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Ingvarsson, E.T., Kahng, S., Hausman, N.L. (2008). Some effects of noncontingent positive reinforcement on multiply controlled Problem behavior and compliance in a demand context. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 41, 3, 435-440.
- Kamps, D., Howard, W., Heitzman-Powell, L., Laylin, J., Szoke, C., Petrillo, T., & Culey, A. (2011). Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams: Effects of Group Contingency Programs in Urban Classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,...
- Nevin, A., Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1982). Effects of group and individual contingencies on academic performance and social relations of special needs students. Journal of School Psychology. 116, 1, 41-59.

BCBA Reference

Manual

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1

Edited by:

Benjamin Theisen

Zachary Bird

this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in-

cluding photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without express

written permission from the author / publisher.

BCBA Reference Manual

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1

Edited by Benjamin Theisen & Zachary Bird

ISBN13: 978-0-9856329-3-9

3 4 5 6 7 8 20 19 18 17 16

Bx Dynamic Press

SAN: 990-1396

5031 Fair Ave #424, N. Hollywood, CA 91601

iii

BCBA Reference Manual

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Volume 1

Edited by Benjamin Theisen and Zachary Bird

Table of Contents

SECTION ONE: Getting Started

1. Introduction

2. ABA Supervision Taxonomy

3. Refresher: Key Takeaways from the 8 Hour Supervisor Training Curriculum

SECTION TWO: Supervised Fieldwork Curriculum

4. Annotated 4th Edition Task List™

SECTION THREE: Submitting the Application and Beyond

247

5. Upon Completion

249

REFERENCES

251

About the Authors

Executive Editors

Ben Theisen founded TrainABA in January

2014 as an excuse to deliver supervision sem-

inars. He is a BCBA and has worked in applied

behavior analysis since 2006.

Email: ben@trainaba.com

Cell: 1+310-801-5450

My name is Zachary Bird. I’m a BCBA and

a managing partner at TrainABA. You won’t

find my phone number here but I still share

the same vision you hear when Ben speaks

passionately about TrainABA.

I’m currently working on my PhD in Be-

havior Analysis at Simmons College. I used to

live near Los Angeles, but Boston was as far

away as my wife and I could get from Ben

without leaving the country.

I work hard each day to learn ways to ad-

vance the field of behavior analysis. ABA is

my greatest passion. Everyone who knows

me, knows this about me. I’ve spent time in

center-based programs, non-public schools,

in-home programs, and worked as a consult-

ant internationally. TrainABA is a company

designed to provide tools for the behavior an-

alytic community in general, whether it be in a

university setting, an ABA center, or in-home

ABA program.

I hope the work Ben and I have done over

the last two years will result in a supervision

system you appreciate and can use every day.

If you don’t like it, or you don’t use a Train-

ABA product in your work or school every

day, please bombard Ben’s cell phone with

discouraging text messages.

Additional Editors

Casey Clay is a BCBA-D. He earned his

Ph.D. in the Disability Disciplines program

at Utah State University and his Master of

Science in Applied Behavior Analysis from

Northeastern University. He has several years

of clinical experience at the New England

Center for Children and the Utah Behavior

Support Clinic. His research interests include

assessment and treatment of challenging be-

havior, social interaction and preference as-

sessment methodologies, and training proce-

dures in these areas. His work has been pub-

lished in multiple peer-reviewed journals. He

has also served as a guest reviewer for the

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA)

and the Journal of Positive Behavior Inter-

ventions (JPBI).

Caleb Davis is a BCBA. Currently, he is a

PhD student in the Behavior Analysis pro-

gram at Simmons College. He received his

Master of Science in Applied Behavior Analy-

sis from Western New England University.

During graduate school he received his BCBA

supervision requirements while working at the

New England Center for Children. His re-

search interests include the assessment and

treatment of severe problem behavior and er-

rorless learning procedures. Caleb has pre-

sented his research at both national and re-

gional conferences.

Contributing Authors

This book would not have been made possible

without contributions from a set of behavior

analysts. Their roles were crucial in developing

this book. The editors offer a special thank

you to Jason Zeigler for his extraordinary con-

tributions to this project, which would not

have been completed without him.

Jason Zeigler is a BCBA currently working

for the Walpole Public School District in Wal-

pole, Massachusetts. He received his Master’s

of Education with a concentration in autism

spectrum disorder and applied behavior anal-

ysis from Cambridge College in 2011. He has

worked in a variety of settings serving stu-

dents of various age ranges and cognitive abil-

ities. Previously, Jason had worked as a head

teacher at the Evergreen Center, an assistant

clinical director at the May Institute, and as a

BCBA in the Marlborough Public School dis-

trict. This wide range of experiences has given

him a well-rounded professional outlook with

experience serving students with various disa-

bilities as well as typically developed students

with behavioral issues. His research interests

include functional behavior assessment, be-

havioral skills training, sensory processing dis-

order, interventions for students with ADHD,

sensory deficits, and anxiety, and effective

training methodologies. Jason’s current posi-

tion has him consulting, assessing, and

providing programming and behavioral sup-

port for a number of students ranging from

preschool to high school. He enjoys research,

training others in applied behavior analytic

principles, assessment, and problem solving

various maladaptive behavior concerns to cre-

ate effective interventions for students on his

case load.

Additional Authors

Dalena Anzivino is a BCBA. She completed

her undergraduate degree from York Univer-

sity, a post-graduate certificate program from

George Brown College, and a Master’s of Ap-

plied Disabilities Studies with a Specialization

in ABA from Brock University, Canada. Her

studies at Brock University led to a publica-

tion as a contributing author of a chapter in a

handbook for ABA practitioners on genetic

syndromes and ABA. Over the past ten years,

she has worked with children and adolescents

diagnosed with autism, providing direct ser-

vice, clinical supervision for both home based

and centre based Intensive Behavioural Inter-

vention (IBI) programs, as well as facilitating

training workshops for direct support staff

and parents.

Candice Colón-Kwedor is a BCBA. She was

first introduced to behavior analysis as an un-

dergraduate at Virginia Tech. She then re-

ceived her Master of Science in Applied Be-

havior Analysis from Northeastern University

and fulfilled her graduate assistantship re-

quirements and BCBA supervision require-

ments at the New England Center for Chil-

dren. Her research interests include the treat-

ment of automatically maintained behavior,

verbal behavior and the assessment and treat-

ment of severe challenging behavior. Her re-

search has been published in the Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) and has

been presented at national and regional con-

ferences. She has also served as a guest re-

viewer for The Analysis of Verbal behavior

(TAVB) and Behavioral Interventions (BI).

She is currently a doctoral candidate in the Be-

havior Analysis Ph.D. program at Western

vii

New England University and is a Senior Clin-

ical Director at the May Institute’s May Center

for Autism and Developmental Disabilities in

Randolph, Massachusetts.

Emma Martin graduated in 2007 from the

University of Bath with a Bachelor’s degree in

Psychology. Her Bachelors included a place-

ment year and as such she spent a year work-

ing at the Institute of Child Health in London

with two research teams conducting research

on autism. She worked as a Lead Teacher at

the Jigsaw School in the UK, which is an In-

dependent Day School for children with au-

tism and severe learning difficulties. At that

time, she also completed a Master’s Degree in

Education with a concentration in high-inci-

dence disabilities with Nicholls State Univer-

sity. In 2011, she moved to Bermuda and be-

gan work as a Senior Verbal Behavior Thera-

pist for Tomorrow’s Voices, an Autism Early

Intervention Centre. She became a Board Cer-

tified Behavior Analyst in 2012.

Angela Pao-Johnson is a BCBA and has

been in the field since 2004. She was first in-

troduced to applied behavioral analysis while

interning at UC San Diego’s Autism Center

for Excellence. Since then, she has worked

with a wide range of individuals ages 1 to 70

across a multitude of settings, which include

home, schools, clinics and adult group homes.

She has created protocols for several agencies,

designed and implemented social skills classes,

overseen the training of over 100 behavioral

interventionists and led a series of behavior-

ally based trainings for teachers across Los

Angeles School District. She currently resides

in Los Angeles with her loving husband, Mike

and their daughter Imogen.

Pamela Shea is currently the clinical supervi-

sor of Behaviour Services at Ottawa Chil-

dren’s Treatment Centre. She completed her

Masters in Applied Disabilities (Brock Uni-

versity), a Graduate Certificate in Behavior

Analysis (University of North Texas), Behav-

ioural Science Technology (St. Lawrence Col-

lege), an Honours Degree in Psychology

(Queen’s University), and is a BCBA. She has

over 25 years of experience in the field of

ABA, has worked as a clinical supervisor, a be-

haviour consultant, senior therapist, a BCBA

supervisor and has taught at two colleges. She

has worked in community based behaviour

services and the provincial IBI within multi-

disciplinary teams, in residential, vocational,

home, day care and school environments. She

is a member of OCTC’s Ethics Advisory

Committee and has spearheaded the develop-

ment of a Functional Analysis Ethical Review

Committee for medium and high severity

functional analyses and is a member of the

Christian Horizons Ethical Review Commit-

tee.

Carolyn E. Stephens has worked in the field

of autism and applied behavior analysis for

over 30 years. Her academic training includes

intervention in early childhood, learning disa-

bilities, and moderate and severe intellectual

disabilities. She has completed single subject

research related to joint attention in children

with autism. As an assistant professor in spe-

cial education she taught and supervised un-

dergraduate and graduate students in special

education at the university level. She is cur-

rently working as a behavior analyst to design

and implement individual behavior support

plans for children and adults. To address the

gap between needs and behavior training

within public agency systems, she has de-

signed and presented a year-long workshop to

introduce applied behavior analysis concepts

and skills to supervisors in an eight-county

area serving adults with developmental disa-

bilities.

Sarah Teske grew up in a small, historic town

in New Hampshire. She studied Psychology

and English at the University of New Hamp-

shire. She spent three years teaching at the

viii

New England Center for Children while she

acquired a master’s degree in applied behavior

analysis through Northeastern University. Sa-

rah went on to receive her certification as a

BCBA and also obtained her special ed. teach-

ing certification in the state of N.H. She has

been working in the field of autism for 15

years and currently works for William J. White

Educational and Behavioral Consulting Ser-

vices Inc., consulting for schools in both

Maine and New Hampshire. In her spare time

Sarah likes to write children’s books and gar-

den. She has been collaborating with other

professionals to enhance the field of ABA.

She currently lives on the seacoast of Maine

with her husband and two sons.

Kelly Workman, M.A., M.S., is a BCBA who

started her career in ABA in 2007. Her work

in ABA has focused on assessment and inter-

vention programs for individuals with autism

and other developmental disabilities across

the lifespan in the home, school, workplace,

and group home settings. Kelly has also pro-

vided supervision, training, and consultation

for several years. Kelly has an avid interest in

clinical behavior analysis and is currently com-

pleting a doctoral program in clinical psychol-

ogy at the University of La Verne, with the

goal of applying behavior analysis to chronic

and severe mental health issues. She received

extensive training in behavioral and cognitive-

behavioral therapies including ACT, DBT,

CBT, and CBASP, and incorporates principles

of operant conditioning to facilitate behavior

change when treating individuals with mental

health concerns. Kelly is passionate about her

clinical work and is receiving specialized train-

ing in working with populations who present

with pervasive emotional dysregulation, life-

threatening suicidal and non-suicidal self-

harming behavior, and trauma-related con-

cerns.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank certain individuals

whose professional activities influenced the

development of this book in some way.

Brooke Mackenzie was contracted for ad-

ministrative edits and worked expedi-

tiously.

Natasha Harris helped organize legal and

administrative paperwork.

Rabeha Motiwala helped with early re-

search in summer 2014.

Angie Bird provided feedback and great

ideas throughout the editing process.

Stephanie Ortega evaluated the logic of the

supervision system to help Ben and

Zach develop a conceptually-systematic

approach. Her razor-sharp analysis and

creativity was a tremendous help.

Christie Caccioppo, Vivienne Nelson,

and Sharon Noble provided insightful

feedback in an early stage collaboration

group in summer 2014.

Ellie Kazemi’s own work in supervision

curriculum is important to the ethical

practice of evidence-based supervision

and we encourage readers to explore

her resources. Ben had the privilege to

work with Dr. Kazemi at the Southern

California Consortium for Behavior

Analysis, which she founded. It helped

Ben understand the role project man-

agement played in helping service pro-

viders collaborate.

Gary Geer provided much-needed coaching

support for project management. When

the editors were fully immersed in the

messy writing process, Mr. Geer helped

us step back, prioritize, and focus.

Eduard S. Alterson generously provided his

economic genius and industry

knowledge in summer 2014, helping

Ben analyze the ABA supervision in-

dustry mathematically. Mr. Alterson’s

calculations helped create a financial

forecast for completing the book.

John Youngbauer coined the name of “As-

sociated Aardvarks for Autism,” a ficti-

tious behavioral service provider. Ben

borrowed the name for the case study

in the Supervisor book. Dr. Young-

bauer’s lifelong contributions to behav-

ior analysis could fill volumes of books

this size.

OBMNetwork is an excellent resource with

annual subscriptions available for the

price of one dinner. At the time of

publishing the first edition of this

book, there were 21,233 BACB certifi-

cants and only 236 members of the

OBMNetwork – a mere 1.11%.

Paula Braga-Kenyon provided support

throughout entire book writing/edit-

ing process whether she was aware of it

or not.

Olga Shapovalova provided insight and

support with initial stages and various

parts of editing. She inspires us with her

work in multiple languages while we

struggle to work in just one.

Carl Cheney contributed to our solid re-

source list on a few of the more difficult

to find topics.

Gregory Hanley provided and continues to

provide his vision for our field and

a simple call-to-action to behavior ana-

lysts everywhere: "Read JABA."

Michael Ballard contributed ideas, inspira-

tion and support.

Bill Ahearn advocated and continues to ad-

vocate for taking a big-picture perspec-

tive on our field and promoting systems

to increase the quality of training in our

field.

Foreward

Imagine my surprise when I returned to

applied behavior analysis from a 3-year sab-

batical in 2013. How different could things

be? It was night and day. In less than a presi-

dential term, the BACB® had doubled its

membership, supervision had guidelines, and

universities had ABA master’s degrees

online. My MBA no longer met the degree

requirements. ABA students were talking

about SAFMEDs. What the heck were SAF-

MEDs?

That was around the time I leaned back in

an old squeaky chair at a school startup out-

side Los Angeles, manding to Zach Bird, my

new colleague, from across the hall. “Zach,”

I said, waiting for him to unpeel his eyes

from the computer screen. Zach’s desk con-

tained a red pen, no papers, and a week’s

worth of vegetarian meal replacement bars,

some of which were opened. “Yeah?” he re-

sponded. He blinked a few times to let me

know he was ready. I put my hands behind

my head and stretched my heels onto the

Craigslist desk. “What’s a SAFMED?”

Zach looked at me like I had two heads.

Then, he gave me a full explanation. Zach

was different than any BCBA® I had met.

He had just left New England Center for

Children, where new BCBAs provided direct

care, and arrived in Southern California,

where every BCBA® was made an automatic

manager. Here, exam pass rates were around

40% at popular schools and negative rein-

forcement was occasionally defined as taking

away a preferred item to decrease behavior.

Our differences were what brought us to-

gether.

Zach was hands-down the biggest behav-

ior analysis geek I had ever met. Yet there

was something lovable about the way he an-

swered my questions that made me keep ask-

ing. As I write these words, I can hear his

voice in my mind saying, “Reinforcement,

Ben.”

What was so reinforcing about talking

ABA with Zach? We talked philosophy, pri-

vate events, things Skinner said, and, of

course, anything by Patrick Friman. I intro-

duced Zach to some of my non-ABA friends

and they thought he was the most interesting

person they had ever met. He was bright, en-

thusiastic, and incredibly humble.

Zach and I cared deeply about the same

thing – the future of ABA. My approach was

through business and marketing, hoping to

see a world where ABA organizations ran

like clockwork and other industries would

want to know our secrets. Zach was into

technology and research.

We agreed that behavior analysts would

benefit globally if supervisors had resources

at a molecular level. This book may not look

like much but it took us a very long time to

make, not to mention our countless web-

chats, whiteboard sessions, Elon Musk blogs,

and epic plans to change the world. We envi-

sioned a world where behavior analysts could

focus on supervision instead of spending

time figuring out how to supervise. This

book was a step in the right direction.

Yet we walked those steps slowly. Months

passed. We made slow progress. And then

there was Jason. Mr. Jason Zeigler was a Bos-

ton-area BCBA and absolute powerhouse.

We worked with Jason 10 months before

meeting him face-to-face, filming Registered

Behavior Technician training videos at our

“studio” (my tiny 1-bedroom apartment in

the North Hollywood Arts District of Los

Angeles). Jason was charismatic, fun, and

cool.

Gary Geer, my longtime mentor and part-

ner in TrainABA, had a good joke about Ja-

son. He said, “Did you see his Cooper book,

Ben?” I said, “Yeah. Lots of underlining and

margin notes, right?” Gary laughed. “He

could use a black highlighter, if you know

what I mean,” Gary said, playfully. “Yeah,

xii

because he has the whole thing memorized

so he doesn’t need to see the words,” I re-

plied. “Exactly,” Gary said. From that day

forward, whenever I thought of Jason I im-

agined him blacking out the Cooper text af-

ter memorizing each section. I was grateful

that Jason lended his talents to finishing this

book. He is an outstanding resource and

gifted presenter, full of passion and creativ-

ity.

At the time this book was finished, we had

plans to launch a mobile app version that

would forever change the field of ABA. Buy-

ing this book was like voting with your dol-

lars. With this purchase, you voted for Train-

ABA’s vision – to save time. It was a vote for

Zach and me to keep being ambitious, hum-

ble social entrepreneurs trying to bring the

world more ABA. We thank you for buying

this book – even if you have no idea who we

are – and we look forward to seeing you

someday soon. Launching this book is the

biggest thing we have ever done. Thank you

for sharing the moment with us. We appreci-

ate you so much.

Here’s to a better field. We will keep work-

ing hard to save you time. I hope this book

helps you find a few hours to do something

you love.

Ben Theisen, Editor

SECTION ONE

Getting Started

Chapter 1

Introduction

Thank you for purchasing this book as part of

the TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system. It will

save you dozens of hours – enough to plan a nice

vacation for yourself or find extra time through-

out the week to jump on Facebook, search

Google, add Ben on Twitter, or catch up on Net-

flix.

The system was built in response to two things

happening at the same time – like weather when

warm air mixes with a cold front and creates a

storm. The warm air was the developing industry

of applied behavior analysis (ABA) professional

services, marked by variability in university train-

ing and fieldwork that resulted in low Behavior

Analyst Certification Board® (BACB®) exam

pass rates. The cold front was the shock of Ben’s

15-month old niece dying from Sudden Unex-

plained Death of a Child in 2012. At the wake, her

father urged parents to, “read one more story” or

“give one more piggy back ride.” Time was pre-

cious.

Ben was deeply affected. In the months that

followed, he ran supervision webinars and was

struck by how many unpaid hours BCBAs com-

pleted at home. “We have to,” some would say,

“There’s no time to do it at work.” Supervisors

described reading emails during family dinners

and writing reports with a laptop from the bleach-

ers at soccer practice. It made Ben sad to think of

what his brother-in-law said at the wake. Time

was precious. If his sister had worked through

dinner the night before his niece died, they may

have regretted it forever. Ben knew the industry

would eventually correct itself but it could take

decades before supervision was structured.

Ben pondered the warm and cold weather con-

ditions, metaphorically, and used his economics

training to calculate when and who would create

standardized supervision curriculum. Private

agency supervisors created makeshift solutions

but stopped developing them once the systems

met their minimum needs. Universities focused on

their own practicum programs.

The TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system

took two years of full time effort to develop.

There were only 3,000 BACB®-exam candidates

in 2013. Even if Ben sold books to 25% of them,

he would have made less than minimum wage. It

was a pet project that Ben took way too seriously.

Zach joined in to help, probably because he felt

sorry for Ben and also realized Ben would finish

the project but did not know enough ABA litera-

ture to do it justice. They made slow progress un-

til Jason Zeigler joined the party. That guy was a

powerhouse. (Other contributors are mentioned

in the About the Authors section.) The result was

the overly sophisticated TrainABA system that

you hold today. We hope it keeps you organized

and saves you time while the ABA profession de-

velops.

In the coming years, we will see a more perfect

ABA world. It will be beautiful. We are privileged

to have a front row seat to the development of

our field. We are honored to take this journey

with you.

Okay, enough storytelling. Thank you for pur-

chasing the system. Here is what you bought:

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum includes the

items below.

1. TrainABA Supervision Curriculum:

BCBA Reference Manual

2. TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: In-

dependent Fieldwork (this book)

3. TrainABA Supervision Curriculum:

RBT Credential

The TrainABA Supervision Curriculum system helps

you:

a. Grow your company’s management team

with less stress on the system

b. Get from start to finish with a page-by-

page, week-by-week program (supervision

contract  fieldwork  BACB® applica-

tion)

c. Find systems to help you track supervision

hours and signature forms to email to the

BACB®

d. Use Individual and Group meeting agendas

e. Save dozens of hours by not reinventing

the wheel

f. Check pre-assigned homework

4 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

g. Track ongoing progress on the 4th Edition

Task List™ assessment

h. Prepare for BACB®-exam with test topics

built into fieldwork

i. Organize essential supervision materials

and meetings in one place, accessible by

phone or computer

TrainABA is a BACB®-Approved Continuing

Education (ACE) provider. We specialize in re-

sponding to supervision-related problems that are

global in scope and too complex or time-consum-

ing for other organizations and universities to

solve.

The 4th Edition Task List™ face sheets are or-

ganized by “segments” (more about those later) to

make it easier to complete and check homework

assignments.

TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: Independent

Fieldwork contains exercises for the supervisee to

complete in a week-by-week progression that

cover all 168 items on the 4th Edition Task List

with the following:

1. Individual meeting agendas

2. Group meeting agendas

3. Ongoing homework assignments

4. 4th Edition Task List™ assessment

The hours are not tracked in the book as a safe-

guard in case the book was lost. Keep your signa-

ture forms on a storage cloud online and in a pa-

per file for seven years.

Introduction 5

6 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Chapter 2

Supervision Taxonomy

1. What is ABA supervision?

2. A Taxonomy of ABA supervision

3. BACB® Influence in the Development of Formal Behavior Analysis Su-

pervision

What is ABA Supervision?

What is "supervision"? Most definitions in-

dicate that it is the act of providing supervi-

sion or oversight, involving directing in rela-

tion to execution and performance.

Supervision in Management

"Supervision" is most used in relation to

business administration, in the realm of man-

agement. Human supervisors are employed to

supervise humans and systems.

Supervision of Humans and Systems

It would be unusual to use the term "super-

visor" to describe a machine that monitors in-

formation (including that generated by a hu-

man), or to describe a human that oversees in-

formation generated solely by a machine. The

typical use of the word, "supervisor" implies a

human to human interaction related to execu-

tion or performance.

Supervision in ABA Settings

The words, "execution" and "performance"

are commonly used in business settings and

could be used within the context of behavior

analysis. However, more precise language fur-

ther locates "supervision" in the field of ap-

plied behavior analysis. A manager at a typical

business corporation "supervises" an em-

ployee to monitor performance and execution

of tasks. In ABA settings, managers would

more likely say they, "supervise staff to meas-

ure how effectively they implement a behav-

ioral plan."

Direct vs. Indirect ABA Supervision

One might also describe ABA supervision

as, "Overseeing direct implementation" or

"following the procedures. An ABA subordi-

nate may be evaluated on procedural integrity,

procedural drift, and other direct measures of

staff performance. The client's progress may

be a direct measure of the subordinate's per-

formance. However, client progress is an indi-

rect measure of supervision efficacy.

Increase of Management Problems in ABA Organi-

zations

The proliferation of autism behavior ser-

vices has accompanied the rise in manage-

ment problems at private practice ABA agen-

cies, centers, and special education school set-

tings. Management at such organizations have

not widely adopted management practices to

solve the repetitive problems occurring at the

workplace in daily operations.

The primary reasons include:

1. Decision makers are unaware of how

to identify the problem

2. Unaware of how to solve it

3. Have made unsuccessful attempts to

solve it in the past and believe they ei-

ther exhausted possible solutions or

that the problem cannot be solved

4. Lack resources in behavior analytic lit-

erature and have come to view the

problem as a non-issue because it does

not seem to be covered in ABA

8 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The above reasons are potential barriers if

all resources are equal. However, more im-

portant barriers include time constraints, lack

of money to pay consultants, and a tendency

to focus on work that is expressly billable as

opposed to management strategies, which re-

quire time, creativity, and a willingness to

gather and analyze data over time to find

"what works" at a particular organization us-

ing an experimental approach.

What Is Being Done

It is perhaps surprising that behavior analy-

sis professionals are not leading the manage-

rial movement to solve such problems, given

the curious nature of behavior analysis profes-

sionals and their propensity for solving prob-

lems in the world around them.

A Taxonomy of ABA Supervision

In the 8 Hour Supervisor Training work-

shops, TrainABA moderators generally intro-

duce the supervision taxonomy by addressing

the “big picture” of policy-level issues govern-

ing the professional practice of applied behav-

ior analysis. The presenter posits that such

policy both necessitated and helped define

how ABA supervision would be practiced.

Policy varies across countries, states, and

provinces, and various funding sources share

properties with specific differences.

As such, we acknowledge that no single

“source”, whether an academic, private, or

government model created ABA supervision.

It has evolved with the proliferation of pro-

fessional behavior analytic services for indi-

viduals with developmental disabilities,

namely autism. ABA supervision existed prior

to the formation of the Behavior Analyst Cer-

tification Board® (BACB®) in 1999. How-

ever, the BACB® has grown. It has served as

the primary centralized regulatory organiza-

tion for professional ABA services.

After introductions, the workshop pre-

senter often asks the following set of ques-

tions:

How Does Policy Influence How Funding Sources

Choose Providers?

And

How do funding source requirements influence the pro-

fessional practice of applied behavior analysis services?

In the USA, the answer is generally that pol-

icy is written and a licensing body enforces

compliance. However, the professional prac-

tice of behavior analysis is currently experi-

encing an early stage developmental period.

More states are passing legislation. Some

states are still in the process of licensure for

ABA professionals.

Generally, the process involves policy lan-

guage for licensure that acknowledges the

BACB® certification credential and identifies

an established licensing board to regulate

practitioners. Other practices, such as psy-

chology, have their own licensing boards and

may opt to include behavior analysts within

their board.

Other service delivery professions, such as

psychology, have similar requirements as the

BACB®, such as required education, super-

vised experience (1500 hours), ethical compli-

ance code, continuing education require-

ments, etc.

As states adapt to the growing demand for

professional behavior analytic services, many

have acknowledged the BACB® certification

as a requirement for billing. The BACB® is

not a licensing body but serves as the central

regulatory body for certified professional be-

havior analysts. It is the authoritative body for

certification and credentialing in professional

ABA services around the world. The BACB®

is an influential global organization. Its inter-

national impact has been possible, in part, be-

cause it is not bound by a specific state or fed-

eral government. Such would not be the case

if the BACB® was created as a licensing or-

ganization in Florida, its state of origin. The

BACB® is currently headquartered in Little-

ton, Colorado, USA. Its strong influence in

shaping the practice of professional behavior

analysis services merits a prominent role in a

taxonomy for ABA supervision today.

• Licensing body standardizes practi-

tioner KSAs, ethics, practice (medi-

cine, psychology, counseling, etc.).

• If no licensing body available, some

authoritative body for certification

Supervision Taxonomy 9

or credentialing assumes that role

(BACB in 1998).

BACB® Influence in the Development of

Formal Behavior Analysis Supervision

In recent years, the BACB® has established

a model for the professional delivery of be-

havior analytic services for insurance provid-

ers. It involved a hierarchy upon which a

BCBA or BCBA-D oversees a BCaBA, who

supervises a behavior technician. It is com-

mon practice for companies to omit the

BCaBA. In such cases, the BCBA or BCBA-

D may oversee the behavior technicians di-

rectly.

Individuals with BACB® certification are

not required to supervise. Some certified prac-

titioners work directly with clients, particularly

in group home settings and other consulting

situations where monthly hours are low and

hiring a direct implementation professional

would not be appropriate. However, the

global rise in autism diagnoses has warranted

a high demand for appropriate structure of

professional behavior analytic services that

serve children with autism. Such services are

delivered in homes, schools, and centers. Ap-

plied behavior analysis practitioners typically

train and supervise professionals who imple-

ment behavior analytic programming directly

with staff.

Generally, the certificant acts as a supervi-

sor who analyzes data, conducts most or all

elements of the assessment, designs and de-

velops behavioral programming, and reports

on progress. It is typical for ABA certificants

to function in a supervisory role under such a

service delivery model. However, not every

certificant supervises staff.

Most, but not all certificants, supervise clinical staff.

Some work directly with clients or in research roles.

The BACB® established the BCBA,

BCBA-D and BCaBA credentials in its early

years. However, the organization has grown

from roughly 200 members in 2000 to over

19,200 active participants at the time this book

was published.

In the summer 2014, the BACB® intro-

duced the Registered Behavior Technician

(RBT) Credential. This was a standardized

credential for individuals who provided direct

implementation of behavior analysis pro-

grams.

It should be noted that some confusion

over terminology has arisen among practition-

ers as the RBT credential is becoming more

common.

A rule-of-thumb:

“Certification” is for Supervisors and “credential-

ing” is for Direct Implementation staff.

The ABA Supervision taxonomy, therefore,

applies to individuals who either hold or are

candidates for BACB® certification. RBT

Credentialees are supervised by individuals

who hold a BACB® certification. However,

credentialees do not supervise.

We draw this distinction to help define and

locate the meaning of an ABA supervisor. The

following chart identifies the basic difference

in requirements for supervisors – ABA certi-

fication – versus those they supervise – RBT

credentialees.

10 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

(This book is NOT for developing behavior techni-

cians.)

Behavior Technicians

ABA Credential

• RBT

Training

• High school diploma

• RBT 40 hour Training

• RBT Assessment

• Fingerprints/RBT application

Ongoing Quality Assurance

• Ethical/Disciplinary Standards

• Ongoing supervision

*BCaBAs require ongoing supervision from a BCBA or BCBA-D

(This book is for developing supervisors.)

Directors and

Supervisors

ABA Certification

• BCBA-D

• BCBA

• BCaBA*

Training

• University diploma

• University hours (270)

• Supervised Experience

• Certification exam

Ongoing Quality Assurance

• Ethical/Disciplinary Standards

• *Ongoing Supervision for

BCaBAs

• Continuing Education Units

• 8 Hour Supervisor Training

Workshop

Supervision Taxonomy 11

12 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The following chart depicts the typical arrangement for ABA service delivery for an organi-

zation whose staff hold BACB® credentials.

In the above chart, where is the candidate –

the intern who is accruing hours toward satis-

faction of her or his credential application cri-

teria?

Suppose the position is called the supervisor

intern. Is the supervisor intern billable? Herein lies

the problem – or solution – for many ABA

professionals around the world.

Consider the supervisor intern. Such a position

is occasionally covered by policy or funding

source, especially when a unique negotiation

has been reached. The problem is simple: how

can you bill for supervision hours if your su-

pervisor does not hold a credential? The an-

swer is often complicated by economic condi-

tions of supply and demand for autism inter-

vention services. Autism is a public health cri-

sis that is difficult to solve because there are

far more people with autism than credentialed

behavior analysts to serve them. The challenge

at the policy-level is to provide enough legis-

lation to safeguard clients with qualified ser-

vice providers. Legislation that is too rigid

makes it difficult for companies to “keep the

lights on,” or meet minimum expenses to turn

a profit. Often, practitioners assume that a

company is making a lot of money because

they see clients, employees, laptops, trainings,

catered lunches, and office space. Yet organi-

zations in the ABA industry must exercise re-

straint and deliberation for their business

practices. For example, what happens when a

company can only be paid for services pro-

vided by a BCBA, yet all the BCBAs in the

area are gainfully employed?

Let’s say a local university observes the

growing demand for professional behavior an-

alysts has increased. That university creates a

certification program as a hybrid or

standalone master’s degree that satisfies the

university hours required by the BACB. A few

years pass. The university has graduated its

first class. Yet the university does not have a

practicum and it is the responsibility of the

graduates to complete their supervised experi-

ence hours. What would the students do?

They would reach out to local companies for

employment – after all, it will soon be time to

repay student loans – in hopes that a company

can provide a training system for the individ-

ual.

The recent graduate may face a mixed land-

scape, shaped by the contingencies the com-

pany faces for promoting and/or billing for

that supervisor intern. There are a few common

scenarios:

BCBA

RBT RBT RBT

BCaBA

Supervision Taxonomy 13

• Two local funding sources reimburses

companies ONLY for supervision

hours performed by a BCBA.

o One source formally allows the

agency to have the supervision hours

performed at the rate of a Behavior

Technician (lower rate).

o The other source does not reimburse

work performed by a non-credentialed

supervisor. They will discontinue ser-

vices unless all supervisor hours are

performed by a credential holder.

14 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Supervision Taxonomy 15

Case Study:

Associated Aardvarks for

Autism (AAA)

Associated Aardvarks for Autism (AAA)

was a fictitious ABA agency. Their directory

was tasked with deciding whether to offer an

internship program for university graduates of

a local ABA master’s program. AAA would

select one intern to pilot the program. The in-

ternship was meant to fulfill the 1,500 hours

of supervised experience toward the BCBA®

credential. AAA hoped the program would re-

sult in developing a new supervisor who could

be on the AAA team, rising from the ranks of

the company. This supervisor would, AAA

presumed, be more loyal to AAA in apprecia-

tion for the internship. Also, the intern would

have learned how to get things done at AAA.

These were attractive characteristics that were

almost impossible to find from outside

BCBA®s, which were in scarce supply any-

way.

AAA’s Accountant

AAA’s director asked the accounting de-

partment to create Table 2.1, which summa-

rized cashflow for the internship. The ac-

countant assumed they would hire the intern

at $45,000. That included a 50-week year at 30

hour/week, for which half of the hours were

to be provided as direct implementation of be-

havioral programming. The engagement cul-

minated in a complete 1,500-hour internship,

satisfying the requirements toward the

BACB®’s credentialing application.

The 30 hours per week led to the quickest

possible completion of the supervised experi-

ence hours for the ABA credential internship.

The accountant interviewed the clinical direc-

tor and was informed that the BACB® per-

mitted up to 50% of intern hours for direct

implementation. What were the other hours?

