rate for many years. With the
introduction of behavioral momentum, Nevin
challenges this and describes resistance to
change as a better way to measure response
strength (Nevin, 1974).
Behavioral momentum is not synonymous
with the high-p request sequence. Use caution
when describing behavioral momentum this
way (Nevin, 1996).
Examples:
• “If you are working at the computer,
and you keep working even though
you are called to dinner, that is an example of behavioral momentum”
(Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 134).
• A student is coloring at his desk. The
teacher asks him to come down to
the rug to listen to a story. He continues to color for a few more seconds.
• James is watching TV. His remote
stops working. He continues to push
the button despite the battery being
dead.

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Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to describe behavioral momentum
• Ask your supervisee to give an example of behavioral momentum.
Relevant Literature:
Brandon, P. K., & Houlihan, D. (1997). Applying behavioral theory to practice: An
examination of the behavioral momentum
metaphor. Behavioral
Interventions, 12(3), 113-131.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Nevin, J. A. (1974). Response strength in multiple schedules. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 21(3), 389–408.
doi:10.1901/jeab.1974.21-389
Nevin, J. A. (1992). An integrative model for
the study of behavioral momentum. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 57(3), 301.
Nevin, J. A. (1996). The Momentum of Compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
29(4), 535–547.
Nevin, J. A., Mandell, C., & Atak, J. R. (1983).
The analysis of behavioral momentum. Journal of the Experimental analysis of
behavior, 39(1), 49.
Related Lessons:
E-09 Arrange high-probability request sequences.
FK-10 behavior, response, response class

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FK-40 Matching law

Definition:
Matching law - “a quantitative formulation
stating that the relative rates of different responses tend to equal the relative reinforcement
rates they produce” (Catania, 2007, p. 449).
Herrnstein (1961) described pigeon’s distribution of responding on concurrent schedules of
reinforcement. He found the relation between
absolute rate of reinforcement and the absolute
rate of responding is a linear function that passes
through the origin. In other words, if rate of reinforcement and rate of responding are plotted
on the x and y axis the result of the data is very
close to a line that passes through the origin with
the slope of 1. The matching equation can be denoted as follows:

𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎
(𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 + 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏 ) = (𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 )

𝐵𝐵
The term 𝑎𝑎 is behavior measured as rate of re𝐵𝐵
sponse for behavior a, and 𝑏𝑏 is behavior measured
𝑅𝑅
as rate of response for behavior b. The term 𝑎𝑎 is
the scheduled rate or reinforcement for response a,
𝑅𝑅
and 𝑏𝑏 is the scheduled rate of reinforcement for
response b.
The matching law has been demonstrated across
a variety of species including pigeons, cows
(Mathews & Temple, 1979), rats (Poling, 1978),
free ranging flocks of birds (Baum, 1974), and humans (Conger & Killeen, 1974).
There are also multiple applied examples. For
example, Mace, Neef, Shade, and Mauro (1994)
found special education high school students spent
time on math problems, arranged in different
stacks, that was equal to the relative rate of reinforcement for completing math problems from the
different stacks. Also, Borrero and Vollmer (2002),
after conducting functional analyses to find maintaining variables for problem behavior, found that
proportional rates of problem behavior relative to
problem behavior matched the proportional rate of
reinforcement for 4 individuals with disabilities.

Assessment:
•
Ask your supervisee to describe matching law
and how it relates to choice (response allocation).
•
Have supervisee explain a situation where the
matching law could be applied and describe
the concurrent rates of reinforcement in place
for two different behaviors.
•
Relate matching law to the selection of alternative behavior in a DRA.
Relevant Literature:
Baum, W. M. (1974). Choice in free-ranging wild
pigeons. Science, 185(4145), 78-79.
Borrero, J. C., & Vollmer, T. R. (2002). An application of the matching law to severe problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(1),
13-27.
Conger, R., & Killeen, P. (1974). Use of concurrent
operants in small group research: A demonstration. Pacific Sociological Review, 399-416.
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961). Relative and absolute
strength of response as a function of frequency
of reinforcement. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 4(3), 267.
Mace, F. C., Neef, N. A., Shade, D., & Mauro, B.
C. (1994). Limited matching on concurrentschedule reinforcement of academic behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(4), 585.
Matthews, L. R., & Temple, W. (1979). Concurrent
schedule assessment of food preference in
cows. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 32(2), 245-254.
Poling, A. (1978). Performance of rats under concurrent variable-interval schedules of negative
reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 30(1), 31-36.
Related Lessons:
A-14 Design and implement choice measures.
B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables
to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables.
E-08 Use the matching law and recognize factors
influencing choice.
G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical language.