The accountant asked about scheduling meet-

ings, billing, drive-time, and planning meet-

ings that were not clinical. Unfortunately,

those things were considered “non-clinical”

of “administrative” hours. They could not be

counted toward the intern’s credentialing

hours.

The accountant knew that at least half of

the intern’s hours needed to be clinical but

could not be direct implementation of behav-

ioral programming. For that reason, the ac-

countant only calculated 15 hours per week of

billable work for the intern to serve as a be-

havior technician. He knew the other half in-

cluded program development, report writing,

parent education, and staff training. The com-

pany had one funding source that allowed in-

terns to bill for these services. However, two

other funding sources required the full cre-

dential for reimbursement. For that reason,

the accountant described the “other 50%”, as

he called it, as a gray area category that may or

may not be billable. But how could he help

offset more of the cost of internship, so the

company would not have to pay so much

money out of pocket?

Funding Sources

The accountant considered the types of re-

imbursement contingencies the company

faced. The most lenient funding sources al-

lowed the company to bill for the intern’s pro-

gram development and report writing, gener-

ally under the supervision of a credentialed in-

dividual. Other funding sources will not pay

for any supervisor hours performed by a non-

credentialed ABA professional. The most

conservative funding sources only reimburse

for supervision performed in the presence of

the client by a credentialed ABA professional.

In the AAA Company for Table 2.1, the

funding source allowed only direct implemen-

tation hours to be billed by the intern. These

hours are performed by a behavior technician

and take the form of direct service.

The accountant recommended AAA to

minimize the out-of-pocket expense of the in-

ternship by assigning a salaried individual as

the supervisor for the 75 hours a supervisor

would need to spend supervising that intern.

16 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

The director asked how much money that

would save.

Estimating Supervision Costs

The accountant created Table 2.2 to esti-

mate costs if the intern’s supervisor would

have been paid hourly. The table reflected $45

per hour for the supervisor wage. It was a safe

estimate considering the BACB® and Associ-

ation of Professional Behavior Analysts

(APBA) 2012 study which showed that most

supervisor hours were reimbursed $40-$50

per hour. The accountant found those data in

a BACB® newsletter from 2012. The director

forwarded those emails to him regularly. He

was glad to have the opportunity to show he

had read them.

Billing for Parent Education Groups

AAA also recognized that the intern could

run Parent Education Groups as part of their

50% of non-direct implementation hours.

Fortunately, AAA could be reimbursed for

these hours. It was not a huge savings, but it

neutralized some of the costs of the intern’s

hourly rate. The Parent Education Groups

only added 4 hours per week to the Intern’s

workload.

Consulting the Clinical Director

The accountant approached the clinical di-

rector for ideas on the rest of the internship

hours. It looked like AAA needed to meet the

30 hours per week in the agreement but they

were short. Adding 1.5 hours per week of su-

pervision, 4 hours for parent education, and

15 hours of direct implementation left a defi-

cit pf 9.5 hours to fill. The company met those

hours by scheduling the intern for staff train-

ing, along with program development and re-

port writing for clients on the intern’s direct

implementation caseload.

Putting It Together

As a result, the intern was able to satisfy a

requirement toward the BACB® credential

application and was paid $45,000 for the year.

Admittedly, it was not a huge amount of

money for someone with a master’s degree.

The intern felt it was fair because she was only

asked to work 30 hours per week. There were

some travel time hours and expenses, which

were handled separately in compliance with

law. The company ultimately lost $12,750 for

the year.

AAA knew they would lose the money this

year but hoped the intern would pass the cre-

dentialing exam soon and stay with AAA, bill-

ing at a full supervisor rate. That would allow

AAA to earn a higher reimbursement rate for

the hours the supervisor worked. More im-

portantly, it meant AAA could add some cli-

ents from their waiting list, placing these cli-

ents on the new supervisor’s caseload.

A Risk for the Company

AAA recognized that the main incentive for

a company to sponsor an intern was the pos-

sibility of serving more clients once the intern

earned the credential. It was a gamble for

AAA. Not every intern passed the credential-

ing exam. In this case, they requested tran-

scripts from the possible interns they were

considering. They wanted an intern with the

highest possible grades because they believed

previous academic performance suggested a

history of work habits and a higher likelihood

of having acquired the skills needed to pass

the credential exam.

Final Decision

AAA knew that other ABA agencies in the

area were using contracts to keep interns at

their companies for long enough to recoup

the cost of the internship. They weighed the

pros and cons of contracts but chose to revisit

that issue at a later date.

Ultimately, they were ambivalent about the

internship. The director said, “If someone

told you to pay $12,750 today and there was

only a 58% you could get that money back in

2 years, would you invest?” She was referring

Supervision Taxonomy 17

to passing rates on the exam. The clinical di-

rector looked up the university pass rates for

graduates of that local program and found

that 60% of graduates passed the exam on the

first try.

These data did not impress the director.

The decision was made to offer the internship

as a trial. The clinical director selected a sala-

ried supervisor and put pressure on her to

make sure the intern learned the BACB® 4th

Edition Task List fully. “If she doesn’t pass

the exam, I’m holding you responsible,” said

the clinical director. The supervisor accepted

the challenge and implemented the proce-

dures in Section 2 of the TrainABA super-

vised experience book. Years later, the intern

had passed the exam on her first attempt and

was successfully managing a caseload of 12 cli-

ents. She was a success story. AAA realized

that not all internship stories have happy end-

ings.

See the following pages for Table 2.1 and 2.2 to see what the accountant gave the director at

AAA.

18 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Supervision Taxonomy 19

20 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Resources for the Supervised Experience Process

Items in Bold are required by the BACB® for credentialing. Non-bold items are supplemental materi-

als.

Supervisee

1. Contract

2. BACB.com module

a. "Registration" (See page 23)

3. Clients (generally)

4. 4th Ed. Task List

5. Experience Verification Forms

6. Supplementary Materials

7. Homework

Supervisor

1. Contract

2. BACB.com module

3. Clients

4. 4th Ed. Task List

a. Assessment

b. Meeting agendas

5. Experience Verification Forms

6. Supplementary Materials

7. Homework

8. Create Performance Management

Plan

a. Personal Development

b. Modeled after IEP, BSP, PBIP

9. Ongoing Payment

a. Company

b. University

c. Private pay

10. Time Retainer

11. Technology

a. Journals, online videos,

etc.

12. Communication

a. Synchronous: Phone, stream-

ing webcam, video chat

b. Asynchronous: Email, rec-

orded audio/video

Supervision Taxonomy 21

Beyond the Taxonomy

Have you located yourself as an ABA su-

pervisor in the taxonomy? Can you write the

steps of the Supervised Experience Process?

If not, please review the charts above. The

goal of this chapter was to identify the type of

supervision you offer, or plan to offer, as a su-

pervisor in the field of applied behavior anal-

ysis.

The next chapter identifies pre-requisites

needed for supervising certification candi-

dates. It includes checklists to identify the re-

quirements.

22 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Rules and Guidelines for Supervision of BACB® Experience

Hours

This document reflects the BACB®’s recent supervision standards, effective January 1, 2015.

BACB® Rules for Supervision

1. Each supervisee must have a valid supervision contract. Multiple exemplars and

comprehensive guidelines are available at bacb.com®

2. Each supervisor must have completed both of the following by December 31, 2014.

a. Complete 8 Hour Supervisor Training from a BACB® ACE provider (Available from

TrainABA as a live webinar)

b. Complete an online, competency-based supervision module on BACB.com

c. Complete 3 CEUs for supervision for every recertification cycle

3. Each supervision period is 2

consecutive weeks

4. Ratio of Independent Fieldwork to Direct Supervision must be

no less than 5%

the end of the 2 week period (You MUST provide Direct Supervision 5% or more of

their Independent Fieldwork by the end of each 2-week period.)

5. Per 2 week supervision period, no more than 50% of supervision can be direct care.

The other 50%+ must be behavior analytic in nature

6. Start/end dates may not be more than 5 years apart.

7. Supervision must be face to face. Real-time video is okay. Think of Google Hangouts,

FaceTime, Skype, etc.

8. 5% of 1500 hours = 75 hours of independent fieldwork experience

9. Supervision hours may be counted toward total experience hours

10. No more than 50% of supervision (per 2-week period) can be in a group format

11. Group maximum = 10 supervisees

12. You do not need to provide Direct Supervision every week

13. Must meet at least once for every 2 week period

14. Content must be behavior analytic (Do not discuss billing, travel time, non-clinical

scheduling, etc.)

Mathematical Assumptions

• Supervisors must provide 5% of 1,500 Independent Fieldwork hours = 75 hours

• Supervision period is two weeks in duration

• (75 hours total) DIVIDED BY (maximum of 3 hours per 2-week period) = 25 meet-

ings, one per 2 weeks

• Up to 50% of supervised experience hours can be delivered in group format

• Therefore, deliver group supervision meetings that are 1.5 hours in duration, once per

2 week period

• Also provide individual supervision for 1.5 hours in duration for each 2 week period

• Given the math above, Train ABA recommends you make group supervision meetings

1.5 hours long (90 minutes) for full time staff. We built the agendas around the 90

minute model

Supervision Taxonomy 23

• If your supervisees do not work 30 hours per week during both weeks of the 2-week

supervision period, you will need to adjust the math to provide exactly 5% of the hours

they provided. See rules below.

Rules for Calculating How Many Hours Your Supervisee Has Completed

1. Your supervisee must work at least 10 and up to 30 hours during both weeks of each

2-week supervision period

2. You must provide supervision for 5% of these hours

3. You do not need to provide exactly 50% of group supervision every 2-week period,

but we use that model for this protocol because it makes the math easier

4. When your supervisee works less than the expected amount of hours for a week or 2-

week period, adjust your supervision hours to equal 5% of their hours worked

5. If they work more than 30 hours in one week, the company can pay wages but the

BACB® will not recognize extra hours

Registration Process

There is a new BACB® requirement for su-

pervisees to “register” before beginning Ex-

perience Hours. It was first mentioned in the

BACB®’s September 2012 Newsletter. The

Supervisor must complete the module imme-

diately if she has not already done so. All su-

pervisees must complete the process at the

outset of the supervised fieldwork.

The registration process has two steps:

1. Create a login at bacb.com®

2. In that login, complete the same Supervi-

sion Policies Module required by individu-

als who wish to supervise those accruing

Experience Hours. In plain English, your

supervisees must complete the same su-

pervision module as you. Additionally,

they are expected to do it at the outset of

supervision. Some supervises may not

know of this requirement. Please advise

your supervisees to complete this module

immediately. It takes approximately 1.5

hours and is available free of charge.

NOTE: Supervisees need only complete the module

once, regardless of how many approved supervisors with

whom they have completed Supervised Experience.

Train ABA is not endorsed by the BACB. The information presented is not meant to represent the opinion of the BACB

and any references to the BACB or bacb.com are used with respect to their copyrights.

Chapter 3

Refresher: Key Takeaways from the 8-Hour Su-

pervisor Training Workshop

The BACB® 8-Hour Supervisor Training Workshop curriculum has 6 sec-

tions:

• Part 1 – Purpose of Supervision

• Part 2 – Features of Supervision

• Part 3 – Behavioral Skills Training

• Part 4 – Delivering Performance Feedback

• Part 5 – Evaluating the Effects of Supervision

• Part 6 – Ongoing Professional Feedback

These sections are summarized briefly in visuals and charts below. This chapter is meant to

serve as a refresher for the concepts presented in the 8-Hour Supervisor Training workshop. It

is not a substitute for the workshop. These materials are taken from the TrainABA 8-Hour

Supervisor Training Workshop. For more information, or to sign up a colleague for the work-

shop, visit:

http://trainaba.com

26 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Purpose of Supervision

“The purpose of supervision is to im-

prove and maintain the behavior-ana-

lytic, professional and ethical reper-

toires of the supervisee and facilitate

the delivery of high-quality services to

his/her clients.”

--BACB® 8-Hour Curriculum Training Out-

line, 2012

Improve

Maintain

Behavior-analytic &

professional

Ethical

repertoires

Facilitate high-

quality

services

Refresher 27

Features of Supervision

Appropriate Supervision Activities

• Focus on developing new ABA skills

• Use BACB® Fourth Edition Task List

• Follow 7 Dimensions of Behavior Analysis (BATCAGE) (Baer, Wolf, & Risley,

1968)

• Give supervisees multiple sites, varied experiences, different supervisors

• Conducting assessments to determine the need for behavioral intervention

• Designing, implementing, & systematically monitoring skill-acquisition and behavior-

reduction programs

• Oversee implementation of behavior-analytic programs by others

• Training, designing behavioral systems, and performance management

• Using behavioral skills training to Model and rehearse various behavior analytic skills

and procedures.

• Engaging in role-play scenarios in natural and contrived situations for various skills

• Other items directly related to ABA

Inappropriate Supervision Activities

(Non-examples of content for group supervision meetings)

• Attending meetings with little or no behavior-analytic content

• Scheduling, travel time, billing

• Using unproven or non-behavior analytic interventions

• Non-behavioral administrative activities, non-behavioral assessments (diagnostic or

intellectual assessments)

Features of Supervision

Effective January 1st, 2015, the BACB® will only permit

individuals who completed a training experience to

supervise individuals pursuing BCBA® or BCaBA®

credentials.

– 8-hour workshop

– Modules on BACB.com

– 3-hours Supervision CEs

--BACB®, 2012 newsletter

28 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Recertification Requirements Before January 1, 2015

Recertification Requirements After January 1, 2015

Recertification

3 in

ethics

years

CEUs

Recertification

years 32

CEUs

Refresher 29

Using Behavioral Skills Training

Why is Behavioral Skills Training (BST) popular in ABA supervision now?

In 2012, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® created a document called the “Supervi-

sion Training Curriculum Outline”. It contained the required topics for Approved-Continuing

Education (ACE) providers who would provide the 8-Hour Supervisor Training curriculum.

Section (3) of this (6) section document was titled, “Behavioral Skills Training (BST)”.

BST is found in various JABA articles and books by behavior analysts. Perhaps the best ex-

ample of BST is found in Raymond Miltenberger’s 2011 textbook, “Behavior Modification Prin-

ciples and Procedures.”

An 8-step BST procedure is outlined on the following page.

30 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Behavioral Skills Training

1. Provide a rationale for why the target skills are to be trained

2. Provide a succinct, written description (instructions) of the target skills

a. Scripts are included in this document. Be sure to provide a script to employ-

ees.

3. Provide a detailed, vocal description (instructions) of the target skills

a. Trainer reads script aloud to trainee

4. Demonstrate (model) each of the target skills

a. Trainer is first to role play, demonstrating correct behavior for trainee

b. Include examples and non-examples

c. If training scenario is a non-example, trainer deviates from script and sce-

nario is terminated with positive feedback.

5. Require trainee to practice (rehearse) each target skill

a. Trainee role plays scenarios from the list

b. Include examples and non-examples

c. If training scenario is a non-example, trainee deviates from script and sce-

nario is terminated with positive feedback

6. Provide positive and corrective feedback to supervisee

a. Provide it vocally, immediately following trainee role play

b. Deliver positive feedback to trainee throughout training, aiming for 4:1 ratio

c. Deliver corrective feedback directly.

7. Repeat the previous step until supervisee performs each target skill correctly

8. Assess application and generalization of skills to new targets, clients, and settings,

when appropriate

Refresher 31

Delivering Performance Feedback

Corrective Feedback

1. Provide an empathy statement

2. Describe ineffective performance

3. Provide a rationale for desired change in performance

4. Provide instructions and demonstration for how to improve designated per-

formance

5. Provide opportunities to practice the desired performance

6. Provide immediate feedback

Evaluating the Effects of Supervision

Evaluate supervision with evidence-based, intervention specific criteria for:

• Client performance

• Staff performance

• Supervisory behavior

Ongoing Professional Development

1.03 Professional Development (+RBT)

Behavior analysts who engage in assessment, therapy, teaching, research,

organizational consulting, or other professional activities maintain a rea-

sonable level of awareness of current scientific and professional infor-

mation in their fields of activity, and undertake ongoing efforts to main-

tain competence in the skills they use by reading the appropriate litera-

ture, attending conferences and conventions, participating in workshops,

and/or obtaining Behavior Analyst Certification Board certification.

--BACB Professional and Ethical Compliance Code, Ver. 9/23/2014

The supervisor should be able to describe the following methods for his/her ongoing profes-

sional development as a supervisor

• Creating a continuous learning community to enhance supervisory and training behavior

• Regular review of resources and research for best practices in supervision

The supervisor should be able to describe the following methods for his/her ongoing profes-

sional development as a supervisor and to the supervisee:

• Supervisory study groups

• Attending conferences

• Seeking peer review

• Seeking mentorship

• Regular review of resources and research relevant to supervisee’s area of practice

• Seeking consultation when necessary

32 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

SECTION TWO

Supervised Fieldwork Curriculum

Chapter 4

Annotated 4th Edition Task List™

36 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-01 Measure Frequency

Definition:

Frequency - “A ratio of count per observa-

tion time; often expressed as count per stand-

ard unit of time and calculated by dividing the

number of responses recorded by the number

of standard units of time in which observa-

tions were conducted (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 85)”*

Example:

• Hand Raising - A student is sitting in

an hour long class. The student

raises his hand 3 times to ask and an-

swer questions during the class. The

bell rings once and the student goes

to his next class. Frequency of hand

raising is 3 per hour.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

frequency of hand raising above.

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own.

• Have supervisee measure a fre-

quency of a behavior on the job or

in a role play.

• Have supervisee graph the fre-

quency measured on the job or in a

role play.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.).

Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis.

Related Lessons:

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

Footnotes:

* Alternatively, frequency is not always de-

fined synonymously with rate throughout the

discipline of behavior analysis. Catania (2013,

p. 443) defines frequency as “total responses

over a fixed time, over a session of variable

duration or, in trial procedure, over a fixed

number of trials.” Cooper, Heron, & Heward

(2007) functionally defines “count” as Catania

defines “frequency”.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 37

A-02 Measure Rate

Definition:

Rate - “A ratio of count per observation time;

often expressed as count per standard unit of

time and calculated by dividing the number of

responses recorded by the number of number

of standard units of time in which observa-

tions were conducted (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 85).”*

Examples:

• Eating Chips

o Example: A young child is

sitting at a table where

there is a bag of potato

chips. They eat 8 chips,

stand up, and walk to the

living room to watch TV

for the rest of the hour.

Rate of chip eating is 8 per

hour.

• Basketball Dribbles

o Example: Child is playing

basketball for 30 minutes.

Dribbles 7 times and then

practices foul shots. He

shoots 15 times and be-

tween each shot he drib-

bles 3 times. Frequency of

dribbling is 52 dribbles per

30 minutes.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

frequency of chip eating or basket-

ball dribbles in examples.

• Have supervisee measure a fre-

quency of a behavior on the job or

in a role play.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.).

Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., &

Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior

analysis.

Related Lessons:

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

Footnotes:

* Alternatively, rate is not always defined syn-

onymously with frequency throughout the

discipline of behavior analysis. Catania (2013)

defines rate as “responses per unit time” (p.

458) but frequency as “total responses over a

fixed time, over a session of variable duration

or, in trial procedure, over a fixed number of

trials” (p. 443) Cooper, Heron, & Heward

(2007) functionally defines “count” whereas

Catania defines “frequency”.

38 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-03 Measure Duration

Definition:

Duration – “A measure of the total extent of

time in which a behavior occurs” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 79).

Examples:

• Sarah gets a fancy new piece of fur-

niture from one of those Swedish

companies. When it arrives, Sarah

realizes that it is not assembled. She

reads the complicated set of direc-

tions and begins putting it together

at 2:12pm. Armed with a screw-

driver and an Allen wrench, she con-

sistently works to put it together un-

til 3:43pm. Phew! Maybe next time

she will order the one that comes

fully assembled! The duration of the

project was 1 hour and 31 minutes.

• Benny gets a new yo-yo for his birth-

day and plays with it for 20 minutes

after eating his cake and ice cream.

He puts it down to play tag with his

sister. The duration of yo-yo playing

is 20 minutes.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

duration of furniture assembly from

the example above

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own

• Have your supervisee measure the

duration of another behavior on the

job or in role-play.

• Have the supervisee graph the dura-

tion of another behavior measured

on the job or in a role-play.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W.

L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis.

DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &

Wallace, M. D. (1999). Examination of

ambiguous stimulus preferences with

duration-based measures. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 32(1), 111-114.

Related Lessons:

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

I-01 Define the behavior in observable and

measurable terms

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 39

A-04 Measure Latency

Definition:

Latency - “A measure of temporal locus; the

elapsed time from the onset of a stimulus (e.g.,

task direction, cue) to the initiation of a re-

sponse” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

80).

Example: Hitting the snooze button or hit-

ting the break

• Example: Gertrude is not a morning

person. Her alarm goes off at pre-

cisely 5:30AM. She hears the annoy-

ing wail but doesn’t respond imme-

diately. After 32 seconds of beeping,

she whacks the snooze button, rolls

over and goes back to sleep. Latency

to turning off the alarm is 32 sec-

onds.

• Example: Marty is driving down a

country road. Out of nowhere a

herd of deer dart out in front of his

car. It takes Marty 5 seconds from

the time he first sees the deer to hit

the break. Latency from the time the

deer are spotted to applying pressure

to the break is 5 seconds.

• Non-example: Gertrude is not a

morning person. Her alarm goes off

at precisely 5:30 AM. She does not

respond to its annoying wailing and

continues to sleep despite the noise.

The alarm stops on its own 1 hour

later.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

latency of a few responses of your

choosing.

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own.

• Have your supervisee measure the

latency to another behavior on the

job or in role-play.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward,W.

L. (2007). Applied behavior analsis.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Edu-

cation.

Thomason‐Sassi, J. L., Iwata, B. A.,

Neidert, P. L., & Roscoe, E. M. (2011).

Response latency as an index of re-

sponse strength during functional anal-

yses of problem behavior. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), 51-67.

Related Lessons:

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

I-01 Define the behavior in observable and

measurable terms

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

40 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-05 Measure Interresponse Time (IRT)

Definition:

Interresponse time (IRT) - “…the elapsed

time between two successive responses”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 80).

Example: Frisky pets

• Example: Sparky loves to bark at

passing cars. He hears a car drive by

the house and barks. Thirty-seven

seconds later another car passes by

and Sparky barks again. Interre-

sponse time between barking at the

vehicles is thirty-seven seconds.

• Example: Doodles the cat likes to

scratch the furniture. She walks over

the chair and sinks her claws in.

Eleven seconds later Doodles walks

over to the couch and begins to

scratch again. Interresponse time

between scratches is eleven seconds.

• Example: Roger the rooster doesn’t

know that he’s only supposed to

crow at dawn. He lets out crows all

day long. He is observed to crow at

3:43 in the afternoon. He crows

again at 3: 59. Interresponse time

between crows is sixteen minutes.

• Non-example: Sparky’s owner acci-

dentally steps on his tail. Sparky

yelps from the pain.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

interresponse time in the examples

above.

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own.

• Have your supervisee measure the

interresponse time of a behavior on

the job or in a role-play.

• Have your supervisee graph the in-

terresponse time measured on the

job or in a role-play.

Relevant Literature:

Blough, D. S. (1963), Interresponse Time

as a Function of Continuous Variables:

A New Method and Some Data. Journal

of Experimental Analysis Behavior, 6: 237–

246.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Favell, J.E., McGimsey, J.F., & Jones, M.L.

(1980). Rapid Eating in the Retarded:

Reduction by Nonaversive Procedures.

Behavior Modifications, 4, 235-239.

Related Lessons:

A-05 Measure Interresponse time (IRT)

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 41

A-06 Measure Percent of Occurrence

Definition:

Percent of occurrence - “A ratio formed by

combining the same dimensional quantities

such as count or time; expressed as a number

of parts per 100; typically expressed as a ratio

of the number of responses of a certain type

per total number of responses. A percentage

represents a proportional quantity per 100”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 701)

Example: Greeting

• Example: Twelve strangers walk by

an elderly man. He greets three of

them and ignores the rest. The per-

cent of occurrence of greeting

strangers is 25%.

o To compute: Divide num-

ber of greetings emitted by

the man (3) by the total

number of opportunities to

greet (12) and multiply that

product by 100 to yield a

percentage (3/12= 0.25 x

100= 25%).

• Non-example: Twelve strangers

walk by an elderly man. He greets

three of them and ignores the rest.

The percent of occurrence of greet-

ing strangers is 0.25.

Pros:

• Demonstrates proportional relations

well (e.g. can indicate how many

times an individual engaged in a tar-

get response given a set number of

opportunities available).

Cons:

• Has no dimensional quantities (e.g.

does not indicate how many target

responses were emitted nor how

many opportunities were given)

• When there are few response oppor-

tunities (e.g. fewer than 20), percent

occurrence measures may skew per-

formance (e.g. An individual an-

swering 1 out of 2 problems correct

on a math test will receive the same

score of 50% as an individual an-

swering 25 out of 50 problems cor-

rect).

• Imposes an artificial ceiling of meas-

urement (e.g. 100% may be subjec-

tive; suggests that a learner perform-

ing at 100% cannot improve)

(Cooper et al., 2007).

Assessment:

• Provide hypothetical situations and

ask your supervisee if using percent

of occurrence measures are appro-

priate

• Provide various hypothetical situa-

tions and ask your supervisee to cal-

culate percent of occurrence

• Have supervisee graph percent of

occurrence measured on the job or

in a role play

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior

42 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-07 Measure Trials to Criterion

Definition:

Trials to criterion - “A special form of event

recording; a measure of the number of re-

sponses or practice opportunities needed for

a person to achieve a pre-established level of

accuracy or proficiency” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, p. 87).

To use, one must first determine what con-

stitutes a response opportunity, and what the

criteria for mastery will be. Response oppor-

tunities can vary depending on the target be-

havior. For example, an opportunity for

spelling accuracy could be a 10-question

spelling test. An opportunity for responding

to one’s name within five seconds might be

every time someone called the individual’s

name. Other measures such as latency, per-

cent occurrence, rate and duration can be used

to compute trials to criterion data. For in-

stance in the latter example to compute

whether the individual is responding to his

name within 5 seconds, data would have to be

taken on latency to respond per opportunity

(Cooper et al., 2007).

Example:

• A behavioral interventionist is teaching a

child how to brush her teeth. She teaches

this using a task analysis that involves

backwards chaining. She provides two

opportunities per session for the child to

complete this skill. Data reflect that it

takes the child on average four opportu-

nities before she is able to complete the

step being taught independently and to

move to the next step in the task analysis.

Assessment:

• Have your supervisee list uses for tri-

als to criterion data.

• In a clinical setting or during role-

play, have your supervisee determine

which intervention is more efficient

using trials to criterion data.

• Have your supervisee complete trials

to criterion data in various scenarios.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lahey, B. B., & Drabman, R. S. (1974). Facili-

tation of the acquisition and retention of

the sight-word vocabulary through to-

ken reinforcement1. Journal of applied be-

havior analysis,7(2), 307-312.

Related Lessons:

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 43

A-08 Assess and Interpret Interobserver Agree-

ment

Definition:

Interobserver agreement (IOA) – “…refers to

the degree to which two or more independent ob-

servers report the same observed values after meas-

uring the same event” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 113).

There are four basic types of IOA as described by

Johnston and Pennypacker (2009):

Total agreement - Smaller total ÷ Larger total X 100

= % Agreement

Exact agreement – Total agreements ÷ Total num-

ber of intervals X 100 = % Agreement

Interval agreement –Total agreements ÷ Total

number of intervals X 100 = % Agreement

Occurrence/nonoccurrence agreement – Total

agreements ÷ Total number of intervals X 100 = %

Agreement

“By reporting the results of IOA assessments, re-

searchers enable consumers to judge the relative

believability of the data as trustworthy and deserv-

ing interpretation” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 114). It,

however, should be noted that the “…fact that two

observers reported the same measure of the target

behavior for a session says nothing about the accu-

racy or reliability of either” (Johnston & Penny-

packer, 2009, p. 149).

Example:

John is conducting a functional analysis (FA) on ag-

gression in one of his students. He has asked Mary

to observe the behavior and record data simultane-

ously with him to calculate Interobserver agree-

ment. He plans on conducting a 5-minute session

with 30, 10-second intervals. He plans to use inter-

val agreement IOA. He records 4 instances of ag-

gression during the FA in the 21st, 22nd, 23rd and

24th interval. Mary records 4 instances in the 21st,

22nd, 23rd, and 25th interval. He calculates IOA to

be 97% or 29/30 intervals.

Non-example:

John is conducting a functional analysis on aggres-

sion in one of his students. He asks Mary to come

in and observe but does not provide her with a data

recording sheet to take data on the behavior. At the

end of the session he asks Mary if she saw any ag-

gression during the session.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee watch a video of client exhib-

iting target behavior. Ask him/her to record

frequency data on the behavior. Record data

on the same video and compare data after

completion.

• Provide supervisee with 2 sets of data sheets

based on the observance of the same behav-

ior. Have him/her calculate Interobserver

agreement based on the data provided.

• Assign supervisee recommended article on

Interobserver agreement. Have him/her sum-

marize the article and share this with peers

Relevant Literature:

Boyce, T.E., Carter, N., & Neboschick, H. (2000).

An Evaluation of Intraobserver Reliability

versus Interobserver Agreement. European

Journal of Behavior Analysis, 1, (2), 107-114.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper

Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

113-122.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2009). Strat-

egies and tactics of behavioral research.

Watkins, M.W. & Pacheco, M. (2000). Interob-

server Agreement in Behavioral Research:

Importance and Calculation. Journal of Be-

havioral Education, 10, 4, 205-212.

Related Lessons:

A-01: Measure Frequency (i.e., count)

A-09: Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of meas-

urement procedures.

B-02: Review and interpret articles from the behav-

ior-analytic literature.

G-06: Provide behavior-analytic services in collab-

oration with others who support and/or provide

services to one’s clients.

H-02: Select a schedule of observation and record-

ing periods.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measura-

ble terms.

I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

J-09: Identify and address practical and ethical con-

siderations when using experimental designs to

demonstrate treatment effectiveness.

K-05: Design and use systems for monitoring pro-

cedural integrity.

44 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability

of measurement procedures

Evaluating the accuracy and reliability of

measurement procedures involves “measur-

ing the measurement system” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 110). As human

error is the biggest threat to the accuracy and

reliability of data, measurements must be eval-

uated to determine trustworthiness. Accuracy

of measurement is determined when the ob-

served values equal the true values. Establish-

ing a true value requires the use of a different

measurement procedure than the one used to

record the observed value. This often makes

it difficult to determine a true value for many

of the behaviors of interest. Measures of reli-

ability should be used when a true value can-

not be established. Reliability of measure-

ment is determined when the same value is

given across repeated measures of the same

event, thus reliability reflects consistency.

Examples:

• Accuracy: You and a friend decide to

go on a 5-mile run. Your friend tells

you that she can monitor the dis-

tance because her legs always start to

hurt once she runs 5 miles. You, be-

ing a data-driven behavior analyst,

decide that your friend’s measure-

ment procedure might not be the

most accurate so you use your smart

phone app to track the distance.

Your measurement system will likely

reveal a better estimate of the true

value of the distance you ran.

• Reliability: Using the example for ac-

curacy, both measures can be relia-

ble if at the end of the run your

friend tells you that you must have

run 5 miles because her legs hurt and

your app indicates you ran 5 miles.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to evaluate the accuracy

and reliability of a measurement proce-

dure that is being used with a client.

• Ask supervisee to provide definitions and

examples of accuracy and reliability.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Improving and assessing the

quality of behavioral measurement.

Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 102-

124). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear-

son Prentice Hall.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993a).

Strategies and tactics for human behavioral

research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ Erl-

baum.

Related Lessons:

A-01 Measure frequency (i.e., count).

A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).

A-03 Measure duration.

A-04 Measure latency.

A-05 Measure interresponse time (IRT).

A-06 Measure percent of occurrence.

A-07 Measure trials to criterion.

A-08 Assess and interpret interobserver agree-

ment.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 45

A-10 Design, plot and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs

Definition:

Line graph - “In applied behavior analysis,

each point on a line graph shows the level of

some quantifiable dimension of the target be-

havior (i.e. the dependent variable) in relation

to a specified point in time and/or environ-

mental condition” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, p. 129).*

The behavior analyst defines behavior in

quantifiable, observable terms to measure

consistently and accurately. The behavior is

measured in terms of a pertinent aspect of be-

havior that can be counted or assessed across

observers. When data are plotted, the patterns

they make provide for a visual analysis of lev-

els of the behavior (shown on the vertical, y-

axis) as the behavior occurs at a specific point

in time or environmental condition (shown on

a horizontal, x-axis). Graphs are drawn with

the y-axis in a two-thirds ratio to the x-axis in

order to enable accurate comparison of inter-

vention results across graphs. The analysis in-

terprets levels of data points, directions

(trend), and stability or variability of data

paths within a single condition or viewed

across different conditions. These factors help

an analyst assess if an individual is responding

to intervention efforts in a therapeutic or non-

therapeutic direction. As a result of this sys-

tematic interpretation of results, the analyst

continues treatment strategies or alters them

until the line graph shows consistent behavior

change in a therapeutic direction.

Designing an equal interval line graph:

• Approximate ratio of y to x-axis is 2:3

• The target behavior to measure was the

percent (dimension) of math home-

work (varied number of problems as-

signed) a student completed each

morning when math homework was

assigned (session).

• Lowest possible percent of homework

completed was zero and highest possi-

ble percent (100%) is shown at equal

intervals of outside tic marks.

Example:

• Before intervention began, John

showed a baseline pattern of com-

pleting between zero and 10% of his

assigned math homework.

• Zero value is raised above the x-axis

to see data points clearly.

• Baseline lasted 4 sessions in a non-

therapeutic pattern.

• Conditions changed from baseline

to intervention between Session 4

and 5.

• The intervention included John’s

teacher praising him each day that he

returned any part of his math home-

work assigned.

• In the first session of intervention,

John turned in 10% of his home-

work. The second day after receiving

teacher praise, John increased his

completed amount of homework to

40% of the assignment.

• John did not always increase the per-

cent of homework completed each

day that math homework was given.

• The intervention data path shows an

increasing trend overall throughout

the intervention condition of teacher

praise for math homework comple-

tion.

• Although data showed some varia-

bility, John reached criteria of at least

90% of math homework completed

for 3 consecutive days on the 12th

day of teacher praise for his efforts

to return homework.

46 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Figure 2 Percent of daily math homework

John completed in September

*AB designs can show relations between base-

line and intervention responding but

cannot be used to show cause and ef-

fect.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to explain why

the percent of homework completed

was the correct dimension to meas-

ure for this intervention.

• Ask supervisee to explain the reason

the AB graph design cannot be used

to demonstrate experimental control

but can be used in applied settings to

indicate consistent and therapeutic

change.

• Ask supervisee to find missing ele-

ments in a line graph you design.

• Ask the supervisee to operationally

define a repetitive behavior of a

friend or family member, identify a

dimension of that behavior that

would accurately represent occur-

rences of the behavior, and then de-

sign a line graph to show results.

• Give the supervisee a line graph you

design and ask supervisee to inter-

pret level, trend, variability, and data

path characteristics within and

across conditions.

Relevant Literature:

Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. C. (2013). Applied

behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed). Bos-

ton: Pearson.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis.

Gast, D. L., & Ledford, J. R. (Eds.).

(2010). Single subject research methodology in

behavioral sciences. Routledge.

Vanselow, N. R., & Bourret, J. C. (2012).

Online Interactive Tutorials for Creat-

ing Graphs with Excel 2007 or 2010. Be-

havior analysis in practice, 5(1), 40.

Related Lessons:

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

J-15 Base decision-making on data displayed

in various formats.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 47

A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using

a cumulative record to display data

Definition:

Cumulative record – recording method that

involves “the number of responses recorded

during each observation period is added to the

total number of responses recorded during

previous observation periods” (Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 138). The value on

the y-axis represents the cumulative number

of responses recorded and the value on the x-

axis represents time (i.e., observation periods).

Once the response rate exceeds the maximum

value on the y-axis, the curve resets to zero

and begins again. Cumulative records display

the overall response rate and visually depict

the learner’s rate of acquisition for a series of

behavior targets (e.g., total number of skills

mastered throughout services, number of

sight words learned). Data are interpreted on

a cumulative record by analyzing the slope in

which the steeper the slope, the higher the re-

sponse rate.

Examples:

• The cumulative record below indicates

the number of attributes learned by a first

grade student. The overall response rate

is 13 attributes across 181 sessions. In

general, data in this graph suggests that

there was a fairly slow rate of acquisition.

However, the slope is much steeper be-

tween sessions 1 and 61, indicating that

the rate of acquisition was quicker during

the first part of the intervention.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to identify behavioral

targets that would be appropriate to

graph in a cumulative record

• Ask supervisee to create a cumula-

tive record graph.

• Show supervisee various examples

of cumulative records and ask super-

visee to interpret the data.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Constructing and interpreting

graphic displays of behavioral data. Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis (pp. 126-157). Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice

Hall.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Sched-

ules of reinforcement. New York, NY:

Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Related Lessons:

A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between ob-

served variables (within &between sessions,

time series).

121 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181

Cumulative Number of Attributes

Sessions

48 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

A-12 Design and implement continuous

measurement procedures (e.g., event re-

cording)

Definition:

Event recording – “measurement procedure

for obtaining a tally or count of the number of

times a behavior occurs” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 695).

Examples:

Examples of contexts that are likely to be ap-

propriate for an event recording procedure:

• Property destruction that typically

occurs two to five times a week.

• Correct responses to the question,

“What do you want?” when asked in

at least six distributed trials each day.

Examples of contexts that may be inappropri-

ate for an event recording procedure:

• Vocal Stereotypy that occurs on and

off so rapidly that an observer would

not be able to accurately determine

the start and end of the stereotypy.

• Aggressive behavior in a classroom

setting with one teacher, who must

conduct instruction, interact with

other students, and count hitting be-

havior that often includes multiple

students.

An observer may increase counting accuracy

by using a counting device with low-technol-

ogy (i.e., masking tape around the wrist for

tally marks or a golf-stroke counter or with

high technology (i.e., iPad or laptop direct ob-

servation programs).

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to describe situations

that would be appropriate to use event

recording procedures.

• Ask the supervisee to describe situations

that may not be appropriate to use an

event recording procedure.

• Ask the supervisee to use an event re-

cording procedure to measure 3 re-

sponses at one time. Ask the student to

design a datasheet and method for

counting that will help the observer rec-

ord the responses accurately.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educa-

tion.

Kelly, M. B. (1977). A review of the observa-

tional data‐collection and reliability pro-

cedures reported in the Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 10 (1), 97-101.

Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J.,

Wacker, D., Berg, W., Steege, M., & Al-

laire, A. (1992). Use of descriptive and

experimental analyses to identify the

functional properties of aberrant behav-

ior in school settings. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 25 (4), 809-821.

Related Lessons:

A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of

measurement procedures.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages

of using continuous measurement procedures

and discontinuous measurement procedures

(e.g. partial- and whole-interval recording,

momentary time sampling.)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 49

A-13 Design and implement discontinu-

ous measurement procedures (e.g., partial

& whole interval, momentary time sam-

pling)

Definition:

Time sampling – “…refers to a variety of

methods for observing and recording behav-

ior during intervals or at specific moments in

time. The basic procedure involves dividing

the observation period into time intervals and

then recording the presence or absence of be-

havior within or at the end of interval… Three

forms of time sampling used often by applied

behavior analysts are whole-interval record-

ing, partial-interval recording and momentary

time sampling” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 90).

Whole-Interval Recording

Once the interval has ended, the observer rec-

ords whether the behavior has occurred

throughout the entire interval. Whole-interval

recording tends to underestimate how much a

behavior is occurring because the behavior

has to be emitted for the entire interval in or-

der to get recorded (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Example:

• Hand-flapping: student moves one or both

hands repeatedly and rapidly by bending at

the wrist, such that fingers move more than

2 inches.

• Non-example: waving hand to say “hello”

or “goodbye.”

• An observer divides a 5-minute ob-

servation period into intervals of 5

seconds. A student flaps his hands

for the entire 5-second interval. At

the end of the 5-second interval, the

observer records the behavior as

having occurred.

Example:

• Palilalia: student repeats a word, phrase, or

sentence with no direct, observable relation-

ship with the immediate environment.

• An observer divides a 5-minute ob-

servation period up into intervals of

10 seconds. A student emits palilalia

for the entire 10-second interval. At

the end of the 10-second interval,

the observer records the behavior as

having occurred.

Partial-Interval Recording

With the partial-interval recording method,

the time of observation is again divided into

intervals and a behavior is recorded as having

occurred if it has occurred at some point during

the interval. Data are usually reported as per-

centage of intervals (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Example:

• Calling-out behavior in a pupil: student

raises voice above conversation level when

not called on by teacher.

• A 30-minute observation period is

divided into one-minute intervals.

At the end of the one minute inter-

val, the behavior is recorded as hav-

ing occurred because the pupil

called-out after the first 30 seconds

of the interval.

Example:

• Toy play: child touches or manipulates toys.

• A 5-minute observation period is di-

vided up into 10-second intervals.

The observer records the behavior

as having occurred in the last 10-sec-

ond interval because the child had

engaged with the toy at some point

during the interval.

Momentary Time Sampling

With this type of measurement, a period of

time is divided up into intervals and the ob-

50 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

server records whether the behavior is occur-

ring at the precise moment the interval ends.

(Cooper, Heron and Heward, 2007)

Example:

• Movie watching: client is seated, and head

and eyes are oriented toward screen.

• An observer is measuring a client’s

engagement with a movie across a 2-

minute period. The 2-minute period

is divided up into 5-second intervals.

The observer records the behavior

as being present at the end of the

first 5-second interval as the client

was watching the movie appropri-

ately at that specific point in time.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to describe

each of the 3 types of time sampling

methods listed above.

• Have your Supervisee practice each

type of data collection method in

his/her job role or through role-

playing.

• Ask them to tell you which time

sampling method is being employed

in each of the following examples:

o An observer is interested in a cli-

ent’s interactions with his/her

peers. They observe him/her

across a 10-minute period; at the

end of each 10-second interval,

they record the behavior as being

present if the client has had any

interaction with his/her peers at

all during the interval. (Answer =

Partial-interval recording).

o An observer is examining a cli-

ent’s on-task behavior in class.

They observe him/her for a 60-

minute period and divide the

hour up into 5-minute intervals. If

the client is on-task at the end of

the 5-minute interval, on-task be-

havior is scored as having been

observed. (Answer = Momen-

tary time sampling).

o A client’s humming behavior is

being observed; the observer di-

vides a 15-minute observation

time up into 30-second intervals.

If humming was observed

throughout the entire 30-second

interval, the behavior is scored as

having occurred in that interval.

(Answer = Whole-interval re-

cording).

Relevant Literature:

Daboul-Meany, M. G., Roscoe, E. M., Bour-

ret, J. C., Ahearn, W. H. (2007). A com-

parison of momentary time sampling

and partial-interval recording for evalu-

ating functional relations. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 40 (3), 501-514.

Powell, J., Martindale, A., & KuIp, S. (1975).

An evaluation of time-sample measures

of behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 8, 463-469.

Suen, H. K., Ary, D., & Covalt, W. (1991). Re-

appraisal of momentary time sampling

and partial-interval recording. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 803-804.

Related Lessons:

A-12: Design and implement continuous

measurement procedures (e.g., event record-

ing)

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

I-01: Define the behavior in observable and

measurable terms

FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

FK-48: State the advantages and disad-

vantages of using continuous measurement

procedures and discontinuous measurement

procedures (e.g., partial- and whole-interval

recording, momentary time sampling)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 51

A-14 Design and implement choice

measures

Types of Choice Measures

• Stimulus preference assessment – “a

variety of procedures used to deter-

mine the stimuli that a person pre-

fers, the relative preference values

(high versus low) of those stimuli,

the conditions under which those

preference values remain in effect,

and their presumed value as rein-

forcers” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 705).

• Single-stimulus preference assess-

ment – also called a “successive

choice” method. A stimulus is pre-

sented one at a time. Approaches to

the items are recorded. Preference is

based on whether or not individual

approached item. (Pace, Ivancic, Ed-

wards, Iwata, & Page, 1985)

• Paired choice preference assessment

–also called a “forced choice”

method. Consists of the simultane-

ous presentation of two stimuli. The

observer records which of the two

stimuli the learner chooses. Presen-

tations continue until all stimuli are

paired with each other stimulus. A

hierarchy can then be formed using

the choices. (Fisher, Piazza, Bow-

man, Hagopian, Owens, & Slevin,

1992).

• Multiple stimulus assessment – an

extension of the paired-stimulus

procedure developed by Fisher and

colleagues (1992). The person

chooses a preferred stimulus from

an array of three or more stimuli.

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007)

• Multiple stimulus without replace-

ment assessment – an extension of

the procedures described by Wind-

sor and colleagues (1994). Once an

item was selected, DeLeon and

Iwata (1996) did not replace previ-

ously chosen stimuli. Each choice

was among the remaining stimuli.

• Free-operant assessment – Devel-

oped by Roane and colleagues

(1998), participants had free and

continuous access to the entire array

of stimuli for 5 minutes. Duration of

item manipulation is recorded.

• Response restriction assessment–

Developed by Hanley and colleagues

(2003), a free operant arrangement

was used to measure preference.

Stimuli with high interaction relative

to the other stimuli during a session

were restricted for the remaining

sessions.

• Duration assessment – Developed

by Hagopian and colleagues (2001),

items were presented one at a time.

Duration of engagement was meas-

ured for each item.

• Concurrent-chain assessment (Con-

current-chain schedules) – “concur-

rent schedules in which the reinforc-

ers are themselves schedules that op-

erate separately and in the presence

of different stimuli” (Catania, 2013,

p. 433). Completion of the initial link

schedule of reinforcement gives ac-

cess to the terminal link schedule of

reinforcement. Preference for par-

ticular schedules of reinforcement,

or other environmental arrange-

ments can be measured by respond-

ing in the initial links (Hanley, Iwata,

& Lindberg, 1999).

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to identify the

pros and cons of each type of pref-

erence assessment.

• Have Supervisee memorize the au-

thors and years for the publications

of each type of preference assess-

ment. Use flashcards to learn to flu-

ency.

• Have Supervisee demonstrate the

use of at least 5 types of preference

52 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

assessments on the job (or in a role

play).

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Corn-

wall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educa-

tion.

Fisher, W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G.,

Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin,

I. (1992). A comparison of two ap-

proaches for identifying reinforcers for

persons with severe and profound disa-

bilities. Journal of applied Behavior analy-

sis, 25(2), 491-498.

Hagopian, L. P., Rush, K. S., Lewin, A. B., &

Long, E. S. (2001). Evaluating the pre-

dictive validity of a single stimulus en-

gagement preference assessment.Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(4), 475-

485.

Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., Lindberg, J. S., &

Conners, J. (2003). Response-restriction

analysis: I. Assessment of activity pref-

erences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 36(1), 47-58.

Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & Lindberg, J. S.

(1999). Analysis of activity preferences

as a function of differential conse-

quences. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-

ysis, 32(4), 419-435.

DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evalua-

tion of a multiple‐stimulus presentation

format for assessing reinforcer prefer-

ences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 29(4), 519-533.

Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., Edwards, G. L.,

Iwata, B. A., & Page, T. J. (1985). As-

sessment of stimulus preference and re-

inforcer value with profoundly retarded

individuals. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 18(3), 249-255.

Roane, H. S., Vollmer, T. R., Ringdahl, J. E.,

& Marcus, B. A. (1998). Evaluation of a

brief stimulus preference assess-

ment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 31(4), 605-620.

Smith, R. G., Iwata, B. A., & Shore, B. A.

(1995). Effects of subject-versus experi-

menter-selected reinforcers on the be-

havior of individuals with profound de-

velopmental disabilities. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 28(1), 61-71.

Windsor, J., Piché, L. M., & Locke, P. A.

(1994). Preference testing: A compari-

son of two presentation methods. Re-

search in Developmental Disabilities, 15(6),

439-455.

Related Lessons:

I-07: Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

J-04: Select intervention strategies based on

client preferences.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 53

B-01 Use the dimensions of Applied Be-

havior Analysis (Baer, Wolf,

& Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether inter-

ventions are behavior analytic in nature

“Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) recommended

that applied behavior analysis should be ap-

plied, behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptually

systematic, effective, and capable of appropriately

generalized outcomes….” In 1987 Baer and col-

leagues reported that the “seven self-con-

scious guides to behavior analytic conduct”

they had offered 20 years earlier “remain func-

tional; they still connote the current dimen-

sions of the work usually called applied behav-

ior analysis” (Baer, et al., cited in Cooper et al.,

2007, p. 16).

1. Applied - The applied dimension re-

lates to choosing target behaviors to

change that are socially significant.

2. Behavioral - The behavioral dimen-

sion refers to the target behavior be-

ing systematically chosen for inter-

vention based on its significance and

this behavior must be measurable.

Baer et al. (1968, p. 93) summarized

this point by stating, “Since the be-

havior of an individual is composed

of physical events, its scientific study

requires their precise measure.”

3. Analytic - The analytic dimension

refers to “… a functional relation

between the manipulated events and

a reliable change in some measurable

dimension of the targeted behavior”

(Cooper et al. 2007, p. 17). Baer et al.

(1968, p. 94) stated that, “An exper-

imenter has achieved an analysis of

behavior when he can exercise con-

trol over it.”

4. Technological - “A study in ap-

plied behavior analysis is technolog-

ical when all of its operative proce-

dures are identified and described

with sufficient detail and clarity”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 17).

5. Conceptually systematic - Con-

ceptual systems refer to the applica-

tion of behavior analytic principles

to create behavior change. “The field

of applied behavior analysis will

probably advance best if the pub-

lished descriptions of its procedures

are not only precisely technological,

but also strive for relevance to prin-

ciple” (Baer et. al. 1968, p. 96).

6. Effective - “An effective application

of behavioral techniques must im-

prove the behavior under investiga-

tion to a practical degree” (Cooper et

al., 2007, p. 17).

7. Generality - The final dimension of

applied behavior analysis outlined by

Baer et al. (1968) was generality. “A

behavior change has generality if it

lasts over time, appears in environ-

ments other than the one in which

the intervention that initially pro-

duced it was implemented, and/or

spreads to other behaviors not di-

rectly treated by the intervention.”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 18).

Example:

• Tim was evaluating the effectiveness

of an intervention to decrease inap-

propriate comments for a first grade

student on his case load. The data in-

dicated that the behavior had de-

creased across all settings including

when the child was home, displaying

generalization of the intervention.

He also noticed that the intervention

was analytic because the data indi-

cated that on days there was a sub-

stitute who was not thoroughly

trained on the intervention there was

a significant increase in rates of inap-

propriate commenting. Finally, Tim

deemed the behavior of inappropri-

ately commenting to be socially sig-

nificant because it impeded the stu-

dent from effectively accessing the

classroom curriculum.

54 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

• Students learning the 7 dimensions

of ABA often use the acronyms

GET-A-CAB or BAT-CAGE to re-

member them.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create SAFMEDs

cards for each of the dimensions of

ABA.

• Have supervisee identify, define, and

give examples of each of the 7 di-

mensions of Applied Behavior Anal-

ysis mentioned in the Baer, Wolf, &

Risley (1968) article.

• In reference to the “applied” dimen-

sion of ABA, have supervisee list 5

types of behavior that they feel are

social significant in their life. Have

him/her describe why these are so-

cially significant types of behavior.

• Have supervisee identify types of so-

cially significant behavior they target

with clients.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).

Some Current Dimensions of Applied

Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 1, 1, 91-97.

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1987).

Some Still Current Dimensions of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 20, 4, 313-327.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 16-18, 235, 247-252.

Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). An Implicit

Technology of Generalization. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 2, 349-367.

Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social Validity: The Case

for Subjective Measurement or How

Applied Behavior Analysis Is Finding its

Heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

11, 2, 203-214.

Related Lessons:

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs

B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-el-

ement) designs

B-06: Use changing criterion designs

B-07: Use multiple baseline designs

B-09: Conduct a component analysis to deter-

mine the effective components of an interven-

tion package

B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to deter-

mine the effective values of an independent

variable.

H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 55

B-02 Review and interpret articles from

the behavior-analytic literature

Applied behavior analysis is an applied science

that develops its technology via the discovery

of environmental variables that produce so-

cially significant behavior change. The process

of putting the science into practice begins

with basic researchers discovering the princi-

ples of behavior that are then tested on so-

cially significant behavior by applied research-

ers and then ultimately implemented by prac-

titioners (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Whether a behavior analyst is solely a practi-

tioner or a practitioner and a researcher, it is

important that they maintain close contact

with the scientific literature and its possible

applications by regularly reviewing and criti-

cally interpreting articles from the behavior

analytic literature.

When engaging in a review of the literature

it is useful to consider the criteria that define

applied behavior analysis which are outlined

by Baer, Wolf, & Risley (1987). These criteria

referred to as the seven dimensions (applied,

behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptu-

ally systematic, effective and generality) can

not only assist in determining if an interven-

tion meets the standards of applied behavior

analysis but it can also conclude whether a re-

search intervention is prepared to translate

into practice or if further investigation is nec-

essary prior to effective clinical implementa-

tion.

Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007, p. 5),

assert that “scientific knowledge is built on

above all, empiricism - the practice of objec-

tive observations of the phenomena of inter-

est.” Therefore, a behavior analyst should also

remain objective when reviewing and inter-

preting articles. For example, when reviewing

an article it is important to make an unbiased

interpretation regarding whether or not exper-

imental control (internal validity) was estab-

lished by acknowledging possible subject, set-

ting, measurement and/or independent varia-

ble confounds (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007). Furthermore, it is important to remain

objective when conducting visual analyses of

the data to determine the extent that a func-

tional relation is demonstrated. To assist in

this process, Johnston and Pennypacker

(2009) suggest that a behavior analyst have ex-

tensive experience with graphical analyses

both as a designer and a reader. They also

note that the first step to analyzing behavioral

data is to ask whether the data presentation is

straightforward and productive toward the re-

search question by orienting to the graph’s

scale, axes and legend. Next, one should con-

duct a visual analysis by acknowledging the

number of data points, variability, level and

trend for each experimental condition fol-

lowed by a visual analysis across conditions

and then across participants to draw compar-

isons and begin to establish conclusions

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

In summary, a behavior analyst’s ability to

critically and empirically analyze the literature

requires a thorough understanding of the sci-

ence and acknowledgment of the bidirectional

relationship between research and practice.

Assessment:

• Provide the supervisee with an arti-

cle and ask them to outline and pos-

sible threats to internal validity in the

article.

• Provide the supervisee with an arti-

cle that has the results and discus-

sion removed. Ask Supervisee to

give a precise summary of the results

based upon the figures and tables.

Afterward, provide the results and

the discussion to compare and facil-

itate further supervisory discussion.

• Ask supervisee to determine if there

is a function relation based on the

data presented in an article and pro-

vide a rationale to their assertion.

• Ask the supervisee to evaluate an ar-

ticle to determine if it includes the

seven dimensions of applied behav-

ior analysis

56 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

• Throughout the course of supervi-

sion, ask the supervisee to determine

whether a literature review or re-

search article (considering past re-

search cited) is applied, basic or both

and whether there is adequate sup-

port to use the intervention in clini-

cal practice.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.

(1968). Some current dimensions of ap-

plied behavior

analysis. Journal of applied behavior analy-

sis, 1(1), 91-97.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Johnston, J. M. (2009). Pennypacker Jr. Strat-

egies and tactics of behavioral research.

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret observed

data

FK-04 Empiricism

FK-09 Distinguish between the conceptual

analysis of behavior, experimental analysis of

behavior, applied behavior analysis, and be-

havioral service delivery.

FK-33 functional relations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 57

B-03 Systematically arrange independent

variables to demonstrate their effects on

dependent variables

Definitions:

Independent Variable - “The variable that is

systematically manipulated by the researcher

in an experiment to see whether changes in

the independent variable produce reliable

changes in the dependent variable. In applied

behavior analysis, it is usually an environmen-

tal event or condition antecedent or conse-

quent to the dependent variable. Sometimes

called the intervention or treatment variable”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 697).

Dependent Variable - “The variable in an

experiment measured to determine if it

changes as a result of the manipulations of the

independent variable; in applied behavior

analysis, it represents some measure of a so-

cially significant behavior” (Cooper et al.

2007, p. 693).

Dependent variables must be operationally

defined to allow for consistent assessment and

replication of the assessment process, meas-

ured repeatedly within and across controlled

conditions, recording is assessed for con-

sistency across the experiment using inter-ob-

server agreement, and dependent variables

must be socially significant to the individual or

those around them. (Horner, Carr, Halle,

McGee, Odom, & Wolery, 2005)

Experimental control is achieved when pre-

dicted change in the dependent variable (i.e.,

the behavior) covaries with manipulations of

the independent variable (i.e., the interven-

tion) showing the effectiveness of the inde-

pendent variable on the dependent variable of

a participant. (Horner et al., 2005)

Example:

• A student consistently disrupts group activ-

ities. When given visuals for appropriate

behavior (i.e., quiet voice, calm body) paired

with gestural redirection, disruptive behav-

ior in group lessons decreases. The teacher

then takes the visuals away for a week to

see if fading these supports would be an op-

tion. The gestural redirection for inappro-

priate behavior is still in place. The stu-

dent’s disruptive behavior remains low.

When the redirection is removed the follow-

ing week. The student engages in increased

disruptive behavior during this week, so the

teacher decides to continue the gestural

prompts and the disruptive behavior de-

creases again.

Non-example:

A student with attention deficits consistently disrupts

group activities. His teacher occasionally uses the visu-

als for appropriate behavior outlined in the BSP and

the disruptive behavior does not decrease.

Assessment:

• Give supervisees article abstracts on sin-

gle subject research. Have them identify

the dependent variable and independent

variable for the study.

• Have supervisees identify the independ-

ent and dependent variables in the exam-

ple listed above.

• Have supervisees read Horner et al.,

(2005) The Use of Single-Subject Re-

search to Identify Evidence-Based Prac-

tice in Special Education and complete a

brief summary of the article and ask them

to identify what compromises the integ-

rity of a functional relationship and de-

fine the quality indicators outlined for ef-

fective single-subject research.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Horner, R.H., Carr, E.G., Halle, J., McGee,

G., Odom, S., Wolery, M. (2005). The

Use of Single-Subject Research to Iden-

tify Evidence-Based Practice in Special

58 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Education. Exceptional Children, 71, 2,

165-179.

Related Lessons:

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs

B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-el-

ement) designs

B-06: Use changing criterion designs

B-07: Use multiple baseline designs

B-09: Conduct a component analysis to deter-

mine the effective components of an interven-

tion package

B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to deter-

mine the effective values of an independent

variable.

H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 59

B-04 Use withdrawal/reversal designs

Definition:

Reversal design - “Any experimental design in

which the researcher attempts to verify the effect

of the independent variable by “reversing” re-

sponding to a level obtained in a previous condi-

tion; encompasses experimental designs in which

the independent variable is withdrawn (A-B-A-B)

or reversed in its focus (e.g., DRI/DRA)” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).

Withdrawal design - “A term used by some re-

searchers as a synonym for an A-B-A-B design; also

used to describe experiments in which an effective

treatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to

promote the maintenance of behavior changes”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 708).

Examples:

• An experiment that entails exposing a partici-

pant to a condition of no programmed rein-

forcement for a work task (baseline) until

steady state is achieved, then exposes a partic-

ipate to a condition in which they earn stickers

contingent on a work task (intervention) and

then repeats these two conditions respec-

tively.

• An experiment in which baseline consists of

the reinforcement of challenging behavior

and the treatment consists of differential rein-

forcement of an alternative/replacement be-

havior and both conditions are replicated at

least twice.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to either describe a time

that they used of a withdrawal or reversal de-

sign or have them describe a hypothetical ex-

periment using a withdrawal or reversal de-

sign.

• Have supervisee look at the figures in the ar-

ticles (such as those listed below) as well as

other articles and determine which ones are

reversal/withdrawal designs.

• Have the supervisee look at figures in the ar-

ticles below and describe what characteristics

make it a reversal or withdrawal design

• Have the supervisee describe the pros of using

a reversal design and the condition in which

the use of a reversal design would not be de-

sirable

Relevant Literature:

Anderson, C. M., & Long, E. S. (2002). Use of a

structured descriptive assessment methodol-

ogy to identify variables affecting problem

behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

35(2), 137-154.

Baer, D. M., & Wolf, M. M. (1970). Recent exam-

ples of behavior modification in preschool

settings. Behavior modification in clinical psychol-

ogy, 5-12

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Falcomata, T. S., Roane, H. S., Hovanetz, A. N.,

Kettering, T. L., & Keeney, K. M. (2004). An

evaluation of response cost in the treatment

of inappropriate vocalizations maintained by

automatic reinforcement. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 37(1), 83-87.

Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Vorndran, C. M.,

Kuhn, S. A., & LaRue, R. H. (2002). Rein-

forcement magnitude and responding during

treatment with differential reinforcement.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(1), 29-

48.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables

J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical con-

siderations when using experimental designs to

demonstrate treatment effectiveness

Footnotes

Some authors exclusively use the term reversal de-

sign for studies in which the contingency is re-

versed (or switched to another behavior) as in

DRO and DRA/DRI reversal techniques and the

term withdrawal design for studies that employ an

A-B-A-B approach where the A signifies baseline

condition and B the treatment condition (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007).

A multiple treatment reversal design can also be

used to compare the effects of two or more treat-

ment conditions to baseline and/or to the other

treatments (e.g., ABABACAC, ABABCBCB)

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

60 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-05 Use alternating treatments designs

Definition:

Alternating treatments design - “An exper-

imental design in which two or more condi-

tions (one of which may be a no treatment

control condition) are presented in rapidly al-

ternating succession (e.g., on alternating ses-

sions or days) independent of the level of re-

sponding; differences in responding between

or among conditions are attributed to the ef-

fects of the conditions (also called concurrent

schedule design, multielement design, multi-

ple schedule design)” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 689).

Examples:

• An experiment that entails conducting

DRA and no programmed treatment

during alternating sessions to compare

treatment to the no treatment.

• An experiment that entails conducting

DRI, DRO and DRA on alternating

days to compare all treatments to each

other.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to either describe

an alternating treatment design they

have used in the past or have them de-

scribe an alternating treatments design.

• Have supervisee look at various figures

from the articles (such as some of

those below) as well as articles that did

not use an alternating treatment design

and have them determine which fig-

ures depict the use of an alternating

treatment design.

• Have the supervisee look at figures in

the articles below and describe what

characteristics make it an alternating

treatment design

• Have the supervisee describe the pros

of using an alternating treatment de-

sign and the condition in which the use

of an alternating treatment design

would not be desirable

Relevant Literature:

Barbetta, P. M., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(1992). Effects of active student response

during error correction on the acquisition,

maintenance, and generalization of sight

words by students with developmental

disabilities. Journal of applied behavior analysis,

26 (1), 111-119.

Barlow, D. H., & Hayes, S. C. (1979). Alternating

treatments design: One strategy for com-

paring the effects of two treatments in a

single subject. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 12(2), 199-210.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K .J.

Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994).

Toward a functional analysis of self-injury.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197-

209. (Reprinted from Analysis and Interven-

tion in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3-20,

1982).

Martens, B. K., Lochner, D. G., & Kelly, S. Q.

(1992). The effects of variable‐interval re-

inforcement on academic engagement: A

demonstration of matching theory. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 143-151.

Singh, J., & Singh, N. N. (1985). Comparison of

word-supply and word-analysis error-cor-

rection procedures on oral reading by

mentally retarded children. American Jour-

nal of Mental Deficiency.

Ulman, J. D., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1975). Mul-

tielement baseline design in educational

research. Behavior analysis: Areas of research

and application, 377-391.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables

J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical

considerations when using experimental de-

signs to demonstrate treatment effectiveness

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 61

B-06 Use changing criterion designs

Definitions:

Changing criterion design - "An experi-

mental design in which an initial baseline

phase is followed by a series of treatment

phases consisting of successive and gradually

changing criteria for reinforcement or punish-

ment. Experimental control is evidenced by

the extent the level of responding changes to

conform to each new criterion" (Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, pp. 691-692).

“The design requires initial baseline observa-

tions on a single target behavior. This baseline

phase is followed by implementation of a

treatment program in each of a series of treat-

ment phases. Each treatment phase is associ-

ated with a stepwise change in criterion rate

for the target behavior. Thus, each phase of

the design provides a baseline for the follow-

ing phase. When the rate of the target behav-

ior changes with each stepwise change in the

criterion, therapeutic change is replicated and

experimental control is demonstrated" (Hart-

mann & Hall, 1976, p. 527).

Guidelines for using the changing criterion

design include:

1. Manipulation of the length of

phases. Each phase serves as a base-

line to compare responding to the

next phase. Each phase must be long

enough to display stable responding

before moving to the next phase.

2. “Varying the size of the criterion

change enables a more convincing

demonstration of experimental con-

trol.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 222).

Criterion change magnitude must be

carefully considered so that the cri-

terion is not too large and unattaina-

ble but also not too small in magni-

tude which would not demonstrate

sufficient experimental control.

3. Experimental control is demon-

strated through replication of treat-

ment effects. Therefore, as the num-

ber of phases increases, so does the

opportunity to replicate treatment

effects and enhance experimental

control.

Example:

• Jim created a class wide reinforce-

ment program to increase the vocab-

ulary test scores of a 1st grade class.

He wanted to make sure that the re-

inforcement program was effective

so he set specific score criterion for

the class, to monitor their progress.

Average baseline test scores were 55

% correct for the entire class. Jim set

the first criterion phase at 70% of

the test questions answered correctly

for the entire class. After 4 weeks,

the class met these criteria for 3 con-

secutive tests, so Jim set the class-

room performance criterion to 80%

of the test questions answered cor-

rectly. This time the class met the

criterion in 3 weeks and Jim in-

creased the criterion to 90%. Once

again, the class met these criteria for

3 consecutive tests. Jim concluded

that his intervention was likely re-

sponsible for the change in test

scores, since the test score reliably

increased when the criteria were al-

tered and required a greater score.

Non-example:

John created a reinforcement program to increase

Larry’s rate of answering questions during class. After

3 weeks, the data indicated that Larry was answering

more questions appropriately in class. However, there

was a new teacher in the classroom and other variables

that may have accounted for this change. John wanted

to see if the program was increasing this behavior, so

he decided to remove the reinforcement program for a

week to see if Larry’s rate of answering questions de-

creased.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee describe the chang-

ing criterion design and state when it

62 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

may be most appropriate, strengths

of this design, as well as limitations

of the changing criterion design.

• Have supervisee create a hypothet-

ical analysis using the changing crite-

rion design. Have him/her state why

the changing criterion design was the

most effective design to display ex-

perimental control.

• Have supervisee label the parts of a

completed changing criterion design

graph and describe how the graph

displays experimental control.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Hartmann, D.P. & Hall, R.V. (1976). The

changing criterion design. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 9, 4, 527-532.

McDougall, D. (2005). The range-bound

changing criterion design. Behavioral In-

terventions, 20, 2, 129-137.

McLaughlin, T.F. (1983). An examination and

evaluation of single subject designs used

in behavior analysis research in school

settings. Educational Research Quarterly, 7,

4, 35-42.

Hall, R.V., & Fox, R.G. (1977). Changing cri-

terion designs: An alternative applied

behavior analysis procedure. In B.C. Et-

zel, J.M. LeBlanc, & D.M. Baer (Eds.).

New developments in behavioral research: The-

ory, method, and application (pp. 151-166).

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Allen, K.D., & Evans, J.H. (2001). Exposure-

based treatment to control excessive

blood glucose monitoring. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 34, 497-500.

Related Lessons:

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs

B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., multi-el-

ement) designs

B-07: Use multiple baseline designs

B-09: Conduct a component analysis to deter-

mine the effective components of an interven-

tion package

B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to deter-

mine the effective values of an independent

variable.

H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 63

B-07 Use multiple baseline designs

Definition:

Multiple baseline design – “An experi-

mental design that begins with the concurrent

measurement of two or more behaviors in a

baseline condition, followed by the applica-

tion of the treatment variable to one of the

behaviors while baseline conditions remain in

effect for the other behavior(s) After maxi-

mum change has been noted in the first be-

havior, the treatment variable is applied in se-

quential fashion to each of the other behav-

iors in the design” (Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007, p. 699).

Multiple baselines are useful when the target

behavior is likely to be irreversible, for exam-

ple, in skill acquisition. And are also useful

when it may be impractical or undesirable to

implement a reversal design. For example, in

decreasing aggression toward peers. One

drawback of the multiple baseline design is

potentially the length of time that treatment or

intervention is withheld for the last behavior

or setting being targeted.