FK-41 Contingency-shaped behavior
Definition:
Contingency shaped behavior – Behavior
that is “selected and maintained by controlled,
temporally close consequences” (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 42). These consequences may either be reinforcing or punishing.
Example:
Soda sippers
• Melvin puts a dollar into the soda
machine and pushes the cola button.
Seconds later a can of soda comes
out. He opens the soda and drinks it.
He buys 3 more drinks from the
same machine that week.
• Simon’s friend Ernest is a prankster.
Ernest shakes up a can of soda and
offers Simon a drink. The can sprays
him in the face and soaks his clothing. The next time Ernest offers a
soda, Simon is hesitant to accept.
Although he’d like to open the soda
and drink it, he hands it back expecting another explosive surprise.
• Thirsty Floyd finds a 12 pack of old
sodas in the storeroom. He cracks a
can and starts to drink. Unfortunately, the soda has gone bad. Floyd
gets sick from drinking the soda. In
the future Floyd avoids drinking old
sodas.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

237

Non-example: Horace’s mom tells him that
drinking soda is bad for him. Horace avoids
drinking soda in the future.
Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to explain contingency shaped behavior
• Ask your supervisee how contingency shaped is different from rulegoverned behavior
• Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own.
• Ask your supervisee to state why it
might be better to use contingency
shaped consequences as opposed
consequences, which are more delayed or rule governed
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Malott, R. & Trojan-Suarez, E. (2004) Principles of Behaviour. New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo, MI:
Society for the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.
Related Lessons:
E-04 Use contingency contracting (i.e., behavioral contracts).
FK-42 Rule-governed behavior

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FK-42 Rule Governed Behavior

Definition:
Rule governed behavior - “Behavior governed by a rule (i.e., a verbal statement of an
antecedent-behavior-consequence
contingency), enables human behavior (e.g., fastening a seatbelt) to come under the indirect
control of temporarily remote or improbable
but potentially significant consequences (e.g.,
avoiding injury in auto accident). Often used
in contrast to contingency-shaped behavior; a term
used to indicate behavior selected and maintained by controlled, temporally close consequences” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 703).
Examples:
• Matilda’s mother told her that if she gets
all of her homework done this week that
she will take her out for ice cream on Saturday. It is only Wednesday and Matilda
still hasn’t finished all of the work. This
is a new contingency for Matilda, but
when Saturday arrived, all of her homework was done.
• Felicia has never put a metal fork in the
toaster before but her dad told her that
she could be electrocuted if she tried to
get her bagel out that way. She always
gets a wooden spoon to get the bagel out.
• Non-example: Matilda’s mother told her
that if she gets all of her homework done
this week that she will take her out for ice
cream on Saturday. It is only Wednesday
and Matilda still hasn’t finished all of the
work. Her mother brings her to get ice
cream every week that she gets her homework done. When Saturday arrived, all of
her homework was done.

Assessment:
• Ask your supervisee to explain rulegoverned behavior
• Ask your supervisee how rule-governed behavior is different from
contingency-shaped behavior
• Ask your supervisee to create another example and non-example of
his/her own.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).
Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Malott, R. W. (1988). Rule-governed behavior
and behavioral anthropology. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 181–203.
Malott, R.W. & Garcia, M.E. (1991). The role
of private events in rule-governed behavior. In L.J. Hayes & P. Chase (Eds.), Dialogues on verbal behavior (pp. 237-254).
Reno, NV: Context Press.
Schlinger Jr, H. D. (1990). A reply to behavior
analysts writing about rules and rule-governed behavior. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 8, 77.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Related Lessons:
E-04 Use contingency contracting (i.e., behavioral contracts).
FK-41 Contingency-shaped behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