In the delayed baseline design, collection of

baseline data for other target behaviors is

taken after baseline measurements for the pre-

vious behaviors. This design may be effective

when a reversal design is not possible, when

resources are limited, or when a new behavior

or subject becomes available. Behaviors must

be measured at the same time and the inde-

pendent variable cannot be applied to the next

behavior until the previous behavior change

has been established. There should be a signif-

icant difference in the length of baseline con-

ditions between the different behaviors and

the independent variable should first be ap-

plied to the behavior demonstrating the great-

est level of stable responding in baseline.

Other variations in multiple baselines de-

signs are concurrent and nonconcurrent uses

of the design. In concurrent multiple baseline

designs the data are collected in the same time

period. In nonconcurrent multiple baseline

designs data can be collected at different

times, and different lengths of baselines are

collected, following which implementation of

the treatment or intervention is conducted—

creating multiple A-B experiments. The ex-

periments are then arranged by length of base-

line to create a multiple baseline design. “Ac-

cording to single-case design logic, the non-

concurrent MB design demonstrates only pre-

diction and replication, and not the critical

verification of the intervention’s effects”

(Carr, 2005, p. 220).

Example:

• Rod conducted an FBA on Billy’s

aggression and property destruction.

Both behaviors were determined to

be maintained by escape from de-

mands. Rod decided to implement

the same intervention for each be-

havior using a multiple baseline de-

sign because they both served the

same function and a reversal would

possibly reestablish the dangerous

behavior after therapeutic effects

were observed.

Non-example:

Bob wanted to determine the effects of

response blocking and redirection on

hand flapping with one of his students.

He implemented this procedure and once

it proved effective, decided to eliminate

the intervention to determine if this pro-

cedure was the likely cause of the behav-

ior decrease.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee describe the multi-

ple baseline design and state when it

may be most appropriate, strengths

of this design, as well as limitations

of the multiple baseline design.

• Have supervisee create a hypothet-

ical analysis using the multiple base-

line design. Have him/her state why

the multiple baseline design was the

most effective design to display ex-

perimental control.

64 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

• Have supervisee label the parts of a

completed multiple baseline design

graph and describe how the graph

displays experimental control.

Relevant Literature:

Barger-Anderson, R., Domaracki, J.W.,

Kearney-Vakulick, N., & Kubina, R.M.

(2004). Multiple baseline designs: The

use of a single-case experimental design

in literacy research. Reading Improvement,

41, 4, 217.

Carr, J.E. (2005). Recommendations for re-

porting multiple-baseline designs across

participants. Behavioral Interventions,

20, 3, 219-224.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Harris, F.N., & Jenson, W.R. (1985). Compar-

isons of multiple-baseline across per-

sons designs and AB designs with repli-

cation: Issues and confusions. Behavioral

Assessment, 7, 2, 121,127.

Harvey, M.T., May, M.E., & Kennedy, C.H.

(2004) Nonconcurrent multiple baseline

designs and the evaluation of educa-

tional systems. Journal of Behavioral Edu-

cation, 13, 4, 267-276.

Watson, P.J., & Workman, E.A. (1981), The

non-concurrent multiple baseline

across-individuals design: An extension

of the traditional multiple baseline de-

sign. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Exper-

imental Psychology, 12, 3, 257-259.

Zhan, S. & Ottenbacher, K.J. (2001). Single

subject research designs for disability re-

search. Journal of Disability and Reha-

bilitation, 23, 1, 1-8.

Related Lessons:

B-03: Systematically arrange independent var-

iables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs.

B-08: Use multiple probe designs.

B-09: Use combinations of design elements.

B-10: Conduct a component analysis to deter-

mine the effective components of an interven-

tion package.

B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to deter-

mine the effective values of an independent

variable.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ants and discriminative stimuli

H-03: Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret ob-

served data.

FK-33: Functional relations.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 65

B-08 Use multiple-probe designs

Like multiple baseline designs (MBD), multi-

ple probe designs (MPD) are “rigorous in

their evaluation of threats to interval validity;

and are practical for teachers and clinicians

who want their research efforts to be wholly

compatible with their instructional or therapy

activities” (Gast, 2009, p. 277). Multiple probe

designs have an additional advantage in ap-

plied settings in that intermittent measures of

baseline conditions streamline data collection

and still maintain the requirement that re-

sponding does not change until intervention is

applied (baseline logic). Either one probe is

taken periodically in baseline conditions and

at least three days immediately before applying

intervention, MPD (days), or probes occur in

brief sessions of a few baseline measurements

taken at least three consecutive days before in-

tervention, MPD (conditions). Experimental

control is demonstrated if probe evidence

across each tier of similar, but functionally dif-

ferent behaviors, participants, or conditions

remains relatively stable until intervention is

implemented.

Examples:

• Multiple probe designs are particularly

useful for researchers and teachers in ed-

ucational settings to efficiently demon-

strate results of instructional interven-

tions when teaching across functionally

different new skills (behaviors), across

multiple students (participants), or across

different sets of skills (conditions).

• Multiple probe designs might not be ap-

propriate if assessing the effects of inter-

vention on severe behaviors that result in

injury or property destruction because of

the requirement that intervention be de-

layed across each tier while a person con-

tinues to engage in severe behaviors with

lasting consequences.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to explain the mean-

ing of “baseline logic” and the reason it

enables measurement of experimental

control.

• Ask the supervisee why MPD across be-

haviors requires similar, but functionally

different behaviors in each tier of a MPD.

• Give the supervisee three articles in

which researchers based their conclu-

sions on MPD line graph data. Ask the

supervisee to interpret results of the

study based on the graphic data. Com-

pare to the conclusions written by study

authors.

Relevant Literature:

Gast, D. L., & Ledford, J. R. (2009). Single subject

research methodology in behavioral sci-

ences. Routledge.

Horner, R. D., & Baer, D. M. (1978). Multiple-

probe technique: A variation of the multiple

baseline. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

11(1), 189-196.

Thompson, T. J., Braam, S. J., & Fuqua, R. W.

(1982). Training and generalization of laun-

dry skills: A multiple probe evaluation with

handicapped persons. Journal of applied behav-

ior analysis, 15(1), 177-182.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent varia-

bles.

B-07 Use multiple baselines designs.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain repre-

sentative data given thedimensions of the behavior

and the logistics of observing and recording.

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and record-

ing periods.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and variabil-

ity.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

FK-36 response generalization

66 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-09 Use combinations of design ele-

ments

When designing an experiment it is sometimes

useful to combine experimental design ele-

ments to strengthen the demonstration of ex-

perimental control. For instance it may be val-

uable to combine a multiple baseline design

with a reversal design.

For example, Colón et al. (2012) used a non-

concurrent multiple baseline design across

participants to analyze the effects of verbal

operant training on appropriate vocalizations

and vocal stereotypy. RIRD was implemented

and examined using a reversal design for each

participant exposed to their procedure.

In 1985, Alexander used a multiple baseline

across students with reversal design to evalu-

ate the effects of a study skill training proce-

dure.

Johnston and Pennypacker (2009) point out

that experimenters often combine and inter-

mingle many different types of designs as nec-

essary. Categorizing types of designs is really a

more valuable thing for the student than it is

for the researcher.

Murray Sidman in Tactics of Scientific Research

says that it is not valuable to say that there are

rules to follow when designing an experiment.

He says “this would be disastrous” (Sidman,

1960/1988, p. 214). Simply put, he says, “The

fact is that there are no rules of experimental design”

(Sidman, 1960/1988, p. 214).

The most important thing is that the experi-

ment is designed to answer some question we

have about the natural world. Sidman says,

“We conduct experiments to find out some-

thing we do not know” (Sidman, 1960/1988,

p.214).

Assessment:

• Have your supervisee design an experi-

ment that would be best suited to use a

combination of design elements.

• Ask your supervisee to point to the sec-

tions of the graphs in Colon et al. (2012)

and Alexander (1985) that reflect the

types of experimental designs used.

• Ask your supervisee to describe what

Sidman meant when he said that having

rules for designing an experiment would

be “disastrous.”

Relevant Literature:

Alexander, D. F. (1985). The effect of study skill

training on learning disabled students’ re-

telling of expository material. Journal of ap-

plied behavior analysis, 18(3), 263-267.

Colón, C. L., Ahearn, W. H., Clark, K. M., &

Masalsky, J. (2012). The effects of verbal

operant training and response interruption

and redirection on appropriate and inap-

propriate vocalizations. Journal of applied be-

havior analysis, 45(1), 107-120.

Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lind-

berg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., ... &

Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisition in

the implementation of functional analysis

methodology. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis,33(2), 181-194.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.

(2009). Strategies and tactics of behavioral re-

search. Routledge.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent varia-

bles to demonstrate their effects on dependent

variables.

B-07 Use multiple baselines designs.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of the

behavior and the logistics of observing and re-

cording.

II-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 67

B-10 Conduct a component analysis to de-

termine the effective components of an in-

tervention package

Definition:

Component analysis - “An experiment de-

signed to identify the active elements of a

treatment condition, the relative contributions

of different variables in a treatment package,

and/or the necessary and sufficient compo-

nents of an intervention. Component analyses

take many forms, but the basic strategy is to

compare levels of responding across succes-

sive phases in which the intervention is imple-

mented with one or more of the components

left out” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

692).

Examples:

• An experiment that compares re-

sponse blocking with and without

redirection.

• An experiment that compares differ-

ential reinforcement of alternative

behavior with and without extinc-

tion

• An experiment that removes one

procedure at a time from a treatment

package consisting of three proce-

dures (e.g., Token system, response

cost and extinction) and compares

responding under each condition to

responding during implementation

of the full treatment package.

Assessment:

• Ask Supervisee to explain why com-

ponent analysis research is im-

portant to clinical practice (e.g. effi-

ciency)

• Ask the supervisee to either describe

a treatment package they use in their

fieldwork or practicum that could

that could be tested via a component

analysis or have them describe a hy-

pothetical treatment package that

could be tested via a component

analysis

• Have supervisee look at the figures

in the articles listed below and ex-

plain the findings of the analysis by

determining the effective compo-

nents of the intervention package.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Hardesty, S. L., Hagopian, L. P., McIvor, M.

M., Wagner, L. L., Sigurdsson, S. O., &

Bowman, L. G. (2014). Effects of spec-

ified performance criterion and perfor-

mance feedback on staff behavior: A

component analysis. Behavior Modifica-

tion, 38(5), 760-773.

doi:10.1177/0145445514538280

Ward-Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2010). Com-

ponent analyses using single-subject ex-

perimental designs: A review. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(4), 685-704.

doi:10.1901/jaba.2010.43-685

Ward‐Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2012). Com-

ponent analysis of behavior skills train-

ing in functional analysis. Behavioral Inter-

ventions, 27(2), 75-92.

doi:10.1002/bin.1339

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables

68 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

B-11 Conduct a parametric analysis to de-

termine the effective values of an inde-

pendent variable

Definition:

Parametric analysis - “An experiment de-

signed to compare the differential effects of a

range of values of the independent variable”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 701).

Examples:

• An experiment designed to analyze

different magnitudes of a punish-

ment procedure to determine the

least intrusive magnitude of a stimu-

lus to decrease behavior.

• An experiment designed to analyze

the optimal quality of attention nec-

essary to reinforce appropriate be-

havior

Assessment:

• Ask Supervisee to list some parame-

ters (schedule, immediacy, quality,

quantity) of an independent variable

that can be manipulated experimen-

tally

• Have supervisee describe a hypo-

thetical parametric analysis inclusive

of the independent variable parame-

ter to be manipulated and the func-

tional relation to be tested

• Ask the supervisee how they could

use a parametric analysis to test for

the optimal level of treatment integ-

rity. Then discuss what parameter

they would measure (i.e., schedule,

immediacy) and which values they

would select to answer this experi-

mental question.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Lerman, D. C., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). A meth-

odology for distinguishing between ex-

tinction and punishment effects associ-

ated with response blocking. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 231-233.

doi:10.1901/jaba.1996.29-231

Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Vorndran, C.

M., Kuhn, S. C., & LaRue, R. J. (2002).

Reinforcement magnitude and respond-

ing during treatment with differential re-

inforcement. Journal Of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 35(1), 29-48.

doi:10.1901/jaba.2002.35-29

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables

FK-33 functional relations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 69

C-01 State and plan for the possible un-

wanted effects of reinforcement

Reinforcement has been long been defined as

a crucial element to behavioral change. How-

ever, there are considerations that behavioral

analysts should explore before implementing

reinforcement strategies. Here are some con-

siderations for the use of positive reinforce-

ment:

• May suppress the desired response

o e.g. The availability of the

reinforcer elicits behavior

that may compete with the

target response (Balsam &

Bondy, 1983).

• May not be feasible for an individual

that has little or no learning history

with that reinforcement contin-

gency.

o e.g. An individual that is

being taught to swallow

solid food may not pro-

gress with a program solely

using positive reinforce-

ment due to low baseline

levels of swallowing solid

foods (Riordan, Iwata,

Wohl & Finney, 1984).

• Increases the frequency of the target

behavior, thereby reducing the fre-

quency in other responses that may

also be desirable

o e.g. While teaching a stu-

dent to raise their hand and

wait until they are called on

in class, the student no

longer garners others’ at-

tention by calling their

name (Balsam & Bondy,

1983).

• May evoke aggression in others, es-

pecially in conditions which there

are limited quantities of the rein-

forcer.

o Aggression may be di-

rected at individuals that

are also competing for

same reinforce (Balsam &

Bondy, 1983).

• May also evoke aggression when

group contingencies are used.

o Individual may become ag-

gressive towards lower-

performing teammates

(Balsam & Bondy, 1983).

• Removal of positive reinforcer has

been correlated with lower than

baseline levels of responding (Bal-

sam & Bondy, 1983).

There are also considerations for the use of

negative reinforcement. Here are some:

• Can result in more challenging be-

havior due to the continuation of

aversive stimulation if target behav-

ior is not displayed

• Research shows that even for es-

cape-maintained behavior, positive

reinforcement contingencies may

compete with negative reinforce-

ment contingencies, therefore, de-

creasing escape-maintained behavior

(Lerman, Volkert & Trosclair, 2007).

o A child that engages in ag-

gression to escape tasks

may be more likely com-

plete tasks without aggres-

sion if access to an iPad

was given contingent on

work completion. This

may be more effective than

reducing aggression by

providing breaks contin-

gent on appropriate asking.

• Negative reinforcement contingen-

cies may reinforce minimal require-

ments needed to avoid/escape aver-

sive stimulus; does not focus on

quality of target response (Balsam &

Bondy, 1983).

• Requires continuous aversive stimu-

lation and aversive stimulation often

elicits aggressive responses.

70 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

These unwanted effects of reinforcement can

be curbed taking baseline levels of the target

behavior before setting criteria for reinforce-

ment, implementing preference assessments

routinely, ensuring reinforcement schedule

and reinforcers chosen are as natural to the in-

dividual’s environment as possible to promote

generalization, systematic thinning of the re-

inforcement schedule, and having concurrent

schedules of reinforcement for positive and

negative reinforcement when negative rein-

forcement is utilized.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to list considerations

for the use of positive reinforce-

ment.

• Ask supervisee to list considerations

for the use of negative reinforce-

ment.

• Have supervisee outline which con-

siderations may affect a particular

client and what behavioral strategies

can be used to curb these unwanted

effects.

Relevant Literature:

Balsam, P.D., & Bondy, A.S. (1983). The neg-

ative side effects of reward. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavioral Analysis, 16(3), 283-296.

Flora, S.R. (2004). The power of reinforcement. Al-

bany: State University of New York

Press.

Lerman, D.C., Volkert, V.M., & Trosclair, N.

(2007). Further examination of factors

that influence preference for positive

versus negative reinforcement. Journal of

Applied Behavioral Analysis, 40(1), 25-44.

Riordan M.M., Iwata B.A., Wohl M.K., Fin-

ney J.W. (1984). Behavioral treatment of

food refusal and selectivity in develop-

mentaly disabled children. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavioral Analysis. 17(3), 327-341.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH).

E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditioned reinforcers and punishers.

I-07 Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

J-04 Select intervention strategies based on

client preferences.

J-05 Select intervention strategies based on

client’s current repertoires.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints.

J-11 Program for stimulus and response gen-

eralization.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 71

C-02 State and plan for unwanted effects

of punishment

Punishment is sometimes used to change or

shape behavior and may cause unwanted side

effects.

• For instance, those individuals who

are being treated using punishment

procedures may become aggressive

(Azrin & Holz, 1966) or may have

strong emotional reactions to such

measures.

• An adult or child may become sub-

ject to negative modeling (such as

imitating scolding or hitting behav-

ior).

• Those treated through the use of

punishment may seek out es-

cape/avoidance of the punisher or

the contingencies surrounding pun-

ishment.

• In extreme cases, the use of punish-

ment can result in harm or injury to

the child or adult.

Punishment may also have unwanted ef-

fects with regards to an individual’s future

learning. It may not appropriately generalize

to new situations requiring further interven-

tion. When used as the sole intervention in a

treatment package, it fails to teach an individ-

ual an alternative behavior to engage in and

consequently individuals may revert back to

old behaviors without a replacement strategy.

These behaviors may diminish temporarily

only to be subject to a recovery of responding

(Catania, 1998) at a later period of time.

As a result, the majority of those in the field

agree that “punishment be limited to those sit-

uations in which other interventions have

failed” (May, Risley, Twardosz, Friedman, Bi-

jou, Wexler et al., 1975 as cited in Iwata et al.,

1994, p. 198). Iwata et al., (1994) described

that reinforcement approaches to behavior re-

duction were just as effective as punishment

approaches and that if a functional analysis of

the problem behavior was done, the need for

the use of punishment procedures was greatly

reduced.

During the supervision process, be diligent

in choosing interventions, which are based on

reinforcement and not solely on punishment.

The function of a problem behavior should al-

ways be assessed before making decisions re-

garding an individuals program to ensure ef-

fective treatment. If a team has deemed that

punishment is necessary as a part of a treat-

ment package, it is important to state any po-

tential unwanted effects of any procedure be-

ing utilized and to attempt to plan for these.

Consider the following when planning for

punishment effects:

1. A team should always adhere to the

“Fair Pair Rule” when using punish-

ment. This states that a “practitioner

should choose one or more alterna-

tives to increase for every behavior

targeted for reduction” (White &

Haring, 1980, p. 423).

2. Be sure to plan for continuation of

the procedure to different environ-

ments, staff and stimuli (any and all

that apply).

3. Avoid modeling any behavior which

you do not want the adult or child to

imitate

4. The team should develop a contin-

gency plan for managing aggression

or extreme emotional responses

(should they occur) and have safety

measures in place to avoid accidental

injury to the individual.

5. The team should develop a plan to

manage any escape/avoidant behav-

iors that may occur

6. Be aware the effects of punishment

can be difficult to predict. Staff may

need to adjust the plan over time if

the affects are not therapeutic or ef-

fective.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state the un-

wanted effects of punishment.

72 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

• Ask the supervisee to plan for un-

wanted effects of punishment. The

supervisor should provide examples

of commonly used punishment pro-

cedures within agency (such as re-

straint, time outs, or other punitive

measures) and ask the supervisee to

propose solutions to these prob-

lems.

• Ask the supervisee to select one be-

havior to target for increase for each

behavior targeted for decrease.

Relevant Literature:

Azrin, N.H., & Holz, W.C. (1966). Punish-

ment. In W.K. Honig (Ed), Operant Be-

havior: Areas of Research and Application.

New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Catania, C.A. (1998). Learning (4th ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bau-

man, K. E. and Richman, G. S. (1994).

Toward a Functional Analysis of Self-in-

jury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

27: 197–209.

May, J. G., Risley, T. R., Twardosz, S., Fried-

man, P., Bijou, S., Wexler, D., et al.

(1975). Guidelines for the use of behav-

ioral procedures in state programs for

the retarded. NARC Monograph, M. R.

Research, 1.

White, O.R. & Haring, N.G. (1980). Excep-

tional Teaching (2nd e.d.). Columbus,

O.H.: Charles E. Merrill.

Related Lessons:

C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of punishment.

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

D-17 Use appropriate parameters andsched-

ules of punishment.

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

E-07 Plan for behavioral contrast effects.

FK-31 Behavioral contingencies.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 73

C-03 Use Extinction

Extinction “occurs when reinforcement of a

previously reinforced behavior is discontin-

ued; as a result the frequency of that behavior

decreases in the future” (Cooper, Heron &

Howard, 2007, p. 457). Extinction renders tar-

get behavior useless and is often a significant

component contributing to the effectiveness

of a behavioral program. However, extinction

should be used with caution. Two common

side effects may occur when extinction is uti-

lized: an extinction burst, defined as “an im-

mediate increase in the frequency of the re-

sponse after the removal of the positive, neg-

ative, or automatic reinforcement” (Cooper,

Heron & Howard, 2007, p. 462), and extinc-

tion-induced aggression.

Studies have compared withdrawal of rein-

forcement as an aversive event and responses

to extinction are similar to attack responses in

laboratory subjects exposed to aversive stim-

ulation, such as heat, shocks and physical

blows (Lerman et al., 1999). Extinction should

not be used as a singular intervention when

self-injury or aggression is severe and cannot

be prevented and appropriate safe-guards can-

not be put in place. Other considerations in-

clude extinction being inappropriate in set-

tings where maladaptive behaviors are likely

to be imitated by others (e.g., classroom set-

ting) and when extinction is not feasible (e.g.

if an individual engages in physical aggression

for attention, response-blocking may be

enough to reinforce the individual’s behavior).

Research has shown that there are other be-

havioral strategies that can be utilized to miti-

gate the unwanted effects of extinction. These

include using differential reinforcement of al-

ternative behavior in conjunction with extinc-

tion procedures. In situations in which using

extinction is not possible, research has shown

that by manipulating reinforcement schedules

and reinforcement parameters (e.g. quality,

duration, immediacy of reinforcement) to fa-

voring appropriate behavior rather than prob-

lem behavior, problem behavior has also been

shown to decrease (Athens & Vollmer, 2010).

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to list the possi-

ble unwanted effects of extinction.

• Ask your supervisee in which situa-

tions should extinction not be uti-

lized.

• Ask your supervisee what behavioral

strategies can mitigate the unwanted

effects of extinction.

• Have your supervisee determine

which of his/her clients could bene-

fit from extinction and which clients

should avoid the use of extinction.

Relevant Literature:

Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An in-

vestigation of differential reinforcement

of alternative behavior without extinc-

tion. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis,

43(4), 569-589.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lerman, D.C., & Iwata, B.A.,(1995). Preva-

lence of the extinction burst and its at-

tenuation during treatment. Journal of

Applied Behavioral Analysis, 28(1), 93-94.

Lerman, D.C., Iwata, B.A., & Wallace, M.D.,

(1999). Side effects of extinction: Preva-

lence of bursting and aggression during

the treatment of self-injurious behavior.

Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 32

(1), 1-8.

Related Lessons:

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-18. Use Extinction.

D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

E-01 Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

E-08 Use the matching law and recognize fac-

tors influencing choice.

74 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment

The principle of reinforcement is in operation

when immediately following a behavior, a

stimulus event occurs and this serves to in-

crease the future frequency of that behavior

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement has occurred when a

stimulus is added to the environment, or is in-

creased in intensity, immediately following a

behavior, and this serves to increase the fre-

quency of that behavior occurring in the fu-

ture (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

Example:

Mommy Singing

A mommy sings a verse from “The Wheels on

the Bus” nursery rhyme to her baby. The baby

giggles immediately following the nursery

rhyme being sung. The mommy is more likely

to sing this nursery rhyme to her baby in the

future, because the baby’s giggling serves as a

reinforcer.

Example:

Accessing food

A rat is in a cage, which has a food dispenser

lever. To access food, the rat pushes the lever

and food pellets are dispensed. In the future,

after a few hours of food deprivation, the rat

is more likely to push the lever to access food.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement has occurred when a

stimulus is removed, or decreased in intensity,

immediately following a behavior, and this in-

creases the frequency of that behavior in the fu-

ture (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

Example:

Removal of loud music

A child asks her friend to turn down the mu-

sic, as it is too loud for her. The music is im-

mediately turned down. The child is more

likely to ask for music to be turned down in

the future when it is too loud.

Example:

Raining

It is raining so you put up your umbrella and

immediately reduce the amount that you are

getting wet. You are more likely to put up your

umbrella in the future when it is raining to

avoid getting wet.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisees to define both

positive and negative reinforcement

and give an example of each type.

• Ask your Supervisee to demonstrate

an example of positive and negative re-

inforcement through role-playing.

• Ask your Supervisee to identify which

type of reinforcement is operating in

these examples:

o A Supervisee sees her BCBA

Supervisor coming in to the class-

room to run teaching evaluations.

The Supervisee takes her client

for a reinforcer break in another

room and thereby avoids having a

teaching evaluation completed on

her. The next day, when her Su-

pervisor comes back in to do

more evaluations, she takes her

client outside to play. (Answer =

the Supervisee’s behavior of leav-

ing the classroom is negatively re-

inforced by avoiding having

teaching evaluations completed

on her).

o A client regularly has chal-

lenging behavior when working

with his teacher at the table, as he

does not enjoy the work. How-

ever, on this occasion he has

worked really well so has immedi-

ately been given a 3-minute break

to run around in the playground.

He continues to work well at the

table after his break. (Answer =

the client’s hard work at the table

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 75

may be being negatively rein-

forced. This is because his work

behavior is being reinforced with

removal from the table environ-

ment).

o A Father calls his son down

to the dishes. His son comes

down and does the dishes. His

Father says “Thanks, Son” and

gives him a dollar to get some

candy. The next day when the son

is asked to do the dishes again, he

quickly comes down to do them.

(Answer = the son’s compliant

behavior was probably positively

reinforced with praise and/or

money).

Relevant Literature:

Hall, R. V., Lund, D. & Jackson, D. (1968).

Effects of teacher attention on study be-

havior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 1, 1-12.

Hart, B. M., Reynolds, N. J., Baer, D. M.,

Brawley, E. R. & Harris, F. R. (1968).

Effect of contingent and non-contin-

gent social reinforcement on the coop-

erative play of a preschool child. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 73-76.

Michael, J. (1975). Positive and negative rein-

forcement, a distinction that is no longer

necessary; or a better way to talk about

bad things. Behaviorism, 3 (1), 33-44.

Osborne, J. G. (1969). Free-time as a rein-

forcer in the management of classroom

behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-

ysis, 2, 113-118.

Skinner, B. F. The behavior of organisms. New

York: D. Appleton-Century, 1938.

Thomas, D. R., Becker, W. C., & Armstrong,

M. (1968). Production and elimination

of disruptive classroom behavior by sys-

tematically varying teacher's behavior.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 35-

45.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the possible un-

wanted side effects of reinforcement

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement

D-16: Use positive and negative punishment

D-17: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement

D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

D-20: Use response-independent (time-

based) schedules of reinforcement (i.e., non-

contingent reinforcement)

D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

E-10: Use the Premack principle

E-11: Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditioned reinforcers and punishers

F-02: Use token economies and other condi-

tioned reinforcement systems

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15: Operant conditioning

FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement

FK-19: Unconditioned punishment

FK-20: Conditioned punishment

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

FK-23: Automatic reinforcement and punish-

ment

76 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and

schedules of reinforcement

Definition:

Schedule of reinforcement - “A rule speci-

fying the environmental arrangements and re-

sponse requirements for reinforcement; a de-

scription of a contingency of reinforcement”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 703).

There are two basic schedules of reinforce-

ment: continuous (CRF) and intermittent

(INT). CRF is useful when teaching a new re-

sponse. With CRF, reinforcement is provided

each time the target behavior occurs. As a re-

sult, the desired behavior is strengthened.

INT is used for thinning schedules of rein-

forcement and transitioning to naturally oc-

curring reinforcement contingencies.

INT may be defined as having a fixed ratio

schedule, variable ratio schedule, fixed inter-

val schedule, or variable interval schedule.

When learning basic schedules of reinforce-

ment, it is not only important to understand

how the schedules are defined, but also under-

stand the effects of each type of INT. Ferster

and Skinner (1957) and Cooper et al. (2007)

thoroughly discuss these concepts and it is

strongly encouraged that supervisors and su-

pervisees read this material. The table below

serves as a reference and briefly illustrates the

key points of basic INT.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to define basic

schedules of reinforcement.

• Ask supervisee to provide examples

of basic schedules of reinforcement.

• Supervisor can graph response rates

of INT schedules and ask supervisee

to analyze graphs and identify which

INT schedule is in place.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Variable Ratio

(VR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Interval

(VI)

Definition

A fixed number of

target responses

must be completed

to produce a rein-

forcer.

A variable number

of target re-

sponses must be

completed to pro-

duce a reinforcer.

Reinforcement is

provided for the

first target response

following a fixed

duration of time.

Reinforcement is

provided for the

first target re-

sponse following

the end of variable

durations of time.

Example

FR 7 means that

every seventh target

response produces

a reinforcer.

VR 15 means that

on average, every

fifteenth target re-

sponse produces a

reinforcer.

FI 5 means that

first target response

following the end

of a five minute pe-

riod produces a re-

inforcer.

VI 12 means that

the first target re-

sponse following

the end of an aver-

age duration of 12

minutes produces

a reinforcer.

Schedule Effects

Produces a typical

pattern of respond-

ing and high rates

of responses. Post

reinforcement

pause occurs.

Produces a con-

sistent, steady re-

sponse rate, usu-

ally without a post

reinforcement

pause.

Produces a post re-

inforcement pause

during the initial

part of the interval.

Rate of responding

accelerates toward

the end. Slow to

moderate response

rates observed.

Produces a con-

stant, stable, yet

low to moderate

response rate.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 77

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Schedules of reinforcement.

Applied Behavior Analysis (pp. 304-

323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear-

son Prentice Hall.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Sched-

ules of reinforcement. New York, NY:

Appleton-Century-Crofts

Related Lessons:

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)

schedules of reinforcement (i.e., non-contin-

gent reinforcement)

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

FK-21 Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

FK-40 Matching law

FK-41 Contingency maintained behavior

78 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading

Definitions:

Prompts – “…antecedent stimuli that in-

crease the probability of a desired response”

(Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p. 256)

Prompt fading – “…transfer stimulus con-

trol from therapist delivered prompts to stim-

uli in the natural environment that should

evoke appropriate responses” (Walker, 2008

as cited in Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p.

412).

Prompts are used when teaching skills.

Prompts can be used when teaching in task

analysis, discrete trial, incidental teaching, etc.

Prompt fading is important as the learner be-

gins to show competence with the skill being

taught. Fading allows the learner to become

independent and meet naturalistic reinforcers

for his/her behavior.

Prompts are generally divided into two cate-

gories: stimulus prompts and response

prompts.

Stimulus prompts – “…those in which some

property of the criterion stimulus is altered, or

other stimuli are added to or removed from

the criterion stimulus” (Etzel & LeBlanc, 1979

cited in Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2014, p. 256)

Examples:

Stimulus shaping

Stimulus fading

Response prompts – “…addition of some

behavior on the part of an instructor to evoke

the desired learner behavior” (Fisher, Piazza,

& Roane, 2014, p. 256).

Examples:

Most-to-least prompting

Least-to-most prompting

Time delay prompts

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to role-play sev-

eral types of prompt strategies.

• Ask your supervisee to role-play sev-

eral types of prompt fading proce-

dures.

• Ask your supervisee to describe the

transfer of stimulus control when a

prompt is faded out e.g., what stim-

ulus is controlling behavior while

prompting vs what stimulus is con-

trolling behavior after the prompt

has been faded out.

Relevant Literature:

Etzel, B. C., & LeBlanc, J. M. (1979). The sim-

plest treatment alternative: The law of par-

simony applied to choosing appropriate

instructional control and errorless-learn-

ing procedures for the difficult-to-teach

child. Journal of Autism and Developmental

Disorders, 9(4), 361-382.

Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Roane, H. S.

(2014). Handbook of applied behavior analy-

sis. New York: Guilford Press.

Walker, G. (2008). Constant and progressive

time delay procedures for teaching chil-

dren with autism: A literature review. Jour-

nal of Autism and Developmental Disor-

ders, 38(2), 261-275.

Related Lessons:

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.

D-05 Use shaping.

D-06 Use chaining.

D-07 Conduct task analyses.

D-08 Use discrete-trial and free-operant ar-

rangements.

E-01 Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

E-02 Use discrimination training procedures.

E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures.

FK-24 stimulus control

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 79

D-04 Modeling and Imitation training

Definitions:

Imitation - “A behavior controlled by any

physical movement that serves as a novel

model excluding vocal-verbal behavior, has

formal similarity with the model, and immedi-

ately follows the occurrence of the model (e.g.

within seconds of the model presentation).

An imitative behavior is a new behavior emit-

ted following a novel antecedent event (i.e.,

the model)” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 697).

Model - “An antecedent stimulus that evokes

the imitative behavior” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 413)

• Imitation training is a method often

used to teach learners new imitation

skills. During imitation training the

learner learns to imitate the behavior

of the person providing the model

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Reinforcement is typically delivered

for imitation of the model. Prompt

fading is often used.

Example: Modeling a new behavior

• Example: A therapist sits across

from his student Zeke in the pre-

school classroom. The therapist

prompts the student to “do this,”

and claps her hands. Zeke responds

within two seconds of the therapist’s

prompt and claps. The therapist re-

sponds by adding a token to Zeke’s

token board.

• Example: During job training, the

job coach, Flora, demonstrates to

her new employee, Fauna, how to

turn the copy machine off at the end

of the workday. Fauna then imme-

diately flicks the switch, demonstrat-

ing that she understands the expec-

tation. Flora praises Fauna for pay-

ing attention.

• Non-example: A therapist sits across

from his student Zeke in the pre-

school classroom. The therapist

prompts the student to “do this,”

and claps her hands. Zeke does not

imitate the model and reinforcement

is not delivered. Later during the day

Zeke excitedly claps his hands when

his favorite song is playing on the t.v.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to define both

“imitation” and “model.”

• Ask your Supervisee to state the pur-

pose of imitation training.

• Ask your supervisee to give several

examples of some new skills that one

might want to select for imitation

training (other than the ones listed

above).

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Peterson, R. F. and Sherman, J.

A. (1967), The development of imitation

by reinforcing behavioral similarity to a

model. Journal of the Experimental Analysis

Behavior, 10: 405–416.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Striefel, S., Bryan, K. S. and Aikins, D. A.

(1974), Transfer of stimulus control

from motor to verbal stimuli. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 7: 123–135.

Related Lessons:

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.

80 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-05 Use Shaping

Definition:

Shaping – “Using differential reinforcement to

produce a series of gradually changing response

classes; each response class is a successive ap-

proximation toward a terminal behavior. Mem-

bers of an existent response class are selected for

differential reinforcement because they more

closely resemble the terminal behavior”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 704).

Examples:

• Bernice’s infant is babbling. She has been try-

ing to get him to say, “mama.” While playing

with him she happens to catch him making

the “mmm” sound. She smiles and praises

him for making the vocalization. Over the

next several days she continues to applaud

when he makes this sound. After a few weeks

she observes the baby making a “ma” noise.

She praises him more enthusiastically giving

him tickles. Although she still continues to

commend him for making the “mmm” sound,

the social reinforcement delivered for saying

“ma” is differentially delivered. Some time

later she catches him babbling “ma ma ma.”

She praises him, saying, “You said ‘mama’,”

giving him big hugs and kisses. Verbal praise

and affection is almost exclusively delivered

for saying “ma ma ma” now. Eventually the

baby who continually hears him mother say

“mama” (and not “ma ma ma”) echoes his

mother when she gives the verbal model. She

demonstrates the highest level of excitement

for this vocalization and the baby continues to

emit this response.

• Petunia is pet sitting for a friend. On her way

out the door the cat, Mr. Boots, escapes out-

side. Petunia tries to call the feline back in-

doors, but every time she gets near him, Mr.

Boots runs away. Petunia has an idea. She

places a bowl of cat food outside. Mr. Boots

goes to the bowl but only when he thinks the

coast is clear. Over the next few days, she

successively moves the bowl of food closer to

the front door. On the fourth day, Petunia

puts the bowl just inside of the doorway. Mr.

Boots takes the bait. While he gobbles down

the food, Petunia, who had been hiding

nearby shuts the door and captures the be-

loved cat.

Non-example:

Bernice’s baby has gotten bigger. While looking

at a picture book she points out a picture of a

farm animal. She tells him that this is a cow and

that the cow says, “moo.” The baby immediately

echoes the word “moo” and Bernice praises

him. He continues to say “moo” when seeing

pictures of cows in other books as well.

•

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to identify the steps

taken to shape the desired behavior of say-

ing “mama” above.

• Ask the supervisee to identify how differ-

ential reinforcement is used to shape de-

sired behavior.

• Ask your supervisee to create another ex-

ample and non-example of his/her own.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson.

Lovaas O.I. The autistic child: Language develop-

ment through behavior modification. New

York: Irvington; 1977.

Newman, B., Reinecke, D., & Ramos, M. (2009). Is

a Reasonable Attempt Reasonable? Shaping

Versus Reinforcing Verbal Attempts of Pre-

schoolers with Autism. The Analysis of Verbal

Behavior, 25(1), 67–72.

Pryor, K. (1999). Don't Shoot The Dog [rev. ed.].

New York: Bantam.

Ricciardi, J. N., Luiselli, J. K., & Camare, M. (2006).

Shaping approach responses as intervention

for specific phobia in a child with autism.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39(4),

445-448.

Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behaviorist: Part

two of an autobiography. New York: New York

University Press.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement

D-05 Use Shaping

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g., DRO,

DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

FK -41 Contingency-shaped behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 81

D-06 Use Chaining

Definition:

Behavior chain - “A sequence of responses

in which each response produces a stimulus

change that functions as conditioned rein-

forcement for that response and as a discrim-

inative stimulus for the next response in the

chain; reinforcement for the last response in a

chain maintains the reinforcing effectiveness

of the stimulus changes produced by all previ-

ous responses in the chain” (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007, p. 691).

Often behavior chains are taught using a task

analysis. This involves breaking down steps of

a sequence or routine and sequentially teach-

ing them one at a time. Reinforcement is de-

livered following the first step, then following

each succeeding step if the previous steps

were completed in correct order.

According to Cooper, et al., “a behavior chain

has the following three important characteris-

tics: (a) A behavior chain involves the perfor-

mance of a specific series of discrete re-

sponses; (b) the performance of each behavior

in the sequence changes the environment in

such a way that it produces conditioned rein-

forcement for the preceding responses and

serves as an SD for the next response; and (c)

the responses within the chain must be per-

formed in a specific sequence, usually in close

temporal succession” (2007, p. 436).

“In forward chaining, behaviors are linked to-

gether beginning with the first behavior in the

sequence. In backward chaining, behaviors are

linked together beginning with the last behav-

ior in the sequence” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.

436).

Example:

• Brad is going to teach shoe tying to

one of his students. He decides to

use a forward chain and writes down

all the smaller steps involved in tying

ones shoes. He teaches the steps at

the beginning, like crossing the laces.

After the student has completed this

step Brad delivers reinforcement.

Then moves down the steps in se-

quential order delivering reinforce-

ment at the completion of the last

step that was taught.

Non-example:

Joe decides to use video modeling to help his

student learn to tie their shoes. He has them

watch the video daily and then model what

they learned from that video in an attempt to

have them learn how to tie their shoes.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee choose a target skill and

create a task analysis for that skill. Then

have him/her decide whether to teach

this skill using forward or backward

chaining and explain their rationale.

• Have supervisee identify and describe the

benefits and limitations of using both

forward and backward chains. Have

him/her list several behaviors/skills that

they would use for each type of chaining

procedure and why they chose that

method.

• Have supervisee create a task analysis

procedure for a skill they can demon-

strate in the group supervision setting.

Have him/her model the training proce-

dure. Finally, have him/her role play be-

ing a teacher and the supervisor being the

student as they demonstrate the steps of

their task analysis chain.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 435-453, 589.

82 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Catania, A.C. (1998). Learning (4th Ed.), Up-

per Saddle River, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

44, 82, 124, 380.

Libby, M.E., Weiss, J.S., Bancroft, S., &

Ahearn, W.A. (2008).A comparison of

most-to-least and least-to-most prompt-

ing on the acquisition of solitary play

skills. Behavior Analytic Practices, 1, 1, 37-

43.

Kayser J. E, Billingsley F. F, & Neel R. S.

(1986). A comparison of in-context and

traditional instructional approaches: To-

tal task, single trial versus backward

chaining, multiple trials. Journal of the As-

sociation for the Severely Handicapped. 11,

28–38.

Spooner F. (1984). Comparisons of backward

chaining and total task presentation in

training severely handicapped per-

sons. Education and Training of the Mentally

Retarded. 19, 15–22.

Reynolds, G.S. (1975). A primer of operant condi-

tioning (Rev. Ed.) Glenview, IL.:. Scott,

Foresman.

McWilliams, R., Nietupski, J., & Hamre-

Nietupski, S. (1990). Teaching complex

activities to students with moderate

handicaps through the forward chaining

of shorter total cycle response se-

quences. Education and Training in Mental

Retardation, 25, 3, 292-298.

Test, D.W., Spooner, F., Keul, P.K., & Grossi,

T. (1990). Teaching adolescents with se-

vere disability to use the public tele-

phone. Behavior Modification, 14, 157-171.

Snell, M.E. & Brown, F. (2006). Instruction of

students with severe disabilities (6th ed.) Up-

per Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

A-07: Measure trials to criterion.

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.

D-05: Use shaping.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

J-03: Select intervention strategies based on

task analysis.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 83

D-07 Conduct Task Analyses

Definition:

Task analysis - “The process of breaking a

complex skill into smaller, teachable units, or

the product of which is a series of sequentially

ordered steps or tasks” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 706).

A task analysis can be taught using any of the

following chaining procedures:

• Forward chaining - behaviors are

taught in sequential order; reinforce-

ment would occur once criteria for first

behavior in the task analysis is achieved

• Backward chaining – all steps in the

task analysis are done by trainer except

for the final behavior; reinforcement

would occur once criteria for last be-

havior in chain is achieved. Subse-

quent teaching trials would involve

providing reinforcement after the

next-to-last behavior is achieved, etc.

• Backward chaining with leaps- similar

to backwards chaining, however, some

steps are in the task analysis are not

taught, and perhaps just probed in or-

der to decrease the total amount of

time spent teaching a skill. If there are

some behaviors in the task analysis are

mastered, a trainer could “leap” ahead

a few steps to allow for more inde-

pendence and maintenance of previ-

ously acquired skills.

• Total task presentation – prompting

would occur at any point in the task

analysis when a person is unable to

complete any part of steps inde-

pendently.

Examples:

• Accessing an iPhone 6

1. Press home key (circle)

2. Slide finger across bottom of

screen, from left to right, over

text that reads “slide to unlock”

3. Enter passcode

• Washing a cup

1. Turn on tap

2. Pick up sponge and put dish

soap on sponge

3. Put down dish soap

4. Pick up dirty cup, scrub outside

rim, sides, and base of cup with

sponge

5. Scrub inside, base, and rim of

cup with sponge

6. Put sponge down

7. Rinse cup with warm water

8. Place cup in drainboard

9. Rinse excess soap out of sponge

10. Turn off tap

11. Put sponge in holder/in sink

Assessment

• Ask your Supervisee to create a task

analysis for a technology related task

(e.g. faxing, scanning, etc.).

• Ask your Supervisee to create a task

analysis for eating with a utensil.

• Have Supervisee create a task analy-

sis on a skill that can be observed on

the job. Once complete, have Super-

visee observe an individual complet-

ing the task. Supervisee should make

note of any differences in sequences

of behavior or steps.

• Have Supervisee follow a task analy-

sis for a task they are not familiar

with.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis.

Resnick, L. B., Wang, M. C., & Kaplan, J.

(1973). Task analysis in curriculum de-

sign: a hierarchically sequenced intro-

ductory mathematics curriculum. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6(4), 679-

709.

Bancroft, S. L., Weiss, J. S., Libby, M. E., &

Ahearn, W. H. (2011). A comparison of

procedural variations in teaching behav-

ior chains: Manual guidance, trainer

84 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

completion, and no completion of un-

trained steps. Journal of applied behavior

analysis, 44(3), 559-569.

Jerome, J., Frantino, E. P., & Sturmey, P.

(2007). The effects of errorless learning

and backward chaining on the acquisi-

tion of internet skills in adults with de-

velopmental disabilities. Journal of applied

behavior analysis, 40(1), 185-189.

Slocum, S. K., & Tiger, J. H. (2011). An as-

sessment of the efficiency of and child

preference for forward and backward

chaining. Journal of applied behavior analysis,

44(4), 793-805.

Related Lessons:

D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading

D-05 Use shaping

D-06 Use chaining

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 85

D-08 Use discrete-trials and free-operant

arrangements

Definitions:

Free operant - " behaviors that have discrete

beginning and ending points, require minimal

displacement of the organism in time and

space, can be emitted at nearly any time, do

not require much time for completion, and

can be emitted over a wide range of response

rates.” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

696)

Rate of responding is typically used to meas-

ure behavior considered to be free operant.

Rate of responding is typically used because it

uses count per unit of time. (i.e., a person can

type 50 words per minute). However, rate of

responding is not typically used to measure

behavior that occurs within discrete trials.

These responses can occur only within limited

or restricted situations.

Discrete trial responses include responses to

flash cards, answering teacher’s questions, and

choosing an answer from an array.

Discrete trial- “Any operant whose response

rate is controlled by a given opportunity to

emit the response. Each discrete response oc-

curs when an opportunity to respond exists”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 694).

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create a simple dis-

crete trial program to teach a skill.

Have him/her run conduct a trial us-

ing this program and identify the

parts of a discrete trial.

• Have supervisee identify the differ-

ences between a discrete trial and a

free operant trial. Have him/her list

pros and cons for each method.

• Have supervisee identify what type

of measurement procedures and

data you would take for free operant

trials as well as discrete trials. Have

him/her describe why they would

use that measurement system for

each.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 77-78, chapters 11-23, 25-

28.

Otto, J. (2003). Discrete trial procedures vs.

free-operant procedures. Retrieved

from http://old.dickmalott.com/stu-

dents/undergradprogram/psy3600/dis-

crete_vs_free.html.

Malott, R.W., & Trojan, E.A. (2003). Principles

of Behavior. (5th Ed.), Upper Saddle River,

NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. Chapter 17.

Mazur, J.E. (2002). Learning and Behavior (5th

Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

A-01: Measure frequency (i.e., count).

A-02: Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).

A-07: Measure trials to criterion.

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

E-12: Use errorless learning procedures.

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, inter-re-

sponse time).

86 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-09 Use the verbal operants as a basis for

language assessment

In the field of applied behavior analysis exten-

sive research has been done on the develop-

ment of verbal behavior.

“Verbal behavior involves social interac-

tions between speakers and listeners, whereby

speakers gain access to reinforcement and

control their environment through the behav-

ior of listeners” (Sundberg as cited in Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 529). Verbal op-

erants are the basic units of this exchange.

In 1957 B.F. Skinner identified six elemen-

tary verbal operants in his book on Verbal Be-

havior. These included mands, tacts, in-

traverbals, echoics, textuals, and transcription.

“Skinner’s analysis suggests that a complete

verbal repertoire is composed of each of the

different elementary operants, and separate

speaker and listener repertoires” (Sundberg as

cited in Cooper, et al., 2007, p. 541).

Since Skinner described these operants,

those in the field have applied these concepts

to both language assessment and training. In

order to evaluate whether or not specific lan-

guage training is necessary, a variety of stand-

ardized tools have been used to test an indi-

vidual’s receptive and expressive language

abilities. These include but are not limited to:

the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test III

(Dunn & Dunn, 1997), the Comprehensive

Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test

(Hammill & Newcomer, 1997), the Assess-

ment of Basic Language and Learning Skills

(ABLLS) (Partington & Sundberg, 1998), the

Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and

Placement Program (VB-MAPP) and the

CELF-4 Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003).

Not all of these tests will identify deficits in

one or more of the verbal operants Some chil-

dren who may be proficient in tacting (such as

labeling things in their environment such as

letters and numbers) may fail to make appro-

priate mands for desired items (Cooper, et al.,

2007). In this case it is important for behavior

analysts to use a combination of approaches

or less standardized methods to assess these

needs. It may be helpful to observe the indi-

vidual in their natural environment and take

data on their verbal interactions. It will be im-

portant to ask questions such as:

• What is the frequency of and com-

plexity of mands?

• What it the frequency and complex-

ity of tacting behavior?

• Will the child or individual demon-

strate echoic behavior when

prompted?

• Does the child or individual engage

in intraverbal behavior with known

caregivers?

• Can or will the child or individual

read words that are written down for

him?

• Can or will the child or individual

write down words that are said to

him?

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to name the basic

unit of language

• Ask the supervisee to name all 6 of

the elementary verbal operants

• Ask the supervisee to name some of

the standardized tests often used to

assess language

• Ask the supervisee to explain why

these standardized tests may not

provide adequate information

• Ask the supervisee to describe how

one might assess an individual’s use

of verbal operants if testing fails to

yield enough information.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E., Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Hammill, D., & Newcomer, P.L. (1997). Test

of language development-3. Austin, TX: Pro-

Ed.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 87

Partington, J. W., & Sundberg, M. L. (1998).

Assessment of basic language and learning

skills. (The ABLLS): An assessment for lan-

guage delayed students.

Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts,

Inc.

Semel, E, Wiig, E. H. & Second, W A. (2003)

Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals,

fourth edition (CELF-4). Toronto, Canada:

The Psychological Corporation/A Harcourt

Assessment Company.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behaior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Sundberg, M. L. (2008) Verbal behavior mile-

stones assessment and placement program: The

VB-MAPP. Concord, CA: AVB Press.

Sundberg, M.L. & Partington, J.W. (1998).

Teaching language to children with autism or

other developmental disabilities. Pleasant Hill,

CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.

Related Lessons:

D-10 Use echoic training.

D-11 Use mand training.

D-12 Use tact training.

D-13 Use intraverbal training.

D-14 Use listener training.

FK-43 Echoics

FK-44 Mands

FK-45 Tacts

FK-46 Intraverbals

88 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-10 Use Echoic Training

Echoics are units of verbal behavior that are,

“evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus

that has point-to point correspondence and

formal similarity with the response” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2014, p. 694).

Repeating words, phrases, or other auditory

verbal units is common for all speakers in day-

to-day speech (Sundberg, 2008).

Echoic training, sometimes referred to as vo-

cal imitation training, is a procedure in which

a caregiver or teacher emits a sound and a lis-

tener echoes or repeats what has been said

(Skinner, 1957). Reinforcement (either social,

tangible or other) is often delivered after the

correct utterance is given.

Echoic training can be used to teach a variety

of skills such as:

• Mands-such as when you give a child

a full verbal model of the appropri-

ate way to ask for another cup of

milk “I want milk” and he repeats

this phrase.

• Tacts- such as telling a classroom full

of Spanish students that the word

for dog is “perro” and asking them

to repeat this word back to you.

• Intraverbal behavior- such as an ele-

mentary school teaching modeling

the fill in of the word “star” after

saying “Twinkle, twinkle little

______” and pausing (Skinner,

1957).

When using echoic training, the trainer

should:

1. Deliver the verbal discriminative

stimulus (the word, sound or phrase

you intend them to repeat).

2. Provide positive reinforcement for

responses that have point-to-point

similarity to the target response.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state what ech-

oic training can be used to teach.

• Ask the supervisee to give examples

of echoic training.

• Ask the supervisee to discuss how

echoic training should be delivered.

Relevant Literature:

Drash, P. W., High, R. L., & Tudor, R. M.

(1999). Using mand training to establish

an echoic repertoire in young children

with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behav-

ior, 16, 29–44.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2014).

Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson.

Kodak, T., & Clements, A. (2009). Acquisition

of Mands and Tacts with Concurrent

Echoic Training. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 42(4), 839–843.

Mirenda, P. (2008). A Comparison of Stimu-

lus-Stimulus Pairing, Standard Echoic

Training, and Control Procedures on

the Vocal Behavior of Children with

Autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,

24(1), 123–133.

Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal Behavior Mile-

stones Assessment and Placement Program.

Concorde, CA: AVB Press

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.

FK-43 Echoics

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 89

D-11 Use Mand Training

Mands are important in the development of

language in children. The development of a

mands allows an individual to communicate

their wants and needs, including basic needs

such as food and water, to those around them.

When an early learner fails to develop a mand

repertoire, they may not be able to effectively

communicate with others and may not be able

to access these reinforcers. This can lead to

frustration, learned helplessness, or a variety

of other maladaptive behaviors such aggres-

sion, self-injurious behavior social withdrawal

or tantrums (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007).

When mands fail to develop typically, it is cru-

cial begin language training. Cooper, Heron

and Heward (2007) suggest teaching mands

before all other types of verbal behavior as

manding allows an individual to gain access to

their wants and needs. During early training a

variety of mands should be taught so that the

child learns to differentiate their response

based on their current needs and MO. Instruc-

tors should focus on teaching bids for edibles

and tangibles before making other requests.

Sundberg & Partington (1998) suggest that

teachers should use a combination of

“prompting, fading and differential reinforce-

ment to transfer control from stimulus varia-

bles to motivative variables” (as cited in

Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 541). It

is important that both the echoic prompt and

the non-verbal stimulus be faded out for

mand training to be effective.

When using mand training, the trainer should:

1. Establish a likely MO (motivating op-

eration). This may be done formally

through preference assessment proce-

dures or more informally through ob-

servations or caregiver report. It is im-

portant that a child be motivated to

make a request for mand training to be

effective. Note: It may be helpful to ensure

that a reinforcer has been withheld prior to

training to ensure that it is potent. For in-

stance a child who has just recently eaten is

not as likely to be motivated to request food.

2. Enrich the environment with potential

reinforcers (things that the child gen-

erally seems to prefer such as foods

and toys).

3. Wait for the child to initiate or show

interest in the non-verbal stimulus (the

child reaches for an item, emits some

sort of vocalization, points to it, etc.).

4. Use an echoic prompt to label the non-

verbal stimulus. Successively reinforce

closer and closer approximations to

the target verbal response and follow

with specific reinforcement (the re-

quested item).

5. Once the client is able to imitate the

verbal model in the presence of the

stimulus, gradually fade out the echoic

prompt to establish the response “un-

der the multiple control of the MO and

the nonverbal stimulus” Sundberg, as

cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, pp. 541-542).

6. Finally the presentation of the non-

verbal stimulus should also be faded

out so that the response is only under

the control of the MO. This helps to

ensure that the individual can make the

request regardless of whether or not

the item is physically present within

the environment.

7. Gradually increase the verbal require-

ment over time so that the child is

making more complex and specific re-

quests (“I want the chocolate

cookie.”).

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state what

mand training can be used to teach.

• Ask the supervisee to give examples

of mand training.

• Ask the supervisee to state why it is

important to fade the non-verbal

stimulus and the echoic prompt.

90 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Drash, P. W., High, R. L., & Tudor, R. M.

(1999). Using mand training to establish

an echoic repertoire in young children

with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behav-

ior, 16, 29–44.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Sundberg, M. L., Loeb, M., Hail, L., &

Eigenheer, P. (2002). Contriving estab-

lishing operations to teach mands for in-

formation. The Analysis of Verbal Be-

havior, 18, 14-28

Sundberg, M.L., & Partington, J.W. (1998).

Teaching language to children with autism or

other developmental disabilities. Pleasant

Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.

Related Lessons:

FK-44 Mands

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 91

D-12 Use Tact Training

Practitioners may use a variety of techniques

to teach language when working with clients.

Tact training is one such technique in which a

consumer may be taught to label “objects, ac-

tions, properties of objects and actions, prep-

ositional relations, abstractions, private

events, and so on” (Sundberg as cited in

Cooper, Howard, & Heron, 2007, p. 544).

“The goal of teaching is to bring a verbal re-

sponse under nonverbal stimulus control”

(Sundberg as cited in Cooper, Howard, &

Heron, 2007, p.544).

Initially, a practitioner pairs a nonverbal stim-

ulus (such as snow falling outside of one’s

window) with an echoic model “snow.” The

imitation of this verbal model is differentially

reinforced. Over time this echoic is faded out

so that only the presence of the nonverbal

stimulus (the snow) sets the occasion for the

consumer to label “snow” in the absence of a

verbal model. A time delay procedure, in

which the practitioner gradually delays the

presentation of the echoic model after the

nonverbal stimulus appears, may be helpful in

fading out the verbal model.

When using tact training, the trainer should:

1. Ensure that the listener is attending.

Make sure that they are looking in

your direction, are making eye con-

tact and that the environment isn’t

too noisy or distracting.

2. Pair the presentation of nonverbal

stimulus that you would like to train

with an echoic model.

3. Pause to allow the listener to process

the information and wait for a re-

sponse.

4. Provide differential reinforcement

for responses that are closer and

closer approximations to the verbal

model. Note: It may be difficult to differ-

entially reinforce the tacting of events that

cannot be shared by both instructor and stu-

dent, such as private events like pain, as the

instructor may not be able to adequately

able to label them (Cooper, Howard, &

Heron, 2007). For this reason it is rec-

ommended that initial tact training be done

with objects or actions that can be directly

observed.

5. Once the client is able to imitate the

verbal model in the presence of the

stimulus, gradually fade out the ver-

bal model so that only the stimulus

itself sets the occasion for the re-

sponse.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state what tact

training can be used to teach.

• Ask the supervisee to give examples

of tact training.

• Ask the supervisee to discuss how

tact training should be delivered.

• Ask the supervisee to state how the

verbal model can be successfully

faded out.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The

value of Skinner’s analysis of verbal be-

havior for teaching children with autism.

Behavior Modification, 25, 698-724.

Sundberg, M.L.,& Partington, J.W. (1998).

Teaching language to children with autism or

other developmental disabilities. Pleasant

Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.

Related Lessons:

D-12 Use Tact Training

FK-45 Tacts

92 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-13 Use Intraverbal Training

“Many children with autism, developmental

disabilities, or other language delays suffer

from defective or nonexistent intraverbal rep-

ertoires, even though some can emit hundreds

of mands, tacts, and receptive responses”

(Sundberg, as cited in Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 545).

Although typically developing children gener-

ally acquire this type of language on their own,

some learners may not acquire this type of lan-

guage without specific training in the skill. In

such cases, intraverbal training may be recom-

mended. Prior to starting intraverbal training,

the learner must have a acquired a variety of

pre-requisite skills such as being able to mand,

tact, engage in echoic behavior or imitation, to

receptively identify stimuli, and to do match

to sample tasks (Sundberg & Partington,

1998). The goal is not to teach new language,

but to bring words or phrases that are cur-

rently under nonverbal stimulus control en-

tirely under verbal stimulus control (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007). For instance, a

child who has previously learned to tact or

echo the word “cow” when they see a picture

of a cow, may learn to then say “cow” when

his teacher has asked, “What says moo?”

It is recommended that simple intraverbal in-

teractions that are appropriate to the child’s

developmental age be taught before more

complicated responses. Fill in the blank rela-

tions are often the easiest to teach first

(Cooper et al., 2007). For instance, a learner

may be taught to fill in the word “star” after

someone has delivered the line “Twinkle,

twinkle little _______.” A teacher may start

by using visual stimuli and then gradually fade

out these prompts as the child is successful so

that only the verbal stimulus is presented.

Since intraverbal behavior is reinforced by

generalized conditioned reinforcement (i.e.,

social reinforcement via praise, eye contact,

body language, etc.) it may be challenging to

motivate some students initially to engage in

the desired response. Trainers may need to

initially pair specific reinforcement (such as a

crayon after the child has responded “crayon”

when asked, “What do you color with?”) ini-

tially and then fade this over time (Cooper et

al., 2007).

Varying both the verbal stimuli and the verbal

responses over time will help to strengthen

these responses (Cooper et al., 2007). For in-

stance a child who has learned to respond

“bear” when asked, “What is your favorite

toy?” may then learn to respond with more

complexity such as “blue bear” or “my blue

bear with the purple hat.” The teacher can

also vary the verbal prompt such as asking,

“What toy do you like the most?” which is

simply another way of phrasing “what is your

favorite toy,” and is a part of the same stimu-

lus class.

When using intraverbal training, the trainer

should:

1. Be sure that the desired verbal re-

sponses are already in the child’s or

individual’s repertoire

2. Ensure that the listener is attending.

Make sure that they are looking in

your direction, are making eye con-

tact and that the environment isn’t

too noisy or distracting.

3. Deliver the verbal stimulus (i.e. “The

itsy bitsy _______.”) and pause. In-

itially pair the verbal response with a

nonverbal stimulus that can be faded

out over time (such as a picture of a

spider or spider puppet).

4. Provide reinforcement for correct

responding. Specific reinforcement

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 93

such as providing edibles, access to

the spider puppet, etc. should be

faded over time so that social rein-

forcement becomes the reinforcing

consequence.

5. Once simple intraverbal relations

have been established, teach the

child to respond to variations to the

verbal stimulus (“Who went up the

water spout?”) or respond with

more complexity.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state what in-

traverbal training can be used to

teach.

• Ask the supervisee to state the pre-

requisite skills that are needed to

teach intraverbal behavior.

• Ask the supervisee to give examples

of intraverbal training.

• Ask the supervisee to discuss how

intraverbal training should be deliv-

ered.

• Ask the supervisee to state why non-

verbal stimuli should be faded out.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Partington, J. W., & Bailey, J. S. (1993). Teach-

ing intraverbal behavior to preschool

children. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,

11, 9–18.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Sundberg, M.L. & Partington, J.W. (1998).

Teaching language to children with autism or

other developmental disabilities. Pleasant

Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.

Vedora, J., Meunier, L., & Mackay, H. (2009).

Teaching Intraverbal Behavior to Chil-

dren with Autism: A Comparison of

Textual and Echoic Prompts. The Anal-

ysis of Verbal Behavior, 25(1), 79–86.

Related Lessons:

D-13 Use Intraverbal Training

FK-46 Intraverbals

94 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-14 Use listener training

Definition:

Listener – “someone who provides rein-

forcement for verbal behavior” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 698)

Part of being involved in a verbal community

is reinforcing the behavior of speakers. There

are several methods for training someone to

respond as a listener. Skills such as vocal imi-

tation (echoic), following instructions, an-

swering questions (intraverbal), conversation

skills (intraverbal), indicating objects, etc., all

require listener behavior.

Sundberg discusses a distinction between in-

traverbal and listener responding. “If the

child’s response were verbal, then it would

classified as intraverbal... but if the response

were nonverbal it would be classified as lis-

tener behavior (or often termed receptive lan-

guage or receptive labeling)” (Sundberg, 2008,

pp. 11-12).

There are multiple protocols for receptive lan-

guage training (cf., Fabrizio & Moors, 2001;

Leaf & McEachin, 1999; Lovaas, 2003; Mau-

rice, Green, & Luce, 1996). In a review of

teaching receptive language to children with

autism, Pelios and Sucharzewski (2004) point

out that one must consider antecedent manip-

ulations (e.g., within-stimulus prompts, keep-

ing stimulus short, using topographically dis-

similar responses) and consequence manipu-

lations (e.g., rich reinforcement schedules, to-

ken economies, performance based breaks).

Also, they recommend systematically pro-

gramming specific antecedent and conse-

quence manipulations and requiring specific

response requirements.

Examples:

• A teacher conducting receptive lan-

guage training tells her student “sit

down” the student sits down and the

teacher praises the student. The

teacher then says “clap hands” the

student claps hands and the teacher

praises the student.

• A teacher presents an array of fruit

and says to the student, “give me the

apple.” The student gives the teacher

the apple and the teacher gives the

student a token.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee read relevant litera-

ture on receptive language/listener

training.

• Role play with your supervisee

teacher (speaker) and student (lis-

tener) examples of receptive lan-

guage training protocols.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Fabrizio, M. S. (2001). A Brief Overview of Flu-

ency-Based Instruction for Learners with Au-

tism. Fabrizio/Moors Consulting, Seat-

tle, Washington.

Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (1999). A work in pro-

gress: Behavior management strategies and a

curriculum for intensive behavioral treatment of

autism. New York: DRL Books, LLC.

Lovaas, O. I. (2003). Teaching individuals with de-

velopmental delays: Basic intervention tech-

niques. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Maurice C, Green G, Luce S, editors. Behav-

ioral intervention for young children

with autism: A manual for parents and

professionals. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed;

1996.

Pelios, L. V., & Sucharzewski, A. (2004).

Teaching receptive language to children

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 95

with autism: A selective overview. The

Behavior Analyst Today, 4(4), 378.

Schlinger, H. D. (2008). Listening Is Behaving

Verbally. The Behavior Analyst, 31(2),

145–161.

Sundberg, M. L. (2008). VB-MAPP Verbal

Behavior Milestones Assessment and

Placement Program: a language and so-

cial skills assessment program for chil-

dren with autism or other developmen-

tal disabilities: guide. Concord, CA:

AVB Press.

Related Lessons:

D-10 Use echoic training.

D-13 Use intraverbal training.

FK-43 Echoics

FK-44 Mands

FK-45 Tacts

FK-46 Intraverbals

96 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-15 Identify punishers

Definition:

Punisher – “A stimulus change that decreases

the future frequency of behavior that immedi-

ately precedes it” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 702).

Punishers can be categorized as uncondi-

tioned or conditioned. Unconditioned pun-

ishers, or unlearned punishers, are stimuli

whose presentation functions as punishment

without previous pairing with any other pun-

ishers. Such punishers consist of stimulation

such as pain, intense odors, visual stimulation,

taste, sound, or extreme temperatures

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Condi-

tioned punishers, or learned punishers, are

stimuli whose presentation has previously

been paired with an unconditioned punisher

or a previously conditioned punisher (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007). For example, if a

person eats yogurt and immediately gags or

vomits, yogurt may become a conditioned

aversive and thereby a conditioned punisher

by decreasing the behavior of eating yogurt

and possibly other food with a similar con-

sistency to yogurt. As the above examples of

conditioned and unconditioned punishers

show, the process of punishment is a naturally

occurring phenomenon that causes behavior

change. However, punishment procedures

can also be an effective means for decreasing

challenging behavior that is life threatening or

resistant to other forms of intervention in an

ethical manner. Iwata (1988) recommends

that behavior analysts view the use of punish-

ers as a default technology to be used when

other interventions have failed.

Regarding the selection of a punisher to use in

an intervention, it is important to note that

punishers are idiosyncratic. A punisher for

one person maybe a reinforcer for someone

else, and perhaps a neutral stimulus to an-

other. For this reason, a punisher assessment

can assist in identifying stimuli that will likely

function as punishers by measuring avoidance

and escape behavior following the presenta-

tion with each stimulus (Fisher et al., 1994).

Once potential punishers have been identified

there are some factors to consider when

choosing a stimulus to use in the treatment of

challenging behavior. Research has indicated

that the magnitude, or amount of the pun-

isher, should be delivered at the optimum

level at the outset of the intervention (Azrin

& Holz, 1966; Thompson et al., 1999). Fur-

thermore, in keeping with ethical considera-

tions the selection of the least intrusive pun-

isher(s) is recommended. Typically intrusive-

ness is outlined by hierarchically arranging in-

terventions according to the degree to which

the intervention limits individual freedom, in-

trudes into the child’s life, or produces dis-

comfort, pain, or distress (Luiselli, 2008). Pair-

ing procedures may be beneficial in assisting

with the identification of less intrusive punish-

ers by establishing less intrusive conditioned

punishers (Vorndran & Lerman, 2006).

Lastly, it should be noted that Lerman and

Vorndran (2002) highlighted the need for fur-

ther basic and applied research on punish-

ment due to a need for identifying strategies

to enhance the effectiveness of least intrusive

punishment procedures.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to give examples of

an unconditioned punisher

• Ask supervisee to give examples of a

conditioned punisher

• Ask supervisee to identify ethical

considerations regarding the use of

punishment and selecting punishers

• Ask supervisee to list the character-

istics that should be considered

when selecting a punisher

Relevant Literature:

Azrin, N. H., & Holz, W. C. (1966). Punish-

ment. Operant behavior: Areas of research

and application, 380-447.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 97

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., BowMAN, L. G.,

Kurtz, P. F., Sherer, M. R., & Lachman,

S. R. (1994). A preliminary evaluation of

empirically derived consequences for

the treatment of pica. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 27(3), 447-457.

Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and

adoption of controversial default tech-

nologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 149.

Lerman, D. C., & Vorndran, C. M. (2002). On

the status of knowledge for using pun-

ishment: Implications for treating be-

havior disorders. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 35(4), 431-464.

Luiselli, J. K. (Ed.). (2008). Effective practices for

children with autism: Educational and behav-

ior support interventions that work. Oxford

University Press.

Thompson, R. H., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &

Roscoe, E. M. (1999). Effects of rein-

forcement for alternative behavior dur-

ing punishment of self-injury. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(3), 317.

Vorndran, C. M., & Lerman, D. C. (2006). Es-

tablishing and maintaining treatment ef-

fects with less intrusive consequences

via a pairing procedure. Journal of applied

behavior analysis, 39(1), 35-48.