FK-43 Echoics
Definition:
Echoic - “An elementary verbal operant involving a response that is evoked by a verbal
discriminative stimulus that has point-topoint correspondence and formal similarity
with the response” (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007, p. 694).
Examples:
Teaching the class
• Mrs. Platypus is instructing her 3rd grade
class on their math facts. She holds up a
card stating that, “three times nine is
eighteen”. She then restates the fact asking the class to repeat. The class says,
“three times nine is eighteen” in unison.
Mrs. Platypus praises the students for
their repetition.
• Mr. Penguin is a kindergarten teacher.
He is working with one student on his
reading skills. He shows little Timmy the
letter R. He tells him that the letter R
makes the “rrr” sound and asks him to
repeat. Little Timmy says, “rrr,” and Mr.
Penguin comments, “Nice job Timmy.”
• Mrs. Dodo the art teacher needs one of
her students to run to the office and get
some supplies. One of the children volunteers. She tells him that she needs him
to get, “Crayons, markers, and paint.”
He repeats, “Crayons, markers, and
paint.” “Exactly,” Mrs. Dodo says sending him on his way.
Non-example:
Mrs. Platypus is still working on math facts
with her class. She holds up the math fact
4x9= and asks the students to give the answer.
Susie Q raises her hand and answers “thirtysix.”
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to give the definition of an echoic
• Ask the supervisee to give several
examples of echoics

•

239

Ask the supervisee to give a non-example of an echoic

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O., Heron T.E, Heward W.L.
(2014). Applied behavior analysis. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program.
Concorde, CA: AVB Press
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century
Related Lessons:
D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.
D-10 Use echoic training.

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FK 44 Mands

Definition
Mand - “An elementary verbal operant that is
evoked by an MO and followed by specific reinforcement” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 699).
Examples:
• “I want a cookie” (mand for an item;
can also include verbs, use of adjectives, prepositions, pronouns etc.)
• A child says “watch me” after learning how to ride a bike independently
(mand for attention)
• Asking questions like “what’s your
name? or “where’s the phone?”
(mand for information)
• Child says, “No!” when parent is
about to use blender (mand for
avoidance of an aversive)
Things to remember about mands:
• The form of the response is specific
and under control of motivating operations.
• Response topography can vary: vocal, sign language, augmentative
communication, pushing, reaching,
hitting etc.
Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to recall how
they asked for supervision
• Ask your Supervisee to list the types
of mands they would emit if they
were lost in a foreign county and
needed directions to a local gas station

•

Ask you supervisee to list 5 ways
they use mands in an inappropriate
way (eg. complain about work to get
attention)

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson: Prentice Hall.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. (2003). Motivating operations and
terms to describe them: Some further refinements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(3), 407-414.
Michael, J. (1988). Establishing operations
and the mand. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 6, 3.
Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The
benefits of Skinner’s analysis of verbal
behavior for children with autism. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 698-724.
Sweeney-Kerwin, E. J., Carbone, V. J.,
O'Brien, L., Zecchin, G., & Janecky, M.
N. (2007). Transferring control of the
mand to the motivating operation in children with autism. The Analysis of verbal behavior, 23(1), 89.
Related Lessons:
D-09 verbal operant as a basis for language assessment
D-11 Use mand training
FK 27 Conditioned motivating operations
FK 28 Transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating operations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

FK-45 Tacts
Definition:
Tact – “An elementary verbal operant evoked
by a nonverbal discriminative stimulus and
followed by generalized conditioned reinforcement (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,
p. 705).”
Examples:
• Dexter walks outside with his
mother and sees birds in a tree.
“Robins,” he says. “You’re right.
Those are robins,” Dexter’s mom
says. “Robins” is a tact.
• Hector is in the store shopping for
Valentines Day. He sees a variety of
flowers before noticing the ones he
wants to buy. “Red roses,” Hector
says quietly to himself. “Red roses”
in this context is likely a tact.
• Chester goes to his friends Superbowl party. Upon scanning the array
of delicious apps and snacks on the
counter, he hones in on one that is
his favorite. “Ooh, buffalo chicken
dip,” he comments.
“Buffalo

•

241

chicken dip” would be likely a tact in
this context.
Non-example: Dexter is thinking
about buying some cookies the next
time he goes to the supermarket. He
writes the word “cookies” down on
his shopping list.

Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to define “tact.”
• Ask the supervisee to give several
examples of tacts.
• Ask the supervisee to give a non-example of a tact. Discuss why.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century.
Related Lessons:
D-12 Use tact training.