Related Lessons:

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment.

J-02 Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

FK-19 Unconditioned punishment

FK-20 Conditioned punishment

FK-21 Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

FK-23 Automatic reinforcement and punish-

ment

98 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-16 Use positive and negative punish-

ment

Definitions:

Punishment - "Occurs when stimulus

change immediately follows a response

and decreases the future frequency of that

type of behavior in similar conditions”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 702).

Positive Punishment: "A behavior is fol-

lowed immediately by the presentation of a

stimulus that decreases the future frequency

of the behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 701).*

Example: Albert is learning to drive. Albert

drives fast and speeds along the highway. His

mother provides a firm reprimand directly fol-

lowing the speeding. Albert no longer speeds

when his mother is in the car.

Negative Punishment -"A…behavior is fol-

lowed immediately by the removal of a stimu-

lus (or a decrease in the intensity of the stim-

ulus), that decreases the future frequency of

similar responses under similar conditions"

(Cooper Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 700). *

Example: Albert is learning to drive. Albert

drives fast and speeds along the highway. His

mother removes Albert’s driving privilege for

a week following the speeding. Albert no

longer speeds.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee what the behavioral

process behind “time-out” is.

• Ask your supervisee to create an example

of both positive and negative punishment

• Ask supervisee to explain the difference

between negative reinforcement and neg-

ative punishment

• Have the supervisee provide labels in the

boxes

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior

Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor &

Francis.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion. Pearson Education, Inc.

Foxx, R. M. (1982). Decreasing behaviors of severely

retarded and autistic persons. Champaign, IL:

Research Press.

Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J. E.,

Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas, O. I.

(1988). The right to effective behavioral

treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 21(4), 381-384.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditioned reinforcers and punishers

G-07 Practice within one's limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased

FK-19 Unconditioned punishment

FK 20 Conditioned punishment

Footnotes:

Alternatively Fox (1982) described positive

and negative punishment as Type I punish-

ment (contingent stimulation) and Type II

punishment (contingent withdrawal of a stim-

ulus).

An emphasis on the ethical considerations of

using punishment should be introduced when

punishment is first discussed.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 99

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and

schedules of punishment

Definitions:

Punishment - "Occurs when stimulus

change immediately follows a response and

decreases the future frequency of that type of

behavior in similar conditions" (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 702).*

Legislation and agency policies limit the use of

punishment. Lerman and Vorndran (2002)

suggested that punishment may be considered

if:

1. The challenging behavior produces

serious physical harm and has to be

suppressed quickly

2. Reinforcement based treatments

have not reduced the problem be-

havior to socially acceptable levels or

3. The reinforcer maintaining the chal-

lenging behavior cannot be identi-

fied or withheld

BACB Labels specific considerations regard-

ing punishment in the ethical guideline 4.08:

4.08 Considerations Regarding Punish-

ment Procedures:

(a) Behavior analysts recommend rein-

forcement rather than punishment whenever

possible.

(b) If punishment procedures are neces-

sary, behavior analysts always include rein-

forcement procedures for alternative behavior

in the behavior-change program.

based procedures, behavior analysts ensure

that appropriate steps

have been taken to implement reinforcement-

based procedures unless the severity or dan-

gerousness of the behavior necessitates imme-

diate use of aversive procedures.

(d) Behavior analysts ensure that aversive pro-

cedures are accompanied by an increased level

of training, supervision, and oversight. Behav-

ior analysts must evaluate the effectiveness of

aversive procedures in a timely manner and

modify the behavior-change program if it is

ineffective. Behavior analysts always include a

plan to discontinue the use of aversive proce-

dures when no longer needed. (BACB, 2014,

pp.12-13)

Ethical Considerations Related to Punish-

ment as outlined by Cooper, Heron, and

Heward (2007):

1. The right to safe and humane treat-

ment

2. Least restrictive alternative

3. Right to effective treatment

Appropriate Use of Punishment as outlined

by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007):

1. Conduct a functional assessment

2. Attempt reinforcement based strate-

gies (behavior as above does not

reach socially acceptable levels)

3. Conduct punisher assessment

4. Ensure informed consent is given

5. Include reinforcement based strate-

gies with punishment procedures

6. Ensure all staff are trained in the

procedure and monitored closely

7. Use punishers of sufficient quality

and magnitude

8. Use varied punishers

9. Deliver punisher at the beginning of

a behavioral sequence

10. Punish each instance of the behavior

Initially

11. Shift to intermittent schedule gradu-

ally

12. If delay in punishment use media-

tion

13. Supplement punishment with com-

plementary interventions

14. Be prepared for negative side effects

15. Collect data, graph and evaluate daily

16. Discontinue procedure if a decrease

in behavior is not observed

Assessment:

• Provide scenarios in which clients

would not qualify for a punishment

procedure (e.g., behavior does not

100 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

cause physical harm, reinforcement

based strategies have not been at-

tempted, or consent was not ob-

tained.)

• Ask Supervisee to list the four con-

siderations the BACB lists when

considering punishment

• Ask the Supervisee to list the side ef-

fects of punishment

• Ask the Supervisee to outline the

recommendation for a client who

had been receiving a punishment

procedure for 2 months and head

hitting remained consistent at 10

times a day. (should discontinue)

• Have the supervisee list all of the

things that must happen prior to a

punishment procedure beginning

(functional assessment, reinforce-

ment based program ineffective,

consent obtained, staff trained)

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd

Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.

Foxx, R. M. (1982). Decreasing behaviors of severely

retarded and autistic persons. Champaign,

IL: Research Press.

Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J.

E., Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas,

O. I. (1988). The right to effective be-

havioral treatment. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 21(4), 381-384.

Lerman, D. C., & Vorndran, C. M. (2002). On

the status of knowledge for using pun-

ishment: Implications for treating be-

havior disorders. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 35(4), 431-464.

Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and

adoption of controversial default tech-

nologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11(2), 149.

Related Lessons:

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment

D-15 Identify punishers

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditional reinforcers and punishers

G-07 Practice within one's limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased

FK-19 Unconditioned punishment

FK 20 Conditioned punishment

FK 21 Schedules of reinforceement and pun-

ishment

FK 38 Behavioral contrast

Footnotes

• Positive punishment may also be de-

scribed as a type of aversive control.

Negative side effects include: emo-

tional or aggressive reactions, behav-

ioral contrast, escape and avoidance

of the punisher, modeling of inap-

propriate behavior and the overuse

associated with negative reinforce-

ment of the person presenting the

punisher (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 101

D-18 Use Extinction

Extinction “involves eliminating the rein-

forcement contingency maintaining a re-

sponse” and has “been used successfully to re-

duce the frequency of a variety of behavioral

disorders” (Lerman & Iwata, 1995, p. 93). To

use it effectively, determine the reinforcer and

prevent the behavior from contacting rein-

forcement. Extinction occurs when the be-

havior no longer produces reinforcement

such as:

• Social Positive

• Social Negative

• Automatic reinforcement

Extinction may have unwanted side effects:

1. Extinction bursts

2. Initial increases in target behavior as

the individual engages in an increased

rate of behavior to access previous re-

inforcers

3. Extinction-induced aggression

4. Increased unwanted novel behavior

To use extinction effectively, withhold all

reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior

and provide frequent opportunities for the in-

dividual’s behavior to contact new reinforce-

ment contingencies (e.g. problem behavior no

longer produces reinforcement while replace-

ment behavior produces does produce rein-

forcement). It may not work if the client ag-

gresses for attention (e.g., response blocking

may reinforce aggression).

Extinction is not advised in environments

where peers are likely to imitate problem be-

haviors (e.g., classroom settings). Use of ex-

tinction for severe aggression or self-injury

behaviors may result in harm to client or

peers. Extinction is not selected to manage se-

verely disruptive high-frequency behavior.

Do not use extinction as a singular inter-

vention. Unwanted effects of extinction are

reduced when coupled with differential rein-

forcement strategies (Athens & Vollmer,

2010).

Example:

Teach client to raise hand for attention (dif-

ferential reinforcement strategy) while putting

spitting for attention on extinction. Give cli-

ent access to previous reinforcers to minimize

aversive effects of extinction.

Assessment:

• Provide hypothetical scenarios and have

supervisee determine what type of ex-

tinction procedure should be utilized

and what appropriate replacement be-

havior should be reinforced.

• Have supervisee explain 3 scenarios in

which extinction should not be utilized.

• Have supervisee describe additional

treatment components which can in-

crease the efficacy of treatment.

Relevant Literature:

Lerman, D.C., & Iwata, B.A., (1995). Preva-

lence of the extinction burst and its at-

tenuation during treatment. Journal of

Applied Behavioral Analysis, 28(1), 93-94.

Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An in-

vestigation of differential reinforcement

of alternative behavior without extinc-

tion. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis,

43(4), 569-589.

Related Lessons:

C-03 State and plan for unwanted effects of

extinction

D-18. Use Extinction.

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints

J-09 Identify and address practical and ethical

considerations when using experimental de-

signs to demonstrate program effectiveness.

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

102 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

A guideline for using extinction effectively is

the simultaneous use of reinforcement proce-

dures. Extinction used alone may result in a

temporary increase in the target behavior

known as extinction burst (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007). Teaching an alternative be-

havior may decrease the extinction burst ef-

fects and other possible side effects such as

aggressive behavior (Lerman, Iwata, & Wal-

lace, 1999). Similarly, several studies have

found that differential reinforcement proce-

dures are most effective when used in con-

junction with extinction (e.g., Fisher, Piazza,

Cataldo, Harrell, Jefferson, & Conner, 1993;

Hagopian, Fisher, Sullivan, Acquisto, & Le-

Blanc, 1998; Piazza, Patel, Gulotta, Sevin, &

Layer, 2002). Using extinction with differen-

tial reinforcement ensures that concurrent ac-

cess to reinforcement for inappropriate be-

havior is not favored, thereby increasing the

likelihood of allocation to the alternative be-

havior targeted for increase.

Likewise, punishment procedures are most

effective when used in conjunction with rein-

forcement-based procedures (Millenson,

1967). The main rationale for use of rein-

forcement with punishment procedures is that

punishment is considered an intrusive treat-

ment procedure. In addition, punishment pro-

cedures do not teach the individual any appro-

priate skills. Teaching appropriate skills helps

to solve these problems. Reinforcing an alter-

native behavior makes it more likely that pun-

ishment procedures can then be faded out as

the appropriate behavior replaces the inappro-

priate behavior. A study conducted by Holz,

Azrin and Ayllon (1963) even found that pun-

ishment was ineffective without the use of re-

inforcement contingencies. Several studies

have illustrated the benefits of using rein-

forcement in conjunction with punishment

procedures (e.g., Fisher et al., 1993; Hagopian

et al., 1998; Thompson, Iwata, Conners, &

Roscoe, 1999).

Assessment:

• Provide the supervisee with articles

from the relevant literature and discuss

the findings and their considerations for

clinical application.

• Ask the supervisee to list the problems

associates with using extinction proce-

dures alone

• Ask supervisee to list the benefits of us-

ing reinforcement based procedures

with extinction

• Ask the supervisee to list the problems

associates with using punishment proce-

dures alone

• Ask supervisee to list the benefits of us-

ing reinforcement based procedures

with punishment

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Fisher, W., Piazza, C., Cataldo, M., Harrell, R.,

Jefferson, G., & Conner, R. (1993).

Functional communication training

with and without extinction and punish-

ment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

26(1), 23–36.

Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., Sullivan, M.

T., Acquisto, J., & LeBlanc, L. A. (1998).

Effectiveness of functional communica-

tion training with and without extinction

and punishment: A summary of 21 inpa-

tient cases. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 31(2), 211-235.

Holz, W. C., Azrin, N. H., & Ayllon, T. (1963).

Elimination of behavior of mental pa-

tients by response-produced extinction.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Be-

havior, 6(3), 407.

Lerman, D. C., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.

(1999). Side effects of extinction: preva-

lence of bursting and aggression during

the treatment of self-injurious behavior.

Journal of applied behavior analysis, 32(1), 1-8.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 103

Millenson, J. R., & Leslie, J. C. (1967). Principles

of behavioral analysis (pp. 43-44). New

York: Macmillan.

Piazza, C. C., Patel, M. R., Gulotta, C. S., Se-

vin, B. M., & Layer, S. A. (2002). On the

relative contributions of positive rein-

forcement and escape extinction in the

treatment of food refusal. Journal of ap-

plied behavior analysis, 36(3), 309-324.

Thompson, R. H., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., &

Roscoe, E. M. (1999). Effects of rein-

forcement for alternative behavior dur-

ing punishment of self-injury. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(3), 317.

Related Lessons:

B-10 Conduct a component analysis to deter-

mine the effective components of an interven-

tion package.

C-01 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of reinforcement.

C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of punishment.

C-03 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of extinction.

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-15 Identify punishers.

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment.

D-18 Use extinction.

D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)

schedules of reinforcement (i.e., noncontin-

gent reinforcement).

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH).

I-06 Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

I-07 Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

J-02 Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

104 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

D-20 Use response-independent (time-based)

schedules of reinforcement (i.e., non-contin-

gent reinforcement)

Definition:

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) – “A pro-

cedure in which stimuli with known reinforcing

properties are presented on fixed-time (FT) or var-

iable time (VT) schedules completely independent

of behavior; often used as an antecedent interven-

tion to reduce problem behavior” (Cooper, Heron

& Heward, 2007, p. 700).

Noncontingent reinforcement is sometimes used in

applied research in an experimental design called

the NCR reversal technique. This design involves a

baseline phase, NCR phase (where a potential rein-

forcer is delivered on a fixed or variable time sched-

ule independent of the target behavior), and a

phase where the reinforcer is delivered contingent

on a set behavioral criteria. The phases are repeated

as necessary to indicate experimental control over

the dependent variable. The NCR and baseline

conditions function as a comparative measure to

validate the independent variable in these studies.

Differential reinforcement procedures may limit

access to reinforcement if appropriate behavior oc-

curs at low rates. NCR gives consistent access to

reinforcement.

Example:

A DRO program was trialed for 3 weeks to decrease

Jimmy’s verbal protesting during group activities. Based on

data collected, the DRO program was deemed ineffective for

decreasing Jimmy’s verbal protesting. Mr. Jones took data

and found that Jimmy could quietly engage in group activities

for 3 minutes before starting to protest. Mr. Jones decided to

implement a 2 minute NCR program in which he would give

Jimmy a sticker every 2 minutes regardless of the presence of

interfering behaviors.

Non- Example:

Mr. Michael was concerned with Barry’s aggressive behavior

during group activities. He decided to give him a sticker for

every 2 minutes that he did not engage in aggressive behavior.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create an NCR program and

explain procedures to other supervisees.

• Have Supervisee identify the difference be-

tween differential reinforcement and noncon-

tingent reinforcement and give examples of

both.

• Have supervisee give examples of NCR used

in his/her professional and nonprofessional

life.

Relevant Literature:

Cautela, J. R. (1984). General level of reinforce-

ment. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experi-

mental Psychiatry, 15, 109-114.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper

Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hagopian, L. P., Fisher, W. W., & Legacy, S. M.

(1994). Schedule effects of noncontingent

reinforcement on attention-maintained de-

structive behavior in identical quadruplets.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 317-

325.

Ingvarsson, E.T., Kahng, S., Hausman, N.L.

(2008). Some effects of noncontingent posi-

tive reinforcement on multiply controlled

Problem behavior and compliance in a de-

mand context. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis. 41, 3, 435-440.

Wilder, D. A., Normand, M., & Atwell, J.

(2005). Noncontingent reinforcement as

treatment for food refusal and associated

self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

38, 549-553.

Related Lessons:

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs.

C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects of

reinforcement.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g., DRO,

DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results and the best available scientific ev-

idence.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 105

D-21 Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

Definitions:

Differential Reinforcement - “Reinforcing

only those responses within a response class

that meet a specific criterion along some di-

mension(s) (i.e., frequency, topography, dura-

tion, latency or magnitude) and placing all

other behaviors in the class on extinction”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 693).

Five common variations of differential rein-

forcement are:

Differential reinforcement of other behav-

ior (DRO) is a procedure that provides rein-

forcement for the absence of problem behav-

ior during a period of time (interval) or at a

specific time (momentary) (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Differential reinforcement of alternative

behavior (DRA) is the reinforcement of a re-

sponse that is an appropriate alternative to

problem behavior (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Differential reinforcement of incompati-

ble behavior (DRI) is the reinforcement of a

response that is physically incompatible with

the target problem behavior (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007).

Differential reinforcement of high rates

(DRH) is reinforcement contingent upon a

behavior occurring at a set high rate used to

increase the overall rate of a behavior

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Differential reinforcement of low rates of

behavior (DRL) is reinforcement contingent

upon behavior occurring at a set reduced rate

used to decrease the overall rate of a behavior

but not to eliminate it completely (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Examples:

• DRO: Providing a toy following the ab-

sence of inappropriate vocalizations for

5 minutes which decreases inappropri-

ate vocalizations.

• DRA: Providing a break for handing

over a break card which increases the

use of the break card in the future.

• DRI: Providing social attention for hav-

ing hands in their own pant pockets

which subsequently decreases scratch-

ing at caregivers hands.

• DRH: A student typically only com-

pletes one math worksheet per class pe-

riod. Providing a break with a preferred

item contingent on finishing three math

worksheets, which increases the number

of worksheets completed by a student.

The student only gets the preferred item

when they complete three worksheets.

• DRL: Providing attention when a stu-

dent says “excuse me” 2 times every 10

minutes and not providing attention if

the behavior occurs more frequently

within that 10 minute period which

maintains low rates of the behavior

Assessment:

• Provide the supervisee with several tar-

get behaviors and their respective func-

tion. Have him/her select which differ-

ential reinforcement procedure(s)

would be the most appropriate for each

and why. Review it and provide feed-

back.

• Have the supervisee describe the bene-

fits of each differential reinforcement

procedure.

• Have the supervisee list the conditions

in which the use of each variation would

not be desirable.

• Provide supervisee with an article from

the relevant literature regarding DRA or

DRI and discuss the alternative or in-

106 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

compatible behavior the authors se-

lected. In addition, ask them to come up

with other alternative or incompatible

behaviors which could have been used

in the study.

• Provide supervisee with an article from

the relevant literature and discuss if the

reinforcer selected by the authors is

functional or arbitrary. In addition, ask

the supervisee to come up with other

putative reinforcers which the study

could have used. Finally, discuss the

pros and cons of using an arbitrary rein-

forcer and functional reinforcers.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Cowdery, G. E. (1990). Effects and Side Ef-

fects of DRO as Treatment for Self-In-

jurious Behavior. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 23(4), 497-506.

Deitz, S. M. (1977). An analysis of program-

ming DRL schedules in educational set-

tings. Behaviour Research and Therapy,

15(1), 103-111.

Deitz, D. E., & Repp, A. C. (1983). Reducing

Behavior through Reinforcement. Ex-

ceptional Education Quarterly, 3(4), 34-46.

Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & Thompson, R.

H. (2001). Reinforcement schedule thin-

ning following treatment with func-

tional communication training. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(1), 17-38.

Kahng, S. W., Abt, K. A., & Schonbachler, H.

E. (2001). Assessment and treatment of

low-rate high-intensity problem behav-

ior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

34(2), 225.

Lalli, J. S., Casey, S., & Kates, K. (1995). Re-

ducing escape behavior and increasing

task completion with functional com-

munication training, extinction and re-

sponse chaining. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 28(3), 261-268.

Lindberg, J. S., Iwata, B. A., Kahng, S., &

DeLeon, I. G. (1998). DRO contingen-

cies: an analysis of variable-momentary

schedules. Journal of applied behavior analy-

sis, 32(2), 123-35.

Mazaleski, J. L. (1993). Analysis of the Rein-

forcement and Extinction Components

in DRO Contingencies with Self-Injury.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(2),

143-56.

Petscher, E. S., Rey, C., & Bailey, J. S. (2009).

A review of empirical support for differ-

ential reinforcement of alternative be-

havior. Research in Developmental Disabili-

ties, 30(3), 409-425.

Rehfeldt, R. A., & Chambers, M. R. (2003).

Functional analysis and treatment of

verbal perseverations displayed by an

adult with autism. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 36(2), 259-261.

Seys, D. M., & Duker, P. C. (1978). Improving

residential care for the retarded by dif-

ferential reinforcement of high rates of

ward-staff behaviour. Behavioural Analy-

sis and Modification, 2, 203-210.

Vollmer, T. R., & Iwata, B. A. (1992). Differ-

ential reinforcement as treatment for be-

havior disorders: Procedural and func-

tional variations. Research in Developmental

Disabilities, 13(4), 393-417.

Vollmer, T. R., Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E.,

& Marcus, B. A. (1999). Evaluating

treatment challenges with differential re-

inforcement of alternative behavior.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(1),

9-23.

Related Lessons:

C-01 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of reinforcement.

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

F-07 Use functional communication training.

I-07 Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

J-02 Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 107

E-01 Use interventions based on manipu-

lation of antecedents, such as motivating

operations and discriminative stimuli

While it is commonly known that behaviors

are maintained by consequences, including an-

tecedent interventions within an individual’s

treatment package can often expedite positive

behavioral change and mitigate negative ef-

fects of consequent strategies (e.g. extinction

bursts). Some antecedent strategies include

motivating operations, discriminative stimuli,

non-contingent reinforcement and usage of

high probability request sequences.

Michael (1982, p. 149) describes motivating

operations as “a stimulus change which, (1)

given the momentary effectiveness of some

particular type of reinforcement (2) increases

the frequency of a particular type of response

(3) because that stimulus change has been cor-

related with an increase in the frequency with

which that type of response has been followed

by that type of reinforcement.”

Skinner first explored this concept, describing

deprivation and satiation to be motivating var-

iables that govern behavior. Simply put, rein-

forcers obtain most of their reinforcing value

depending on the individual’s drive to obtain

that reinforcer, which is a direct result of dep-

rivation-satiation contingencies. The motivat-

ing operation for one’s behavior that has run

three miles in the heat is to quench their thirst

increasing the value of water as a reinforcer.

Having no money to put into a vending ma-

chine to get a bottle of water is the motivating

operation to ask friends for loose change.

Similarly, after the person drinks an entire bot-

tle of water, water may no longer function as

a reinforcer. Behavior analysts can thereby af-

fect behavioral change by manipulating moti-

vating operations (e.g. challenging behavior

maintained by escape from non-preferred

tasks may be mitigated by giving the individual

frequent breaks).

Another antecedent strategy is effectively pro-

gramming for discriminative stimuli. Skinner

claimed that virtually all operant behavior falls

under stimulus control, asserting that ‘‘if all

behavior were equally likely to occur on all oc-

casions, the result would be chaotic’’ (Skinner,

1953, p. 108). It is therefore important for in-

dividuals to learn to discriminate between

conditions in which specific responses will be

reinforced and when these responses will not.

Discriminative stimuli evoke behavior be-

cause they have been correlated with in-

creased probability of accessing a reinforcer.

For instance, teaching a student to mand for a

break can be problematic if the student mands

for a break continuously throughout the day,

thereby yielding very little on-task behavior.

However, this can be possibly remedied by the

availability of a break is represented by the

presence of a break icon (e.g. break icon is the

discriminative stimulus, signaling that if the

student asks for a break, a break will be

granted).

Other antecedent strategies include usage of

non-contingent reinforcement and usage of

high-probability request sequences. Non-con-

tingent reinforcement is “an antecedent inter-

vention in which stimuli with known reinforc-

ing properties are delivered on a fixed-time or

variable-time schedule independent of the

learner’s behavior” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, p. 489). This operates on the

principle of motivating operations. By satiat-

ing an individual with wants/needs, the indi-

vidual is no longer motivated to engage in re-

sponses that used to generate that want/need

(e.g. giving attention to a student every five

minutes may abolish attention as a reinforcer,

thereby reducing the need to engage in inap-

propriate attention-seeking behavior).

108 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Assessment:

• Have your supervisee list and de-

scribe applicable antecedent inter-

ventions.

• In a clinical setting or during role-

play, have your supervisee describe

what motivating operations may be

affecting the client’s behavior.

• Describe a scenario and have the su-

pervisee lists some potential ante-

cedent strategies that can be used

and have them describe why they

chose these strategies.

Relevant Literature:

Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between

discriminative and motivational func-

tions of stimuli. Journal of Experimental

Analysis of Behavior, 37(1), 149-155.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.

New York: Macmillan.

Smith, R.G. & Iwata, B.A. (1997). Antecedent

influences on behavior disorders. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(2), 343-

375.

Related Lessons:

E-09: Arrange high probability request se-

quences

FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations

FK-29: Distinguish between the discrimina-

tive stimulus and the motivating operation

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 109

E-02 Use discrimination training proce-

dures

Discrimination training procedures involve “re-

inforcing or punishing a response in the pres-

ence of one stimulus and extinguishing it or al-

lowing it to recover in the presence of another

stimulus” (Malott &Trojan Suarez, 2004, p. 485).

There are typically two competing contingencies

when discrimination training occurs. The first

contingency involves an S-delta (i.e., signals that

a specified response will not be reinforced or

punished when in the presence of a specified

stimulus). The second contingency involves a

discriminative stimulus (i.e., signals that a speci-

fied response will be reinforced in the presence

of a specific stimulus condition). When discrim-

ination training occurs, a specified response will

no longer be reinforced in the presence of an S-

delta, however, that same response will be rein-

forced in the presence of a discriminative stimu-

lus. The goal of discrimination training is to re-

inforce responses in certain stimulus conditions

so that they occur more frequently when those

stimulus conditions are present and over time,

the response will no longer occur in the presence

of the S-delta. When discrimination training is

successful, the learner can discriminate which

antecedent stimulus conditions will result in

greater reinforcement for a given response.

Example:

Discrimination training can be used to teach an

individual appropriate times to take breaks,

when or where it is acceptable to engage in self-

stimulatory behaviors, what items in the kitchen

can be accessed without asking for permission,

and so on. Discrimination training procedures

are evident in basic instructional lessons such as

teaching a child to identify colors to seemingly

natural situations such as only scheduling clients

on days allowed by funding sources because this

results in you being paid for your services.

Carl’s teacher determines attention is reinforcing

his speaking out in class. Carl’s teacher teaches

Carl to ask questions when there is a green card

present on the board, and not to ask questions

when there is a red card on the board. She does

this by only delivering attention to Carl when the

green card is present on the board, and ignoring

Carl when the red card is present.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to provide examples of

how discrimination procedures can be

used with a specific client or to teach a

specific skill.

• Ask supervisee to clearly operational-

ize the S-delta and discriminative stim-

ulus contingencies that will be utilized

during a specific discrimination train-

ing procedure.

• Observe supervisee describe discrimi-

nation procedures to a client, col-

league, etc.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Stimulus Control. Applied Behavior

Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).

Discrimination. Principles of Behavior (pp.

206-225). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear-

son Prentice Hall.

Taylor-Santa, C., Sidener, T. M., Carr, J. E., &

Reeve, K. F. (2014). A discrimination

training procedure to establish condi-

tioned reinforcers for children with au-

tism. Behavioral Intervention, 29, 157-176.

Related Lessons:

D-08 Use discrete-trial and free-operant ar-

rangements

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation

of antecedents, such as motivating operations

and discriminative stimuli

E-03 Use instructions and rules

E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures

J-11 Program for stimulus and response general-

ization

FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-25 Multiple functions of a single stimulus

FK-35 Stimulus discrimination

110 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-03 Use instructions and rules

Rules are descriptions of behavioral contin-

gencies (e.g., “Putting a sweater on when it is

cold outside will help you stay warm”). When

rules are followed, behavior can come under

the control of delayed or indirect conse-

quences therefore resulting in rule-governed

behavior. Malott and Trojan-Suarez (2004)

suggest that all instructions involve rules. For

example, incomplete rules (e.g., “Stop it”)

provide minimal instruction (e.g., stop) and

imply an outcome (e.g., you might get in trou-

ble). It is argued that rules function as rein-

forcement-based or punishment-based dis-

criminative stimuli (Malott & Trojan-Suarez,

2004). Skinner (1969) referred to rules, in-

structions, advice, and laws as contingency-

specifying stimuli, describing the : →



relations of everyday life.

Evidence that behavior is the result of instruc-

tional control or rule following is provided if:

(1) there is no obvious or immediate conse-

quence of the behavior; (2) the delivery of the

consequence following the behavior exceeds

30 seconds; (3) behavior changes without re-

inforcement; (4) a substantial increase in the

rate of behavior occurs following one instance

of direct contact with reinforcement; and (5)

the rule exists but no consequence (including

automatic reinforcement) exists following the

behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to discriminate be-

tween direct-acting contingencies

and rule-governed behavior.

• Ask supervisee to provide examples

of rules.

• Ask supervisee to identify rules that

may be governing a client’s behavior.

• If a rule exists, ask supervisee to de-

scribe how a direct-acting contin-

gency can be used instead and vice

versa.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Positive reinforcement. Applied

Behavior Analysis (pp. 256-290). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hayes, S. C. (2004). Rule-Governed Behavior: Cog-

nition, Contingencies & Instructional Control.

Oakland, CA: Context Press.

Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).

Analogs to reinforcement and avoid-

ance part 1. Principles of Behavior (pp. 377-

393). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).

Analogs to reinforcement and avoid-

ance part 2. Principles of Behavior (pp. 394-

409). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforce-

ment: A theoretical analysis. New York: Ap-

pleton-Centrury-Crofts.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the

behavior of those responsible for carrying out

behavior-change procedures and design inter-

ventions accordingly.

FK-30 distinguish between motivating opera-

tion and reinforcement effects

FK-31 behavioral contingencies

FK-33 functional relations

FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior

FK-42 rule-governed behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 111

E-04 Use Contingency Contracting

Definition:

Contingency contract - “…also called a be-

havioral contract, is a document that specifies

a contingent relationship between the comple-

tion of a specified behavior and access to, or

delivery of, a specified reward such as free

time, a letter grade or access to a preferred ac-

tivity” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.

551).

Contingency contracts have several compo-

nents:

• Outlines the task to be completed- in-

cludes an objective definition of the task,

who must complete the task and when

the task must be completed.

• Specifies the reward contingent on task

completion- includes description of the

reward, who will deliver the reward, who

will measure, whether the task has been

completed to criterion, and when the re-

ward will be received.

• Outlines how performance will be meas-

ured and what data will be taken.

Contingency contracts can be highly effective

if used properly because the individual whose

behavior is to be changed is involved in the

process from the start. Studies have shown

that contingency contracting “…has been

identified as an important step toward self-

management of behavior” (Miller & Kelley,

1994, p. 74) because by helping to determine

the parameters of the task and outlining what

and when rewards should be given, reinforcer

assessments have already been identified and

the individual is already motivated to engage

in the target behavior, which can greatly in-

crease compliance. However, Cooper, Heron

and Heward (2007) caution against using con-

tingency contracts with all populations. There

must be set criteria that the individual must al-

ready possess in order for contingency con-

tracts to be effective. The target behavior

must already be in the individual’s repertoire

and the individual must already be able to dis-

criminate when and which environments are

appropriate for the response to occur. Addi-

tionally, the individual’s behavior must be able

to “come under the control of the visual or

oral statements (rules) of the contract”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 558).

The individual does not need to be proficient

in reading so long as the contract is adapted

using symbols, icons, photographs, etc. and

the individual thoroughly understands the re-

inforcement contingency.

Assessment:

• Have the supervisee design a contin-

gency contract.

• Have the supervisee describe each

component of the contract.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Miller, D.L., & Kelley, M.L. (1994). The use

of goal setting and contingency con-

tracting for improving children’s home-

work performance. Journal of Applied Be-

havioral Analysis 27(10), 73-84.

Related Lessons:

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the

behavior of those responsible for carrying out

behavior-change procedures and design the

interventions accordingly

FK-42 Rule-governed behavior

112 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-05 Use independent, interdependent,

and dependent group contingencies

The three group contingencies as defined by

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2007):

“An independent group contingency is an ar-

rangement in which a contingency is pre-

sented to all members of a group, but rein-

forcement is delivered only to those group

members who meet the criterion outlined in

the contingency.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 568)

“An interdependent group contingency is one

in which all members of a group must meet

the criterion of the contingency (individually

and as a group) before any member earns the

reward.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 569)

“Under a dependent group contingency the

reward for the whole group is dependent on

the performance of an individual student or

small group.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 568)

These three contingencies use the principles

of reinforcement to change the behavior of a

group of individuals. They involve “a com-

mon consequence (usually, but not neces-

sarily, a reward intended to function as rein-

forcement) contingent on the behavior of one

member of the group, the behavior of part of

the group, or the behavior of everyone in the

group.” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 567)

Examples:

• Independent Group Contingency

o Each student was given a math work-

sheet and received a special sticker if they

completed the work without engaging in

disruptive behavior. Billy, Johnny, and

Sam finished their work quietly and

earned stickers, but Danny was disrup-

tive and only finished half his worksheet

so he did not earn a sticker.

• Interdependent Group Contingency

o Each student in Mrs. Kelly’s class had

to complete their math worksheets before

they were allowed to go outside for recess.

The students who finished first were al-

lowed to help any of the struggling stu-

dents. Sam was the last one working

and Roger came over to help him com-

plete his work. Once Sam was finished

the whole class earned recess time.

• Dependent Group Contingency

o At the end of football practice, Mr. Bill

told the team that they could stop run-

ning wind sprints if Roger caught a long

pass from the coach. Roger caught that

pass and the team cheered as they went

to shower and practice ended.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify and describe

group contingencies he/she has encoun-

tered in his/her professional career.

• Give examples of various contingencies

and ask supervisees to identify which of

the three group contingencies is exhibited

in each example.

• Have supervisee choose a group contin-

gency and create guidelines for a program

to change the behavior of a group using

the designated contingency.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 567-573.

Kamps, D., Howard, W., Heitzman-Powell,

L., Laylin, J., Szoke, C., Petrillo, T., &

Culey, A. (2011). Class-Wide Function-

Related Intervention Teams: Effects of

Group Contingency Programs in Urban

Classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior In-

terventions, 13, 154-167.

Litow, L. & Pumroy, D. K. (1975). A brief re-

view of classroom group-oriented con-

tingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 8(3), 341-347.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 113

Nevin, A., Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1982).

Effects of group and individual contin-

gencies on academic performance and

social relations of special needs stu-

dents. Journal of School Psychology. 116, 1,

41-59.

Theodore, L.., Bray, M., Kehle, T., & Jenson,

W. (2001). Randomization of Group

Contingencies and Reinforcers to Re-

duce Classroom Disruptive Behavior.