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FK-46 Intraverbals

Definition:
Intraverbal – “An elementary verbal operant
that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus and that does not have point-to-point correspondence with that verbal stimulus”
(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 698).
Examples:
• A new employee shows up for his
first day on the job. The man in the
cubical next to him asks, “What is
your name?” “Harvey,” the man replies.” Saying “Harvey” is an intraverbal in that context.
• Hanks boss stops his office to let
him know that his sales were “outstanding this week.” “Thanks. I really put in some long hours,” Hank
notes. “Thanks,” is an intraverbal in
that context.
Non-example:
The office phone rings. Harvey picks up the
phone and answers “Hello.” There is no one

on the line so he hangs up and keeps working.
Assessment:
• Ask the supervisee to define “intraverbal”
• Ask the supervisee to give several
examples of intraverbals.
• Ask the supervisee to give a non-example of an intraverbal.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Partington, J. W., & Bailey, J. S. (1993). Teaching intraverbal behavior to preschool
children. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 11, 9.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New
York: Appleton-Century.
Related Lessons:
D-13 Use intraverbal training

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

FK-47 Identify measurable dimensions of
behavior
According to Johnston and Pennypacker
(1993), behavior has 3 fundamental dimensional quantities (properties) that can be measured:
Repeatability – Refers to the fact that a behavior can occur repeatedly through time (i.e., behavior can be counted) (e.g., count, frequency,
rate)
Temporal extent – Refers to the fact that
every instance of behavior occurs during
some amount of time (i.e., when behavior occurs it can be measured in time.) (e.g., duration)
Temporal locus – Refers to the fact that every
instance of behavior occurs at a certain point
in time with respect to other events. (i.e., occurrences of behavior can be measured at
points in time.) (e.g., latency, interresponse
time) (As cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007, p. 26)
Assessment:
• Ask Supervisee to measure their
own duration related to a task (eg.
give them a timer and crossword
puzzle to complete)
• Ask Supervisee to measure and calculate the rate of someone tapping
their pen (or another discrete behavior) during a 10 minute meeting
• Ask Supervisee to observe a conversation between colleagues and measure latency regarding question asking-answering. Have Supervisee use
a timer/stop watch to record latency

•

243

Ask Supervisee to record their own
latency during a supervision meeting
when asked to define a task list item,
vs. a concept
Ask Supervisee to measure interresponse time (IRT) by observing
someone eating a meal for 5
minutes; have Supervisee record
time between swallowing one bit of
food and next bite and report the average IRT.

Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied behavior analysis.
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2011).
Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Routledge. Chicago
Thomason‐Sassi, J. L., Iwata, B. A., Neidert,
P. L., & Roscoe, E. M. (2011). Response
latency as an index of response strength
during functional analyses of problem
behavior. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 44(1), 51-67.
Worsdell, A. S., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.
(2002). Duration‐based measures of
preference for vocational tasks. Journal of
applied behavior analysis, 35(3), 287-290.
Related Lessons:
A-01: Measure frequency
A-02: Measure duration
A-03: Measure duration
A-04: Measure latency
A-05: Measure interresponse time
A-09: Evaluate accuracy and reliability of
measurement procedures
D-21: Differential reinforcement

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FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages of using continuous measurement procedures (e.g., partial.
and whole-interval recording, momentary time sampling)

Whole-interval recording
• Advantages
o Useful for measuring continuous behaviors or behaviors that
occur at such a high rate
o These data yield information
about the duration of each occurrence of the target behavior,
because an occurrence is only
scored if the behavior occurs
for the entire observation interval (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007).
• Disadvantages
o Tends to underestimate the
overall percentage of the observation period that the behavior
occurred for. The longer the
observation intervals, the
greater the underestimation effect will be (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).
Partial-interval recording
• Advantages
o This type of data collection is similarly useful for measuring continuous behaviors or behaviors that occur at high rates.
o Multiple behaviors can be measured
concurrently because the observer is
only required to record a behavior as
having occurred if it occurs for any
part of the interval. This makes it
easier to record more than one behavior at the same time
o If partial-interval recording is utilized with short observation intervals to measure discrete responses,
which occur for short periods of
time, it can give an approximate estimate of the minimum amount of

•

responses during the observation
period (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007).
Disadvantages
o These data cannot yield information
about the duration of each occurrence of a target behavior. This is because an occurrence is recorded
even if the behavior only occurred
for part of the observation interval
o Partial-interval recording tends to
overestimate the total duration that a
target behavior occurred; if the behavior has only occurred for a portion of the interval it still gets recorded as an occurrence, leading to
overestimation. It may also tend to
underestimate the rate of a target behavior, if the response occurs several
times in the interval (Cooper, Heron,
& Heward, 2007).