Journal of School Psychology. 39, 3, 267-277.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects

of reinforcement.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

E-04: Use contingency contracting

F-02: Use token economies and other condi-

tioned reinforcement systems

114 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-06 Use Stimulus Equivalence Proce-

dures

In the field of applied behavior analysis, a number

of procedures have been used to teach new con-

cepts. One of these procedures is known as stim-

ulus equivalence. In 1971, Murray Sidman discov-

ered that a previously untaught, unreinforced stim-

uli could come under stimulus control through its

pairing with other stimuli which were explicitly

taught (Sidman, 1971). This concept revolutionized

the field as it demonstrated a new way of teaching

that could potentially reduce the amount of time

needed to teach a new class of stimuli. “Behavior

analysts define stimulus equivalence by testing

stimulus-stimulus relations. A positive demonstra-

tion of all three behavioral tests (i.e. reflexivity,

symmetry, and transitivity) is necessary to meet the

definition of an equivalence relation among a set of

arbitrary stimuli” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 398).

• Reflexivity describes the action of selecting a

stimulus that is matched to itself in the absence of

training and reinforcement (A=A). For instance an

individual is shown three pictures; a penny, a nickel,

and a dime. When given an identical picture of a

penny, he matches it to the identical picture of a

penny in the array (Sidman, 1994).

• Symmetry describes the reversibility of the sam-

ple stimulus and a comparison stimulus (A=B and

B=A). For instance an individual who is taught to

select the picture of a penny (out of an array of 3),

when the word penny is given, would also be able

to choose the comparison spoken word penny

shown the picture of the penny without being pre-

viously taught this correlation (Sidman, 1994).

• Transitivity is the most crucial test for demon-

strating stimulus equivalence. A third, untrained

relation emerges as a result of being taught the first

two relations. (A=C and C=A) “…emerges as a

product of training two other stimulus-stimulus re-

lations” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 399).

The following equation demonstrates the basic

principals of stimulus equivalence:

1. If A = B, and

2. B = C, then

3. A = C

Sidman and Tailby (1982)

When using stimulus equivalence, decide what re-

lations are to be taught (i.e. spoken word to picture,

picture to written word, drawing to real-life picture,

etc.). Decide which order the conditional relations

are to be taught. Teach the relations A=B and B=C

to mastery criteria. Once mastery criteria are met

for the first two relations, test for reflexivity, sym-

metry, and transitivity using the same criteria. If

the participant demonstrates these relations with-

out having been previously been taught them, they

will have acquired the third relation C=A that

demonstrates the most important test for stimulus

equivalence.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to explain the concept of

stimulus equivalence.

• Ask the supervisee to name the three tests that

demonstrate the basic principles of stimulus

equivalence and describe each of these.

• Ask the supervisee to give examples of some

new concepts that might be taught through

stimulus equivalence

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O., Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson

Sidman, M. (1971) Reading and auditory-visual

equivalences. Journal of Speech & Hearing Re-

search, Volume 14(1), 5-13.

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence Relations and Behav-

ior: A Research Story. Boston: Author’s Co-

operative.

Sidman, M. and Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional

Discrimination vs. Matching to Sample: An

Expansion of the Testing Paradigm. Journal

of Experimental Analysis Behavior, 37: 5–22.

Related Lessons:

E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures.

FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-12 stimulus equivalence

FK-13 reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-24 stimulus control

FK-28 transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivating

operations

FK-35 stimulus discrimination

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 115

E-07 Plan for behavioral contrast effects

What is behavioral contrast?

• George Reynolds first presented be-

havioral contrast in 1961. He de-

fined behavioral contrast as “an in-

crease in the rate of responding in

one component of a multiple sched-

ule when certain changes occur in

the other component” (p. 60).

• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)

state that behavioral contrast “can

occur as a function of a change in re-

inforcement or punishment density

on one component of a multiple

schedule” (p. 337).

Example of Behavioral Contrast

• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)

give a good example of behavioral

contrast to illustrate the concept;

“…a pigeon pecks a backlit key,

which alternates between blue and

green, reinforcement is delivered on

the same schedule on both keys, and

the bird pecks at approximately the

same rate regardless of the key’s

color.” (p. 337). However, this

changes so that responses on one

component of the schedule are pun-

ished, i.e., pecks on the blue key are

punished because reinforcement is

not delivered, but pecks on the other

(green) key continue to produce re-

inforcement. As a result, rate of re-

sponding decreases on the blue key

and rate of responding on the green

key increases, even though no more

reinforcement is delivered from the

green key than before.

Plan for the effects of behavioral contrast

• It is important to consider prior to

beginning an intervention, whether

behavioral contrast may occur as a

result of that planned intervention.

If behavioral contrast is a possibility;

then planning for its occurrence is

crucial.

• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007,

p. 338) suggest that one way to min-

imize or completely prevent the con-

trast effects of punishment is to plan

the intervention so that the conse-

quence is consistently applied to the

target behavior across all relevant

environments and stimulus condi-

tions. All those involved in the cli-

ent’s life that may be required to de-

liver the consequence, will need to

be thoroughly trained to ensure its

consistent implementation.

• Additionally, reinforcement will

need to be minimized, or where pos-

sible, withheld, when the target be-

havior has occurred. Similarly, train-

ing will need to be provided to all

those involved so that the client isn’t

receiving reinforcement when the

target behavior is emitted.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to define be-

havioral contrast.

• Ask your Supervisee to describe

what will happen in this example if

behavioral contrast is in effect:

o A child has been playing with

two musical toys, allocating an

equal amount of time playing

with each toy. One of the musi-

cal toys is yellow and one of the

musical toys is red. The red

toy’s battery begins to give out

so that when the child presses

the button, sometimes the mu-

sic is not produced. However,

the yellow musical toy contin-

ues to work well and music is

produced each time the child

pushes the button. What will

happen to the rate of respond-

ing for each of the musical toys?

(Answer = the rate of re-

sponding on the red musical

toy will decrease and the rate

116 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

of responding on the yellow

toy will increase, even

though there isn’t any addi-

tional reinforcement being

produced from the yellow

toy).

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd

ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

Pearson Prentice Hall.

Fagan, J. W. (1978). Behavioral contrast in in-

fants. Infant behavior and development, 2,

101-112.

Hantula, D. A., & Crowell, C. R. (1994). Be-

havioral contrast in a two-option ana-

logue task of financial decision making.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27,

607-617.

McSweeney, F. K., & Weatherly, J. N. (1998).

Habituation to the reinforcer may con-

tribute to multiple-schedule behavioral

contrast. Journal of the Experimental Anal-

ysis of Behavior, 69, 199-221.

Reynolds, G. S. (1961a). Behavioral contrast.

Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior,

4, 57 – 71.

Reynolds, G. S. (1963). Some limitations on

behavioral contrast and induction dur-

ing successive discrimination. Journal of

Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 131-

139.

Tarbox, J., & Parrott Hayes, L. (2005). Verbal

behavior and behavioral contrast in hu-

man subjects. The Psychological Record, 55,

419-437.

Weatherly, J. N., Melville, C. L., &

McSweeney, F. K. (1996). Picking, peck-

ing, and pressing: A cross-species

demonstration of behavioral contrast.

The Psychological Record, 46, 351-372.

Weatherly, J. N., King, B. M., Arthur, E. I. L.

(2002). Rats’ level pressing for 1% su-

crose and food-pellet reinforcement: In

search of negative behavioral contrast.

The Psychological Record, 52, 507-529.

Related Lessons:

C-02: State and plan for the possible un-

wanted effects of punishment

D-15: Identify punishers

D-16: Use positive and negative punishment

D-17: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment

D19: Use combinations of reinforcement with

punishment and extinction

J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased

K-02: Identify the contingencies governing

the behavior of those responsible for carrying

out behavior-change procedures and design

interventions accordingly

FK-38: Behavioral contrast

FK-40: Matching law

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 117

E-08 Use the matching law and recognize

factors influencing choice

Definitions:

Matching Law - “When two or more concurrent-

interval schedules are available, the relative rate of

response matches (or equals) the relative rate of re-

inforcement. More generally, the matching law

states that the distribution of behavior between (or

among) alternative sources of reinforcement is

equal to the distribution of reinforcement for these

alternatives” (Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 260).

Choice - “…the emission of one of two or more

alternative and, usually, incompatible responses”

(Catania, 2007, p.431).

Organisms are constantly confronted with making

choices; the allocation of responding is based upon

the probability of reinforcement for that response.

There are also other variables known to effect re-

sponse allocation such as magnitude of reinforce-

ment, quality of reinforcement, delay to reinforce-

ment, and duration of reinforcement (Baum, 1974).

If a variable that is affecting responding on a par-

ticular option cannot be identified, this is known as

bias. An example of bias might be a right-handed

person responding on an option to the right side.

This variable and others are accounted for using

different coefficients in the matching law.

Multiple basic and applied studies with humans and

non-humans have demonstrated that behavior is al-

located to response options based on reinforce-

ment schedules available on those options (Baum,

1974; Borrero & Vollmer, 2002; Epling & Pierce,

1983).

There is debate about the status of the matching

law as a convenient description vs. a fundamental

property of behavior (c.f., Catania, 1981; Killeen,

2015, Rachlin, 1971)

Assessment:

• Have supervisee define choice and describe

the matching law.

• Have supervisee describe variables known to

influence response allocation among alterna-

tives.

• Have supervisee set up and conduct an exper-

iment involving concurrent schedules with

different magnitudes/qualities/delays/dura-

tion of reinforcement on different options.

• Have supervisee use the equation for the

matching law to investigate matching for two

different responses.

Relevant Literature:

Baum, W. M. (1974). On two types of deviation

from the matching law: Bias and under-

matching. Journal of the experimental analysis of

behavior, 22(1), 231.

Baum, W. M. (1979). Matching, undermatching,

and overmatching in studies of choice. Jour-

nal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 32(2),

269.

Borrero, J. C., & Vollmer, T. R. (2002). An applica-

tion of the matching law to severe problem

behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

35(1), 13-27.

Catania, A. C. (2007). Learning (Interim. 4ª. Ed.)

USA: Sloan Publishing.

Catania, A. C. (2012). Discussion: The flight from

experimental analysis. EUROPEAN JOUR-

NAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS, 13,

165-176.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (1983). Applied be-

havior analysis: New directions from the la-

boratory. The Behavior Analyst, 6(1), 27.

Herrnstein, R. J. (1961). Relative and absolute

strength of response as a function of fre-

quency of reinforcement. Journal of the experi-

mental analysis of behavior, 4(3), 267.

Killeen, P. R. (2015), The logistics of choice. Jour-

nal of the Experimental Analysis Behavior.

doi: 10.1002/jeab.156

Pierce, W. D., & Cheney, C. D. (2013). Behavior anal-

ysis and learning. (5th ed.) New York, NY: Psy-

chology Press.

Rachlin, H. (1971). On the tautology of the match-

ing law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of

Behavior, 15(2), 249-251.

Related Lessons:

A-14 Design and implement choice measures.

118 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-09 Arrange high-probability request se-

quences

Using a high-probability (high-p) request sequence

involves presenting a series of requests that the in-

dividual has a history of following before present-

ing a target request (low-p). The following is rec-

ommended in order to maximize the effectiveness

of the high-p request sequence: (1) tasks/requests

should already be in the learner’s repertoire (i.e., the

skill is considered mastered); (2) high-p requests

should be presented rapidly; (3) the first low-p re-

quest should be presented immediately after rein-

forcement for high-p compliance; and (4) and sali-

ent reinforcers should be used for low-p requests

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). It is also rec-

ommended to avoid using low-difficulty tasks im-

mediately after a maladaptive behavior that was

triggered by a high-difficulty task (Sailors, Guess,

Rutherford, & Baer, 1968). In the initial stages of

acquisition of a low-p request, increasing the num-

ber of high-p requests increases the effectiveness of

the high-p request sequence (Mace, 1996). High-p

request sequences may be helpful in reducing the

reinforcing value of escape from requests and the

maladaptive behaviors that often occur when low-

p requests are presented. (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007)

There is a common misconception that the effects

of the high-p sequence are related exclusively to the

repeated delivery of the high-p demands. The

dense schedule of reinforcement is also a necessary

component for this procedure. Zuluaga & Nor-

mand (2008) tested the effects of the high-p se-

quence without reinforcement versus the high-p

sequence with reinforcement. Compliance with

low-p demands increased only when reinforcers

were delivered after the high-p requests.

There are some discussions in the field about

whether the high-p request sequence and behav-

ioral momentum should be considered synony-

mous. In 1996, Nevin describes his concerns by

suggesting that “translating the terms of the meta-

phor into the high-p procedure, or indeed any

other application, encounters some uncertainties

and entails a fair amount of speculation; thus, alter-

native accounts are surely possible” (p.554).

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to demonstrate implementing

a high-p request sequence with a client. Su-

pervisor should provide modeling and feed-

back as necessary.

• Require that the supervisee reads and summa-

rizes Zululaga & Normand (2008).

• Ask supervisee to describe why Nevin sug-

gests that the high-p request sequence and be-

havioral momentum should not be consid-

ered synonymous.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Antecedent interventions. Applied Be-

havior Analysis (pp. 486-499). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Davis, C. A., & Reichle, J. (1996). Variant and in-

variant high-probability requests: Increasing

appropriate behaviors in children with emo-

tional-behavioral disorders. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 29, 471-482.

Mace, F. C. (1996). In pursuit of general behavioral

relations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

29, 557-514.

Mace, F. C., & Belfiore, P. (1990). Behavioral mo-

mentum in the treatment of escape-moti-

vated stereotypy. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 23(4), 507.

Nevin, J. A. (1996). The Momentum of Compli-

ance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

29(4), 535–547.

Sailor, W., Guess, D., Rutherford, G., & Baer, D.

M. (1968). Control of tantrum behavior by

operant techniques during experimental ver-

bal training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 1(3), 237-243.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforcement.

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and dis-

criminative stimuli.

E-10 Use the Premack principle.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 119

E-10 Use the Premack principle

Definition:

The Premack principle - …”a principle of

reinforcement which states that an oppor-

tunity to engage in more probable behaviors

(or activities) will reinforce less probable be-

haviors (or activities).”(Barton, 2013, p. 2345).

“For example, if a child often plays computer

games (more probable) and avoids completing

math problems (less probable), we might al-

low her to play the computer after (contingent

upon) completing 15 math problems. Prior to

the introduction of the Premack principle,

systems of reinforcement were viewed as the

contingency between a stimulus and behavior.

The Premack principle expanded the existing

reinforcement contingency of stimulus behav-

ior to include contingencies between two be-

haviors. This principle is often referred to as

‘grandma’s rule’ because grandmothers (or

any caregivers) often apply this principle: ‘you

have to eat your vegetables (less probable) be-

fore you can have dessert (more probable)’”

(Barton, 2013, p. 2345).

In education, the Premack principle is the ba-

sis for “first/then” strategies. “First/then”

strategies consist of a teacher telling a student

“First X, then Y” with X being a less preferred

activity or task demand and Y being a more

preferred activity contingent on the comple-

tion of X.

Premack principles use preferred activities as

reinforcers to help increase engagement in less

preferred activities or demands.

Example:

A father tells his teenage son, “When you have finished

washing the dishes, you can watch TV.”

Assessment:

• Have supervisee give examples of

Premack’s principle in his/her daily life.

• Have supervisee create a role play scenario

in which he/she demonstrates the use of

the Premack principle.

• Have supervisee find an article on the use

of the Premack principle, summarize, and

discuss benefits and limitations of use.

Relevant Literature:

Azrin, N. H., Vinas, V., & Ehle, C. T. (2007).

Physical activity as reinforcement for

classroom calmness of ADHD children: A

preliminary study. Child & Family Behavior

Therapy, 29, 2, 1-8.

Barton, E.E. (2013). Premack’s Principle. In En-

cyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Volkmar, F.R. (Ed.) (p. 2345) Springer

New York: New York, NY.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice

Hall. 271-273, 277.

Mazur, J.E. (1975). The Matching Law and

Quantifications Related to Premack’s

Principle. Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Animal Behavior Processes, 1, 4, 374-386.

Sigafoos, J. (2005). From Premack to PECS: 25

Years of Progress in Communication In-

tervention for Individuals with Develop-

mental Disabilities. Educational Psychology,

25, 6, 601-607.

Welsh, D.H., Bernstein, D.J., & Luthans, F.

(1992). Application of the Premack Prin-

ciple of Reinforcement to the Quality Per-

formance of Service Employees. Journal

of Organizational Behavior Management,

13, 1, 9.

Related Lessons:

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules

of reinforcement.

I-07: Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

120 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish

new conditioned reinforcers

“Stimulus events or conditions that are present or

that occur just before or simultaneous with the oc-

currence of other reinforcers (or punishers) may

acquire the ability to reinforce (or punish) behavior

when they later occur on their own as conse-

quences. Called conditioned reinforcers or condi-

tioned punishers, these stimulus changes function

as reinforcers and punishers only because of their

prior pairing with other reinforcers or punishers”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 40).

Definition:

Conditioned reinforcer – “…a previously neutral

stimulus change that has acquired the capability to

function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus

pairing with one or more unconditioned or condi-

tioned reinforcers” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 269).

Some common conditioned reinforcers include so-

cial praise, tokens, and money because they are of-

ten paired with other reinforcers.

Conditioned reinforcers become stronger the more

they are paired with other known reinforcers. For

instance, paper money will likely not function as a

reinforcer until he/she buy toys, candy, and other

things that he enjoys with it. The more the child

uses money to buy items that are appetitive, the

more the paper money becomes a conditioned re-

inforcer.

The more items the conditioned reinforcer can

“buy”, the less sensitive to motivating operations

they become. This is called generalized conditioned

reinforcement. The more reinforcers that have

been paired with the stimulus, the more generalized

the conditioned reinforcer is.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create a token economy and

explain how it would be used as a conditioned

reinforcer in their professional setting.

• Have supervisee create a list of conditioned

and unconditioned reinforcers and explain the

difference between the two.

• Have supervisee explain the concept of a gen-

eralized conditioned reinforcer and how this

is different from typical conditioned reinforc-

ers.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 40-41,

269-270.

Williams, B.A. & Fantino, E. (1978). Effects on

choice of reinforcement delay and condi-

tioned reinforcement. Journal of Experimental

Analysis of Behavior, 29, 1, 77-86.

Engelmann, S. (1975). Your child can succeed. New

York, NY: Simon and Schuster. (pp. 98-100).

Morse, W.H. & Kelleher, R.T. (1977). Determi-

nants of reinforcement and punishment. In

W.K. Honig & J.E.R. Staddon (Eds.), Hand-

book of operant behavior (pp. 174-200). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted ef-

fects of reinforcement.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.

F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned

reinforcement systems.

I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments

to identify putative reinforcers.

J-04: Select intervention strategies based on client

preferences.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response generali-

zation.

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punish-

ment

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations

FK-34: Conditional discriminations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 121

E-12 Use Errorless Learning Procedures

Definition:

Errorless learning - an “approach whereby

the task is manipulated to eliminate/reduce

errors. Tasks are executed in such a way that

the subject is unlikely to make errors” (Filling-

ham, Hodgson, Sage, & Ralph, 2003, p. 339).

Errorless learning techniques include most-

to-least prompt fading or stimulus shap-

ing/fading techniques. Prompts are removed

gradually as the individual becomes more

adept with the skill, thereby reducing the like-

lihood of errors. To apply errorless learning,

behavioral strategies utilized may include: re-

sponse prevention (e.g. only S+ is presented

allowing for only correct responding or phys-

ical guidance is provided with instruction so

incorrect responses are not possible); verbal

prompt fading; modeling; stimulus fading (e.g.

emphasizing a physical dimension of the stim-

uli to evoke a correct response such as by illu-

minating the correct selection, S+, and pre-

senting the incorrect selection, S-, in a dimmer

format); or stimulus shaping (e.g. increasing

likelihood of correct responding by gradually

changing the shape of the stimulus to main-

tain correct responding).

The advantages of errorless learning include

that it removes negative side effects involved

with trial-and-error learning and that it is

proven particularly effective among individu-

als that suffer from brain damage or have a

developmental disorder. The disadvantages

include cost, time-intensity, and maybe con-

sidered less natural than trial-and-error learn-

ing (Mueller, Palkovic & Maynard, 2007).

Trial-and-error learning, being presented with

stimuli in which both the correct selection

(S+) and incorrect selection (S-) are available,

can lead to adverse side effects due to the pos-

sibility of incorrect responding and failure to

access reinforcers. Research has shown that

this can result in aggression, negative emo-

tional responses and stimulus overselectivity

(Mueller et al., 2007).

Assessment:

• Have supervisee demonstrate the

difference between trial-and-error

learning and errorless learning on

the job or during role-play.

• Have supervisee describe how and

when prompts will be faded to pro-

mote independent responding.

Relevant Literature:

Fillingham, J.K,, Hodgson, C., Sage, K., &

Ralph, M.A. (2003). The application of

errorless learning to aphasic disorders: A

review of theory and practice. Neuropsy-

chological Rehabiliation, 13(3), 337-363.

Mueller, M.M., Palkovic, C.M., & Maynard,

C.S. (2007). Errorless learning: review

and practical application for teaching

children with pervasive developmental

disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7),

691-700.

Terrace, H.S. (1963). Discrimination learning

with and without “errors”. Journal of the

Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6(1), 1-

27.

Related Lessons:

D-03 Use prompts and prompt fading

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training

FK-24 Stimulus control

122 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

E-13 Use matching-to-sample procedures

Definition:

Matching-to-sample - “A procedure for in-

vestigating conditional relations and stimulus

equivalence. A matching-to-sample trial be-

gins with the participant making a response

that presents or reveals the sample stimulus;

next, the sample stimulus may or may not be

removed, and two or more comparison stim-

uli are presented. The participant then selects

one the comparison stimuli. Responses that

select a comparison stimulus that matches the

sample stimulus are reinforced, and no rein-

forcement is provided for responses selecting

the nonmatching comparison stimuli”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 699).

Example:

A teacher presents a student with a picture of an apple.

The teacher then lays out three other picture cards away

from the original picture of an apple. One picture card

depicts an apple, the second picture card depicts a ba-

nana, and the final picture card depicts an orange. The

teacher holds up the initial picture card depicting an

apple and states, “match”. The student takes the pic-

ture of an apple and places it on top of the correspond-

ing picture of an apple. The teacher says, “Great job”

and gives the student a high five.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create a mock lesson

displaying match-to-sample task. He/she

must create a match-to-sample program,

a data sheet to record responses, and task

materials needed to complete the task.

Have him/her role-play this task scenario

with supervisor. Supervisor will play the

role of the client and supervisee will play

the role of the teacher or therapist.

• Have supervisee create a lesson that

demonstrates stimulus equivalence.

He/she must start with match-to-sample

task and then use other topographies of

sample stimulus to display stimulus

equivalence.

• Have supervisee describe the match-to-

sample procedure and stimulus equiva-

lence. Have him/her discuss how match-

to-sample procedures can be imple-

mented to test for stimulus equivalence.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 398-401.

Cumming, W.W. & Berryman, R. (1965). The

complex discriminated operant: Studies

of matching-to-sample and related

problems. In D.I. Mostofsky (Ed.), Stim-

ulus Generalization (pp. 284-333). Palo

Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Fields, L., Garrutto, M., & Watanabe, M.

(2010). Varieties of stimulus control in

matching-to-sample: A kernel analysis.

The Psychological Record, 60, 3-26.

Sidman, M., Wilson-Morris, M., & Kirk, B.

(1986). Matching-to-sample procedures

and the development of equivalence re-

lations: The role of naming. Analysis and

Interventions in Developmental Disabilities, 6,

1, 1-19.

Related Lessons:

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

D-08: Use discrete-trials and free-operant ar-

rangements.

E-02: Use discrimination training procedures.

E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

E-12: Use errorless learning procedures.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 123

F-01 Use self-management strategies

Definition:

Self-management - “…behavior that a person

emits to influence another behavior” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 577).

Skinner (1953) first outlined the idea of self-

management with his theories on self-control. He

defined self-control as, “When a man controls him-

self, chooses a course of action, thinks out the so-

lution to a problem, or strives towards an increase

in self-knowledge, he is behaving. He controls him-

self precisely as he would control the behavior of

anyone else- through the manipulation of variables

of which behavior is a function” (pp. 228-229).

“All self-control- or self-management- tactics

can be operationalized in terms of two behaviors:

(a) the target behavior a person wants to change

(Skinner’s controlled response) and (b) the self-

management behavior (Skinner’s controlling re-

sponse) emitted to control the target behavior”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 577).

Applications include “helping a person be more

effective and efficient in his daily life, replacing bad

habits with good ones, accomplishing difficult

tasks, and achieving personal goals” (Cooper et al.,

2007, p. 579).

Example:

• Skipping lunch (controlling behavior) to enjoy

all three courses of your dinner (controlled

behavior).

• Leaving a bag of garbage near the front door

(controlling behavior) to remind you to take it

to the dumpster next time you leave the house

(controlled behavior).

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify and define a per-

sonal target behavior they would like to in-

crease or decrease. (i.e., exercising more, eat-

ing less, studying more, swearing less, etc…).

• Have him/her research various self-manage-

ment studies relevant to the target behavior

they want to decrease.

• Have supervisee create guidelines and criteria

for their self-management project to be re-

viewed by supervisor.

Relevant Literature:

Agran, M. (Ed.) (1997). Self-directed learning: Teaching

self-determination skills. Pacific Grove, CA.

Brooks/Cole.

Baum, W.M. (2005). Understanding behaviorism: Sci-

ence, behavior, and culture (2nd ed.). Malden,

MA. Blackwell Publishing.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. (2nd ed.) Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,

576-612, 646, 648-650.

Epstein, R. (1997). Skinner as self-manager. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 545-568.

Kazdin, A.E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied

settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA. Wadsworth.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New

York: MacMillan, pp. 228-240.

Thoreson, C.E., & Mahoney, M.J. (1974). Behavioral

self-control. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Win-

ston.

Watson, D.L., & Tharp, R.G. (2007). Self-directed be-

havior: Self-modification for personal adjustment

(9th ed.). Belmont, CA. Wadsworth/Thomp-

son Learning.

Related Lessons:

B-03: Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent varia-

bles.

F-02: Use token economies and other conditioned

reinforcement systems.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measura-

ble terms.

I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors

that must be established, maintained, increased, or

decreased.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results and the best available scientific ev-

idence.

J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an

acceptable alternative behavior to be established or

increased.

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.

FK-20: Conditioned punishment.

FK-31: Behavioral contingencies.

124 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

F-02 Use token economies and other con-

ditioned reinforcement systems

Definition:

Conditioned Reinforcer - “A stimulus change

that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pair-

ing with one or more other reinforcers” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 692).

“Token economies are used as a method of

strengthening a behavior, or increasing its fre-

quency, because the tokens are a way of ‘paying’

children for completing tasks and the children can

then use these tokens to buy desired activities or

items” (Miltenberger, 2008, p. 513).

A token economy uses a conditioned reinforcer,

or token, as currency for a student to exchange for

a backup reinforcer (i.e., tangible items, edibles, ac-

tivities, etc…) based on earning a certain amount

of tokens for desired target behaviors.

The strength of the token is derived from its be-

ing paired with other reinforcers (also referred to

as a backup reinforcer). If the backup reinforcer

loses value due to satiation, the token will subse-

quently lose its effectiveness.

Miltenberger (2008) listed seven components that

need to be defined before implementing a token

economy. These include: identifying the desired

target behavior to be strengthened, identifying to-

kens to be used as conditioned reinforcement,

identifying backup reinforcers, outlining a rein-

forcement schedule for token delivery, identifying

the amount of tokens needed to exchange for rein-

forcers, identifying the time and place to exchange

tokens, and identifying if a response cost contin-

gency would be necessary for the individual.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee review literature on token

economies and present a brief literature re-

view on the topic. Have him/her identify

strengths and weaknesses of token econo-

mies, define any key terms, and discuss future

research directions.

• Have supervisee develop a token economy

and present this program. Have him/her

identify and create tokens and a token board,

identify a list of backup reinforcers, and create

guidelines on the implementation of this pro-

gram.

• Have supervisee define cost response and dis-

cuss how it relates to token economies.

Relevant Literature:

Ayllon, T. & Azrin, N. (1968). The Token Economy:

A Motivational System for Therapy and Rehabilita-

tion. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.

Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2007). Ap-

plied Behaviour Analysis. New Jersey: Pearson

Education.

Foxx, R. (1998). A comprehensive treatment pro-

gram for inpatient adolescents. Behavioural In-

terventions, 13, 67-77.

Hackenberg, T. (2009). Token Reinforcement: A

Review and Analysis. Journal of the Experimental

Analysis of Behaviour, 91, 257-286.

Kazdin, A. (1982). The Token Economy: A Decade

Later. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 15,

431-445.

Kazdin, A., & Bootzin, R. (1972). The Token

Economy: An Evaluative Review. Journal of

Applied Behaviour Analysis, 5, 343-372.

Malott & Trojan-Suarez, (2006). Principles of Behav-

iour. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Matson, J. & Boisjoli (2009). The token economy

for children with intellectual disability and/or

autism: A review. Research in Developmental Dis-

abilities, 30, 240-248.

Miltenberger, R. (2008). Behaviour Modification. Bel-

mont, CA. Wadsworth Publishing.

Tarbox, R., Ghezzi, P., & Wilson G. (2004). The

effects of token reinforcement on attending

in a young child with autism. Behavioural Inter-

ventions, 21, 156-164.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted ef-

fects of reinforcement.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement with

punishment and extinction.

D-21: Use differential reinforcement

E-04: Use contingency contracting.

E-05: Use independent, interdependent, and de-

pendent group contingencies.

I-07: Design and conduct preference assessments

to identify putative reinforcers.

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punish-

ment.

FK-31: Behavioral contingencies.

FK-41: Contingency-shaped behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 125

F-03 Use Direct Instruction

Definition:

Direct instruction - a teaching method “…em-

phasizing the use of specified teacher directions,

programmed instruction and presentation of mate-

rials, examples, and prompts, the use of reinforce-

ment and mastery learning principles, regular and

direct assessment, and teaching prerequisite skills.”

(Callahan, Shukla-Mehta, & Wie, 2010, p. 78).

Direct instruction was developed to improve aca-

demic skills of elementary school students with

learning challenges. This model of instructional de-

sign was proposed by Engelmann and Becker

(Becker, et al., 1975). Direct instruction relies on

scripted lessons implemented by a directly trained

teacher provided to small-group of learners. These

scripted lessons include a lot of examples and non-

examples. Students respond in unison when asked

by a teacher and practice skills in groups until

reaching a mastery level. Students and teachers sys-

tematically measure and teachers analyze students’

performance. Those who follow the DI model be-

lieve that the learner knows better; that all children

can be taught. If a student fails, this is teacher’s

fault. Additionally, the process of teaching includes

hierarchy of instruction complexity: basic skills

should be taught before advancing to more com-

plex skills.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee define direct instruction.

Have him/her identify and explain the char-

acteristics and methodology associated with

the curriculum.

• Have supervisee identify the differences be-

tween direct instruction and other teaching

methodologies.

• Have supervisee list the pros and cons of im-

plementing direct instruction. Have him/her

describe if they would use direct instruction

over other methodologies and curricula and

why.

Relevant Literature:

Callahan, K., Shukla-Mehta, S., MaGee, S., & Wie,

M. (2010). ABA vs. TEACCH: The case for

defining and validating comprehensive treat-

ment models in autism. Journal of Autism and

Developmental Disorders, 40, 1, 74-88.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. (2nd ed.). Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Moran, D.J. & Mallot, R.W. (2004). Evidence Based

Educational Methods. (1st ed.). San Diego, CA:

Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 81-91.

Ledford, J.R., Lane, J.D., Elam, K.L., & Wolery, M.

(2012). Using response-prompting proce-

dures during small group direct-instruction:

Outcomes and procedural variations. Ameri-

can Journal on intellectual and Developmental Disa-

bilities, 117, 5, 413-434.

Gersten, R., & Keating, T. (1987). Long-term ben-

efits from direct instruction. Educational Lead-

ership, 44, 6, 28-31.

Gersten, R., Keating, T., & Becker, W. (1988). The

continued impact of the direct instruction

model: Longitudinal studies of follow

through students. Education and Treatment of

Children, 11, 4, 318-327.

Gersten, R., Woodward, J., & Darch, C. (1986). Di-

rect instruction: A research-based approach

to curriculum design and teaching. Exceptional

Children, 53, 1, 17-31.

Graves, A. W. (1986). Effects of direct instruction

and meta-comprehension training on finding

main ideas. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 2,

90-100.

Related Lessons:

A-07: Measure trials to criterion.

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

D-08: Use discrete trials and free-operant arrange-

ments.

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results and the best available scientific ev-

idence.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response generali-

zation.

J-12: Program for maintenance.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to promote

generative learning (i.e., derived learning).

126 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

F-04 Use precision teaching

Precision teaching is a methodology of teach-

ing which involves measuring performance of

a learner and making changes based on these

data. Precision teaching was proposed by Og-

den Lindsley in 1964 in an article “Direct

Measurement and Prosthesis of Retarded Be-

havior”.

There are four steps of precision teaching

process:

1. Pinpoint - means to describe an actual

movement which a learner needs to per-

form in a specific time interval to show

an improvement on learning behavior.

2. Record - means that a learner or a teacher

collect data on pinpointed behavior reg-

ularly and display these data graphically

using the Standard Celeration Chart (the

SCC).

3. Change - means that the teacher analyzes

the data using guidelines of analyzing

the SCC (Graf & Lindsley, 2002) and

quickly makes changes in a current in-

structional method if needed.

4. Try Again - means that the teacher keeps

exploring the best instructional methods

for those learners who need more help

and provides the learners with the op-

portunities to practice until the mastery

level.

Precision teaching follows four principles

described by Kubina (2012): “(i) a focus on

observable behavior, (ii) the use of frequency

as data metric, (iii) graphing student perfor-

mance data on a Standard Celeration Chart,

and (iv) making decisions based on perfor-

mance data” (As cited in Cooper, Heron,

Heward, 2007, p. 142).

Example:

• A teacher’s objective is to teach a stu-

dent to say and write an answer when

vocally asked simple math problems

questions. The teacher will record how

many times a student answers correctly

in one minute interval. These data will

be collected over the next several weeks

and progress will be charted using a

Standard Celebration Chart. Decisions

about the teaching procedure will be

made depending on the performance

data.