Momentary time sampling
• Advantages
o The observer does not have to attend continuously to the measurement, given recording of behavior
only takes place at the end of the interval (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007).
o May yield less error than interval recording, particularly as interval
length increases (Gardenier, MacDonald, & Green, 2004).
• Disadvantages
o Is not useful for measuring low-frequency behaviors that occur for
short periods (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007).

Assessment:
• Ask your Supervisee to state the
advantages and disadvantages
of each type of measurement
procedure.
• Ask your Supervisee to use one
of the continuous measurement
procedures and evaluate its effectiveness at representing the
behavior being studied.
Relevant Literature:
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Daboul-Meany, M. G., Roscoe, E. M., Bourret, J. C., Ahearn, W. H. (2007). A comparison of momentary time sampling and
partial-interval recording for evaluating
functional relations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40 (3), 501-514.
Gardenier, N. C., MacDonald, R., & Green,
G. (2004). Comparison of direct observational methods for measuring stereotypic
behavior in children with autism spectrum
disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25(2), 99-118.
Gunter, P. L., Venn, M. L., Patrick, J., Miller,
K. A. & Kelly, L. (2003). Efficacy of using
momentary time samples to determine on-

Annotated 4th Edition Task List

245

task behavior of students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Education and
Treatment of Children, 26, 400-412.
Powell, J., Martindale, A., & KuIp, S. (1975).
An evaluation of time-sample measures of
behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 463-469.
Suen, H. K., Ary, D., & Covalt, W. (1991). Reappraisal of momentary time sampling and
partial-interval recording. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 24, 803-804.
Related Lessons:
A-09: Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of
measurement procedures
A-12: Design and implement continuous
measurement procedures (e.g., event recording)
H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain
representative data given the dimensions of
the behavior and the logistics of observing
and recording
H-02: Select a schedule of observation and recording periods
I-01: Define the behavior in observable and
measurable terms
FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of
behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse time)
FK-48: State the advantages and disadvantages of using continuous measurement
procedures and discontinuous measurement
procedures (e.g., partial- and whole-interval
recording, momentary time sampling)

SECTION THREE
Submitting the Application and
Beyond

247

Chapter 5
Upon Completion of Supervision Hours
The technical guide is now complete. If the guide was effective, you should now have enough
knowledge and system tools to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Identify and reference the rules for providing supervised experience hours
Identify and calculate the proper hours for supervising independent fieldwork in applied settings
Assess supervisees as practitioners
Assess supervisee’s Foundational Knowledge of ABA
Structure Group Meetings using the Agenda for Group Meetings
Use the Fourth Edition Task List™ with your group
Apply the Fourth Edition Task List™ to improve, expand, and maintain each supervisee’s repertoire
Balance individual and group supervision to improve and maintain the supervisee’s
behavior analytic repertoire
Identify homework assignments
Choose from a variety of possible presentation delivery modes for supervisees (i.e.,
calendar, assigned vs. requested topics)
Connect with Trainaba.com for videos that can be played at group supervision for
Weekly Behavior Analytic Lessons
Incorporate Behavioral Skills Training into group supervision

We invite you to take an experimental approach to supervising experience hours. Please share
your experience with this protocol with ben@trainaba.com. The data received from professionals will shape future versions of this document.
Thank you for using this book. If you like it, please tell a colleague or carry the discussion
forward on LinkedIn. If you see a blind spot or something is unclear, please email ben@trainaba.com so we can fix the problem for everybody using the system.
Train ABA’s goal is to develop a solid program for supervision through hard work and many
trials with feedback. Eventually, we hope to deliver a practical supervision approach that serves
the behavior analyst community. We hope you join us in making that dream a reality.

249

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