Non- example:

• A teacher’s objective is to teach stu-

dents to solve simple math problems.

Percent correct are collected across the

quarter. At the end of the quarter a re-

port card will be sent to the student’s

home.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify the benefits

of adding precision teaching to a cur-

riculum.

• Have supervisee identify and describe

the key features of precision teaching.

• Have supervisee describe the parts of a

Standard Celeration Chart. Have

him/her discuss the benefits of using

this graphic display to track data.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,

139-144.

Cooper, J.O. (2000). Tutoring Joe: Winning

with the precision teaching team. In W.L.

Heward (ed.) Exceptional Children: An in-

troduction to special education (6th ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, 268-270.

Kerr, K.P., Smyth, P., & McDowell, C. (2003).

Precision teaching children with autism:

Helping design effective programmes.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 127

Early Childhood Development and Care, 173,

4, 399-410.

Hughes, J.C., Beverley, M., & Whitehead, J.

(2007). Using precision teaching to in-

crease the fluency of word reading with

problem readers. European Journal of Be-

havior Analysis, 8, 221-238.

Kubina, R. M. (2012). Precision teaching book.

[S.l.]: Greatness Achieved Pub Co.

Kubina, R.M., Morrison, R., & Lee, D.L.

(2002). Benefits of adding precision

teaching to behavioral interventions for

students with autism. Behavioral Interven-

tions, 17, 233-246.

Potts, L., Eshleman, J.W., & Cooper, J.O.

(1993). Ogden R. Lindsley and the histor-

ical development of precision teaching.

The Behavior Analyst, 2, 16, 177-189.

Related Lessons:

A-01: Measure frequency (i.e., count)

A-07: Measure trials to criterion.

F-03: Use Direction Instruction

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-02: Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

H-03: Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

H-05: Evaluate temporal relations between

observed variables (within and between ses-

sions, times series).

J-15: Base decision-making on data displayed

in various formats.

FK-33: Functional relations.

128 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

F-05 Use personalized systems of instruc-

tion (PSI)

Personalized system of instruction (PSI) was

created by Fred S. Keller. PSI uses self-paced

modules with study guides to help direct stu-

dents’ learning. Proctors are used to help stu-

dents with the material and lectures are not as

common compared to traditional teaching

formats. PSI focuses on self-paced learning by

the student rather than teacher directed in-

struction. Specific criteria on mastery tests are

required before moving on to the next mod-

ule. Keller (1968) summarized his writings

from 1967 describing features of this type of

training:

1. The go-at-your-own-pace component

2. The unit-perfection requirement for ad-

vancement

3. The use of lectures and demonstrations

sparingly but not for critical information

4. The promotion of written word in teacher-

student communication

5. The use of proctors for repeated testing,

immediate scoring, answering questions, and

personal-social part of the educational process

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify the key compo-

nents of personalized Systems of Instruc-

tion (PSI).

• Have supervisee provide benefits and

drawbacks for instruction using PSI.

• Have supervisee choose a topic and cre-

ate a mock PSI curriculum on that topic.

Include modules, competency exams,

and guidelines for other considerations

when using PSI for that topic.

Relevant Literature:

Axelrod, S. (1992). Disseminating an effective

educational technology. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 1, 25, 31-35.

Buskist, W., Cush, D., & DeGrandpre, R. J.

(1991). The life and times of PSI. Journal

of Behavioral Education, 1, 215–234.

Keller, F. S. (1994). The Fred S. Keller School:

CABAS at work. The Current Repertoire, 10,

3–4.

Keller, F. S. (1968). Goodbye, teacher. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 79–89.

Keller, F. S., & Sherman, G. (1982). The PSI

handbook. Lawrence, KS: TRI Publica-

tions.

Twyman, J.S. (1992). The Fred S. Keller

School. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

4, 31, 695-701.

Eyre, H.L. (2007) Keller’s personalized system

of instruction: Was it fleeting fancy or is

there a revival on the horizon? The Be-

havior Analyst, 8, 3, 317-324.

Related Lessons:

F-01: Use self-management strategies.

F-04: Use precision teaching.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived rela-

tions).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 129

F-06 Use incidental teaching

Definition:

Incidental teaching - When the “instructor

assesses the child's ongoing interests, follows

the child's lead, restricts access to high interest

items, and constructs a lesson within the nat-

ural context, with a presumably more moti-

vated child." (Anderson & Romanczyk, 1999,

p. 169)

Incidental teaching requires an instructor to

use moments in the natural environment as

teaching opportunities. It can be used to teach

language based skills, social skills, play skills,

or other skills as well.

Example:

• Todd often struggles to initiate play

with his peers during recess. His

teacher decided to go over and

prompt Todd to introduce himself

to Mike and ask him to play a game.

Non-example:

Rich wanted to help teach Todd multiplica-

tion, so he gave him a worksheet and sat down

with him to go through the problems one by

one.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee define and describe

incidental teaching.

• Have supervisee describe how they

use incidental teaching at work to

teach various skills.

• Have supervisee describe the pros

and cons of incidental teaching.

Relevant Literature:

Anderson, S. R., & Romancyzk, R. G. (1999).

Early intervention for young children

with autism: Continuum-based behav-

ioral models. Journal of the Association for

Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 162–173.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,

448, 542, 634.

Hart, B. & Risley, T.R. (1975) Incidental

teaching of language in the preschool.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 4,

411-420.

McGee, G.G., & Daly, T. (2007). Incidental

Teaching of Age-Appropriate Social

Phrases to Children with Autism. Re-

search and Practice for Persons with Severe Dis-

abilities, 32, 112-123.

McGee, G.G., Morrier, M.J., & Daly, T.

(1999) An Incidental Teaching Ap-

proach to Early Intervention for Tod-

dlers with Autism. Research and Practice for

Persons with Severe Disabilities, 24, 133-146.

McGee, G. G., Krantz, P. J., Mason, D., &

McClannahan, L. E. (1983). A modified

incidental-teaching procedure for autis-

tic youth: acquisition and generalization

of receptive object labels. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 16(3), 329–338.

Related Lessons:

B-03: Systematically arrange independent var-

iables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.

D-05: Use shaping.

D-11: Use mand training.

J-06: Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response gen-

eralization.

FK-44: Mands.

130 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

F-07 Use functional communication train-

ing

Definition:

Functional communication training (FCT) -

“…an application of differential reinforcement of

alternative behaviors (DRA) because the interven-

tion develops an alternative communicative re-

sponse as an antecedent to diminish the problem

behavior” (Fisher, Kuhn, & Thompson, 1998, p.

543).

The alternative response can include vocaliza-

tions, sign language, communication boards and

devices, picture cards, or gestures.

Carr and Durand (1985) used a two-step process

to demonstrate how to deliver FCT. First they

completed a functional behavior assessment to

identify the stimuli with known reinforcing proper-

ties that maintain the problem behavior, and sec-

ond, they used those stimuli as reinforcers to de-

velop an alternative behavior to replace the prob-

lem behavior.

Guidelines for the effective use of functional

communication training include providing a dense

schedule of reinforcement, fading prompts, and the

appropriate reinforcement schedule thinning after

the response is at strength.

Example:

Rob was throwing books at his teacher every time

he was asked to do a math worksheet. After com-

pleting a functional analysis, Rob’s teacher found

throwing books was maintained by access to es-

cape. Rob was taught to ask for a break when he

was doing math instead of throwing something at

his teacher. This response, paired with pre-teaching

and prompt fading, helped replace the problematic

behavior.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify the advantages and

disadvantages of functional communication

training.

• Have supervisee identify some common

guidelines for using FCT.

• Have supervisee describe instance when

he/she used FCT in a professional setting.

• Have supervisee describe how functional be-

havior assessment (FBA) and differential rein-

forcement of alternative behaviors (DRA) re-

late to the use of FCT.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education, 494-496.

Durand, V.M. (1999). Functional communication

training using assistive devices: Recruiting nat-

ural communities of reinforcement. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 247-267.

Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing be-

havior problems through functional communi-

cation training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 18, 111-126.

Durand, V.M, & Carr, E.G. (1992). An analysis of

maintenance following functional communica-

tion training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

25, 777-794.

Fisher, W.W., Kuhn, D.E., & Thompson, R.H.

(1998). Establishing discriminative control of

responding using functional and alternative re-

inforcers during functional communication

training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31,

543-560.

Hanley, G.P., Iwata, B.A., & Thompson, R.H.

(2001). Reinforcement schedule thinning fol-

lowing treatment with functional communica-

tion training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

34, 17-38.

Related Lessons:

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.

D-05: Use shaping.

D-10: Use echoic training.

D-11: Use mand training.

D-21: Use differential reinforcement

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents

I-03: Design and implement individualized behav-

ioral assessment procedures.

I-04: Design and implement the full range of func-

tional assessment procedures.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 131

F-08 Use augmentative communication

systems

"A set of procedures and processes by which

an individual’s communication skills (i.e., pro-

duction as well as comprehension) can be

maximized for functional and effective com-

munication. It involves supplementing or re-

placing natural speech and/or writing with

aided (e.g. picture communication symbols,

line drawing, Blissymbols, and tangible ob-

jects) and/or unaided symbols (e.g. manual

signs, gestures, and finger spelling)” (Ameri-

can Speech-Language-Hearing Association,

2002).

Augmentative communication includes any

modality that supplements a person with dif-

ficulties engaging in spoken language. This

can include gestures, sign language, PECS,

electronic devices, picture books, etc…

The use of augmentative communication

should be considered as a way to allow the

user to access reinforcement from the natural

environment. Often functionally equivalent

responses can be taught to replace problem-

atic behavior therefore leading to a decrease in

that behavior (Durand, 1999).

Teaching of functional communication us-

ing augmentative communication devices

should be taught using the same strategies to

teach other skills (prompt fading, reinforce-

ment considerations, generalization consider-

ations, etc.)

Augmentative communication systems

should not be confused with the long-discred-

ited “facilitated communication” which is a

pseudoscientific attempt at getting people

with developmental disabilities to communi-

cate.

Example:

• Bill uses pictures to tell his teachers

when he wants.

• Ralph is eating snack and signs “more”

to his teacher after running out of crack-

ers to eat. She gladly hands him more

and praises him for using his words.

• Hillary uses an app on a tablet device

that generates speech sounds so others

respond to her.

Non-examples:

- Bill wants more crackers so tells his

teacher, “I want some more, please.” using

spoken word.

- Bill wants more crackers so he hits his fist

on the table and screams. His teacher says,

“oh, you’re still hungry? Here are a few

more crackers”.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee research various aug-

mentative communication systems.

Have him/her choose a system and de-

scribe it in detail.

• Have supervisee identify the benefits of

using alternative communication sys-

tems for non-vocal-verbal students.

• Have supervisee describe situations

where they would seek the advice of

speech-language professionals for more

information regarding the pros and cons

of each system.

Relevant Literature:

American Speech-Language-Hearing Associa-

tion. (2002). Augmentative and alterna-

tive communication: knowledge and

skills for service delivery [Knowledge

and Skills]. Available from

www.asha.org/policy.

Charlop‐Christy, M. H., Carpenter, M., Le, L.,

LeBlanc, L. A., & Kellet, K. (2002). Us-

ing the picture exchange communication

132 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

system (PECS) with children with au-

tism: Assessment of PECS acquisition,

speech, social‐communicative behavior,

and problem behavior. Journal of applied

behavior analysis, 35(3), 213-231.

Dattilo, J., & Camarata, S. (1991). Facilitating

conversation through self‐initiated aug-

mentative communication treat-

ment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 24(2), 369-378.

Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Schwartz, A.

A. (1995). A history of facilitated com-

munication: Science, pseudoscience, and

antiscience science working group on fa-

cilitated communication. American Psy-

chologist, 50(9), 750.

Durand, V. M. (1999). Functional communi-

cation training using assistive devices: re-

cruiting natural communities of rein-

forcement. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 32(3), 247.

Mirenda, P., Iacono, T., & Williams, R. (1990).

Communication options for persons

with severe and profound disabilities:

State of the art and future direc-

tions. Journal of the Association for Persons

with Severe Handicaps.

Related Lessons:

D-03: Use prompts and prompt fading.

D-04: Use modeling and imitation training.

D-05: Use shaping.

F-07: Use functional communication training.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 133

G-01 Review records and available data at

the outset of the case

An important part of understanding the client

you are working with is to take time to review

the treatment history of this individual. There

are records related to a medical history that

would be beneficial to see. This would include

medical procedures, medications, and any cur-

rent health concerns. It’s also important to get

the history of treatment related to psycholog-

ical/behavioral intervention as well.

Gresham, Watson, Steuart, & Skinner in

2001 recommend that FBAs should include a

record review to understand more about the

history of the client as well as information re-

garding previous interventions.

Matson (2010) summarized this position by

saying “The behavior analyst should carefully

review records relating to previous attempts

to change potential target behaviors. Records

indicating previous success with related target

behaviors or a history of limited impact on a

behaviour despite well-planned and faithfully

implemented change programmes may be

useful in selecting change targets which can be

achieved within meaningful timescales” (p.

35).

Assessment:

• Have the supervisee describe where

he/she would go to get access to

these records. Pick a client and have

him/her actually show you where

the information is located.

• Have the supervisee describe the

reasons why it’s important to do a

records review when getting a new

client or starting a new behavioral in-

tervention.

Relevant Literature:

Gresham, F. M., Watson, T. S., Steuart, T., &

Skinner, C. H. (2001). Functional Behav-

ioral Assessment: Principles, Procedures,

and Future Directions. School Psychol-

ogy Review, 30(2), 156–172.

Matson, J. L. (Ed.). (2010). Applied Behavior

Analysis for Children with Autism Spectrum

Disorders (2009 edition). New York:

Springer.

Related Lessons:

G-01 Review records and available data at the

outset of the case.

G-02 Consider biological/medical variables

that may be affecting the client.

G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of the

client in order to identify the referral problem.

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language.

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior-analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients.

G-07 Practice within one’s limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary.

I-03 Design and implement individualized be-

havioral assessment procedures.

I-04 Design and implement the full range of

functional assessment procedures.

K-01 Provide for ongoing documentation of

behavioral services.

134 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

G-02 Consider biological/medical varia-

bles that may be affecting the client

The Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) instructs that a “behavior analyst rec-

ommends seeking a medical consultation if

there is any reasonable possibility that a re-

ferred behavior influenced by medical or bio-

logical variables” in section 3.02 Medical

Consultation, of the BACB professional and

ethical compliance code for behavior analysts

(2014)

This is relevant both in research and prac-

tice. Therefore, the first step in the assessment

process should be to determine whether the

problem may be due to a medical/biological

issue and whether a medical evaluation has

been completed (Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007). Failure to rule out medical needs would

be unethical as it would delay potentially nec-

essary medical treatment that may even prove

life threatening dependent on the medical

concerns or the severity of the challenging be-

havior.

Possible pain related disorders or other

medical/biological disorders that restrict an

individual’s ability to engage in appropriate

behavior should be investigated. Some rele-

vant behavioral topics correlated with a high

likelihood of medical and biological causes are

feeding disorders, toileting challenges (e.g.,

encopresis and incontinence), sleep problems

and self-injury. Take self-injury for example;

studies have shown that self-injurious behav-

ior (SIB) has been maintained by pain attenu-

ation which, can be categorized as automatic

negative reinforcement behavior (Carr &

Smith, 1995; O’Reilly, 1997). In detail, an in-

crease in painful stimulation is an establishing

operation (EO), thereby increasing behavior

that has been reinforced by pain reduction.

Aside from the common examples pre-

sented above, it is possible that any form of

challenging behavior could be a result of an

underlying medical or biological issue. For ex-

ample, aggressive behavior may also be related

to pain related disorders which act as an EO

(Carr et al., 2003; Skinner, 1953). The argu-

ment has also been made that aggressive be-

havior in response to painful stimulation may

be respondent behavior (Ulrich & Azrin,

1962). Furthermore, Kennedy and Meyer

(1996) found that the occurrence of allergy

symptoms and sleep deprivation were corre-

lated with an increase in escape maintained

challenging behavior.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee what the first part

of assessment should be regarding spe-

cific situations that would require col-

laboration with medical professionals

to rule out any underlying medical is-

sues. Have them give a rationale as to

why this is important.

• Ask the supervisee to list a few possible

medical/biological considerations that

should be ruled out when treating a

feeding disorder, toileting issue or

sleep problem.

• Provide supervisee with examples such

as this one: A student in a school set-

ting is engaging in severe tooth picking

and the classroom teacher is calling you

for advice on what to do. Then ask the

supervisee what the first step of assess-

ment should be to treating this chal-

lenging behavior.

Relevant Literature:

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Carr, E. G., Smith, C. E., Giacin, T. A.,

Whelan, B. M., & Pancari, J. (2003). Men-

strual discomfort as a biological setting

event for severe problem behavior: As-

sessment and intervention. Journal Infor-

mation, 108(2).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 135

Carr, E. G., & Smith, C. E. (1995). Biological

setting events for self‐injury. Mental Retar-

dation and Developmental Disabilities Research

Reviews, 1(2), 94-98.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Kennedy, C. H., & Meyer, K. A. (1996). Sleep

deprivation, allergy symptoms, and nega-

tively reinforced problem behavior. Jour-

nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(1), 133-

135.

O'Reilly, M. F. (1997). Functional analysis of

episodic self‐injury correlated with recur-

rent otitis media. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 30(1), 165-167.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.

Simon and Schuster.

Ulrich, R. E., & Azrin, N. H. (1962). Reflexive

fighting in response to aversive stimula-

tion. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of

Behavior, 5(4), 511.

Related Lessons:

G-01Review records and available data at the

outset of the case.

G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of the

client in order to identify the referral problem.

G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients.

G-07 Practice within one’s limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary.

FK-13 Reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-26 Unconditioned motivating operations

136 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

G-03 Conduct a preliminary assessment of

the client in order to identify the referral

problem

Definition:

Behavioral assessment - “A form of assess-

ment that involves a full range of inquiry

methods (observation, interview, testing, and

the systematic manipulation of antecedent or

consequent variables) to identify probable an-

tecedent and consequent controlling varia-

bles. Behavioral assessment is designed to dis-

cover resources, assets, significant others,

competing contingencies, maintenance and

generality factors, and possible reinforc-

ers and/or punishers that surround the poten-

tial target behavior" (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007, p. 691).

Five Phases of a Behavioral Assessment

Hawkins (1979) described behavioral assess-

ment as being funnel shaped, beginning with

a broad scope and then moving to a narrow

focus.

1. Screening and general disposition

2. Defining and quantifying problems

or goals

3. Pinpointing the target behavior

4. Monitoring progress

5. Follow-up

The preliminary assessment consists of the

first 3 phases of this model. It is the broad

gathering of information needed in order to

pinpoint the target behavior. Once the tar-

get behavior is selected, a formal func-

tional behavioral assessment is required.

Preliminary Assessment

Assessment Methods*

1. Interviews (client and significant

others)

2. Checklists

3. Standardized Tests

4. Direct Observations

Social Significance

Before selecting a target behavior, it is im-

portant to reflect on how important the be-

havior change is for the client, not to others

around the client. The rational for the behav-

ior change must be critically ana-

lyzed. Cooper Heron, and Heward (2007)

suggest the following methods for determin-

ing the social significance of the target behav-

ior

• Is the behavior likely to produce rein-

forcement in the natural environment?

• Is the skill useful?

• Will it increase the individual's access to

new reinforcing environments?

• Will it allow more social interaction?

• Is it a pivotal behavior?

• Is it a behavior cusp?

• Is it age-appropriate?

• If it is a behavior to be eliminated?

• What is the replacement skill?

• Is the identified behavior actually prob-

lematic?

• Is this the identified behavior just re-

ports or is it real?

Prioritizing Target Behaviors

If a number of target behaviors are selected

which are socially significant, it is then im-

portant to prioritize the target behavior ensur-

ing dangerous behavior is tar-

geted first. Other guidelines are listed by

Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) as the fol-

lowing:

• Pose a danger to client or others?

• How often does it occur?

• How longstanding is the problem?

• Will changing the behavior produce

higher rates of reinforcement?

• What is the importance related to over-

all independence?

• Will changing the behavior reduce neg-

ative attention?

• Will changing the behavior produce

positive attention?

• How likely is success of changing the

behavior?

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 137

• How much will it cost to change the be-

havior?

Defining the Target Behavior

Before beginning, the target behavior must be

objectively and concisely defined in a

clear concrete observable manner.

Setting the Criteria for Behavior Change

Goals must be socially meaningful to the per-

son's life.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee what assessment tools

can be used to do a preliminary assess-

ment.

• Provide examples of targets, which are

and are not socially significant and ask

the supervisee to determine if these be-

haviors are appropriate target behav-

iors. Have supervisee explain why.

• Provide a list of five target responses

and have the supervisee prioritize them,

justifying their decisions using the

guidelines provided by Cooper, Heron

and Heward (2007).

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis:

2nd Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.

Hawkins, R. P. (1979). The functions of as-

sessment: Implications for selection and

development of

devices for assessing repertoires in clinical,

educational, and other settings. Journal of

Applied

Behavior Analysis, 12(4), 501-516.

Linehan, M. M. (1977). Issues in behavioral

interviewing. Behavioral assessment: New di-

rections in clinical psychology. New York:

Brunner/Mazel.

Houten, R. V. (1979). Social validation: The

evolution of standards of competency

for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 12(4), 581-591.

Related Lessons:

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

I-02 Define environmental variables inob-

servable and measurable terms

J-01 State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms

138 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using

nontechnical language

It is important for a behavior analyst to have

a strong verbal repertoire when speaking

about the science of behavior analysis. Jargon

used in journals, universities, and with other

behavior analysts is valuable to promote effec-

tive action on the part of the listener with pre-

cise discriminative control.

That being said, Skinner wrote that we

should choose words for the effects they have

on the listener (Skinner, 1957) and unless that

listener has extensive training in behavior

analysis, our use of technical language will

“fall on deaf ears” and not produce effective

action. When speaking with client family

members, friends, or professionals from other

closely related fields, it is important to remem-

ber that your verbal behavior is for the benefit

of your audience. Bailey (1991) describes this

phenomenon well:

“In our zeal to be scientific, we have stressed the

need to match the requirements of science in our writing

and publishing. Although this has given us much-

needed academic credibility (faculty can be promoted

and tenured by publishing in JABA) it doesn't help

at all in selling our technology to the masses” (p. 446)

During the supervision process, spend con-

siderable amounts of time, working on precise

definitions for technical terms. This benefits

the supervisee in several ways. It allows

him/her to behave effectively as a listener and

speaker when interacting with other behavior

analysts in the field. It will also promote accu-

rate translations to nontechnical language. If a

precise definition is practiced, a less technical,

more layperson-friendly definition will be eas-

ier to describe and it will be more likely to be

accurate.

Assessment:

• Ask Supervisee to give a precise defini-

tion of a behavioral term from a text-

book. Then ask Supervisee to accurately

describe the term in nontechnical lan-

guage. Work on this for the most com-

monly used terms. Provide feedback af-

ter, when in a supervision meeting.

• Observe the Supervisee describing a be-

havior analytic concept to another person

(client, colleague, etc.) The Supervisee

should be able to answer basic questions

related to the topic using nontechnical

language. Provide feedback after, when in

a supervision meeting.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J. S. (1991). Marketing behavior analy-

sis requires different talk. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 445-448.

Lindsley, O. R. (1991). From technical jargon

to plain English for application.Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 24(3), 449-458.

Malott, R. W. (1992). Should we train applied

behavior analysts to be researchers?. Journal

of applied behavior analysis, 25(1), 83-88.Skin-

ner B.F. Verbal behavior. New York: Ap-

pleton-Century-Crofts; 1957.

Related Lessons:

G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints.

K-01 Provide for ongoing documentation of

behavioral services.

K-03 Design and use competency-based train-

ing for persons who are responsible for carry-

ing out behavioral assessment and behavior-

change procedures.

K-08 Establish support for behavior-analytic

services from direct and indirect consumers.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their nat-

ural environments.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 139

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, in-

cluding private events, in behavior-ana-

lytic (non-mentalistic) terms

Behavior analysts must have a strong verbal

repertoire when speaking about behavior

analysis. This includes using behavior-analytic

language when describing and explaining be-

havior, including private events.

Skinner’s radical behaviorism rejected psy-

chological models of behavior that relied on

mentalistic explanations. Mentalistic ap-

proaches attributed the origination and cause

of behavior to “inner” dimensions or mental

entities (i.e., hypothetical constructs and ex-

planatory fictions such as the unconscious or

psyche). Mentalistic explanations of behavior

often neglect the consideration and analysis of

controlling variables in the environment and

use circular reasoning to explain the cause and

effect of behavior. Understanding the philos-

ophy of radical behaviorism and the principles

of behavior can assist behavior analysts in ex-

plaining behavior in behavior-analytic terms.

For example, you are conducting a func-

tional behavior assessment in a school setting

for a student who engages in high rates of ag-

gression in the classroom. The teacher tells

you that the student’s aggression occurs be-

cause the student is frustrated and lives in an

unpleasant environment at home. This is a

mentalistic explanation. After several obser-

vations, you have determined that when aca-

demic demands are placed, the student en-

gages in aggression and their aggression is re-

inforced by escape (i.e., academic demands are

removed). This is a behavior-analytic explana-

tion of behavior that accounts for behavior as

it is a function of environmental variables.

Using behavior-analytic language to explain

and describe behavior can be difficult as we

are often exposed to mentalistic explanations

(e.g., “wanting to” or “felt like it” as causes of

behavior). Read Malott and Trojan-Suarez

(2004) for a discussion about circular reason-

ing and talking about behavior.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to explain and de-

scribe behavior in behavior-analytic

terms.

• Provide supervisee with examples of

mentalistic explanations of behavior

and ask supervisee to provide behav-

ior-analytic explanations.

• Observe supervisee explain behavior

in behavior-analytic terms to a col-

league or client.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Definition and characteristics of

applied behavior analysis. Applied Behavior

Analysis (pp. 1-23). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Malott, R. W., & Trojan Suarez, E.A. (2004).

Reinforcement. Principles of Behavior (pp.

28-35). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Moore, J. (2008). Conceptual Foundations of Rad-

ical Behaviorism. Cornwall-on-Hudson,

NY: Sloan Publishing.

Related Lessons:

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mental-

istic) explanations of behavior

FK-08 Distinguish between radical and meth-

odological behaviorism.

FK-31 Behavioral contingencies

FK-33 Functional relations

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-02 Define environmental variables in ob-

servable and measurable terms.

140 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

G-06 Provide behavior analytic services in

collaboration with others who support

and/or provide services to one’s clients

Content area 2.03 (a) (Behavior Analysts’ Re-

sponsibility to Clients) of the professional and

ethical compliance code for behavior analysts

states that, “When indicated and professionally

appropriate, behavior analysts cooperate with

other professionals, in a manner that is con-

sistent with the philosophical assumptions and

principles of behavior analysis, in order to effec-

tively and appropriately serve their clients.” In

other words, it is our ethical responsibility to col-

laborate and communicate with all service pro-

viders and other individual stakeholders if it will

best service our clients.

Example:

Mary has been exhibiting aggression during sessions with

her occupational therapist whenever a novel task is pre-

sented. The BCBA has come up with a general behavior

support plan for all staff working with Mary to decrease

these behaviors. The plan involves multiple options that

all are relevant to the addressing the function of the ag-

gression. The BCBA sets up a training to discuss and

explain the proper implementation of these intervention

strategies, and get feedback from other service providers

such as the occupational therapist to increase the social

validity of the treatment and increase the likelihood of

treatment fidelity.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify and list all caregiv-

ers and professionals who may provide ser-

vices to the individuals on their case load.

Have supervisee list ways that they can in-

crease communication with these individu-

als to ensure the most effective interven-

tions and treatment of their clients.

• Have supervisee discuss how to effectively

disseminate intervention information and

train others on behavior analytic tech-

niques, while using non-technical language

that other service providers can compre-

hend and will be able to implement.

• Discuss behavioral skills training and how

this could be an effective tool to train oth-

ers in the implementation of behavior ana-

lytic procedures.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice

Hall. 641-642, 675-676.

Kelly, A. & Tincani, M. (2013). Collaborative

training and practice among applied be-

havior analysts who support individuals

with autism spectrum disorder, Education

and Training in Autism and Developmental Dis-

abilities. 48, 1, 120-131.

Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for

the Behavior Analysis Certification

Board®, Inc. (“BACB”), all rights re-

served. (Content list items 2.02-2.03).

Related Lessons:

G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language.

G-07: Practice within one’s limits of professional

competence in applied behavior analysis, and

obtain consultation, supervision, training, or

make referrals as necessary.

G-08: Identify and make environmental changes

that reduce the need for behavior analysis ser-

vices.

I-06: Make recommendations regarding behav-

iors that must be established, maintained, in-

creased, or decreased.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response gener-

alization.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).

K-03: Design and use competency-based train-

ing for persons who are responsible for carrying

out behavioral assessment and behavior-change

procedures.

K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic

services from direct and indirect consumers.

K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural

environments.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 141

G-07 Practice within one's limits of pro-

fessional competence in applied behavior

analysis, and obtain consultation, super-

vision, and training, or make referrals as

necessary

Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to

boundaries of competence in 1.02 of the Be-

havior Analyst Certification Board profes-

sional and ethical compliance code for behav-

ior analysts:

1.02 Boundaries of Competence.

(a) All behavior analysts provide services,

teach, and conduct research only within the

boundaries of their competence, defined as

being commensurate with their education,

training, and supervised experience.

(b) Behavior analysts provide services, teach,

or conduct research in new areas (e.g., popu-

lations, techniques, behaviors) only after first

undertaking appropriate study, training, su-

pervision, and/or consultation from persons

who are competent in those areas… (BACB,

2014, p.4).

Practicing within your area of compe-

tence, training and experience

If, for example, a senior therapist working

within an intensive behavior intervention pro-

gram for preschoolers suddenly began work-

ing with adults with phobias then they would

be in violation of this ethical guideline.

Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) go on fur-

ther to say that even within one's competence

area, if a situation exceeds your training or ex-

perience then a referral to another behavior

analyst should be made. If there is a gap in ex-

pertise, available then workshops and confer-

ences may be accessed. Mentors, supervisors

and colleagues can provide additional training.

Bailey and Burch (2011) relate this ethical

boundary to the Hippocratic Oath, "Do no

harm". The guideline addresses the responsi-

ble conduct of behavior analysts, ensures the

safety of clients, and protects the integrity of

the field.

Assessment:

• Discuss case examples from Bailey and

Burch (2011).

• Have the supervisee come up with five fic-

titious examples of situations where the

ethical guideline 1.02 was broken and pro-

vide creative solutions to the situation.

• Use behavior skills training to teach your

supervisee how to respond to a client ask-

ing your supervisee to provide services

within an area in which they had no experi-

ence.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compliance

code for behavior analysts. 2014. Re-

trieved from www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd

Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.

Houten, R., Axelrod, S., Bailey, J. S., Favell, J.

E., Foxx, R. M., Iwata, B. A., & Lovaas,

O. I. (1988). The right to effective be-

havioral treatment. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 21(4), 381-384.

Related Lessons:

B-02: Review and interpret articles from the

behavior analytic literature.

G-02: Consider biological/medical variables

that may be affecting the client.

G-06: Provide behavior analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients.

K-08: Establish support for behavior analytic

services from direct and indirect consumers.

K-09: Secure the support of others to main-

tain the client’s behavioral repertoires in their

natural environment.

142 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

G-08 Make environmental changes that

reduce the need for behavior analysis ser-

vices

“Behavior analysis is a science of studying how we

can arrange our environments so they make very

likely the behaviors we want to be probably

enough, and they make unlikely the behaviors we

want to be improbable” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 15). The behavior analyst assesses

the nature of the fit between an individual and the

environment in which he/she functions using a

three-part contingency (antecedent, behavior, con-

sequences) structure of events. In this process, the

analyst identifies motivating operations associated

with antecedent events and the consequences that

maintain problem behaviors or prevent adequate

development of adaptive behaviors. This infor-

mation can be used to identify relatively uncompli-

cated proactive environmental changes that will im-

prove the functioning of the individual. As a result

of the individual’s increased access to positive rein-

forcement, more intrusive behavior interventions

may be less necessary.

Examples:

• Parents found it difficult to get their daugh-

ter ready for the school bus on time. They

decided they would try giving her time to

shower at night instead of in the morning.

They added showering to her regular

nighttime routine and the daughter not

only got to the school bus on-time but be-

gan to go to sleep earlier after the expanded

nighttime routine.

• A student refused to sit in his seat at school.

An occupational therapist suggested a gel

filled wedge for the student’s chair and the

student not only remained seated in one

class, but chose to use the wedge in all of

his classes.

Assessment:

• If a student screams and covers his ears

when moderate noises occur in the class-

room, what would the supervisee suggest as

the simplest environmental arrangement

that might be considered for that student?

• A client throws objects at staff and pounds

the wall when they sit and watch the staff’s

favorite television shows at night in the cli-

ent’s apartment. What might the staff be

told to change at night before the analyst

designs a program for reinforcing the cli-

ent’s appropriate television behavior or

punishing his inappropriate behavior?

• If an analyst determines that attention is a

major positive reinforcer for problem be-

haviors for a client, what would the super-

visee consider to be an important conse-

quence to increase following appropriate

behavior?

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

B-02 Review and interpret articles from the behav-

ior-analytic literature.

D-21 Use differential reinforcement

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and dis-

criminative stimuli.

E-03 Use instructions and rules.

I-03 Design and implement individualized behav-

ioral assessment procedures.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors

that must be established, maintained, increased, or

decreased.

J-04 Select intervention strategies based on client

preferences.

J-05 Select intervention strategies based on the cli-

ent’s current repertoires.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on envi-

ronmental and resource constraints.

J-08 Select intervention strategies based on the so-

cial validity of the intervention.

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, select an

acceptable alternative behavior to be established or

increased.

J-12 Program for maintenance.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the

client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural envi-

ronments.

FK-05 Parsimony

FK-06 Pragmatism

FK-23 automatic reinforcement and punishment

FK-26 unconditioned motivating operation

FK-33 functional relations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 143

H-01 Select a measurement system to ob-

tain representative data given the dimen-

sions of the behavior and the logistics of

observing and recording

Assessment and treatment decisions of behav-

ior analysts rely on data. A behavior analyst

can design and implement effective treat-

ments only when the data accurately represent

the behavior of interest (validity) and have

been reliably recorded as they are observed.

To accomplish this goal, behavior analysts

choose behaviors and dimensions of those be-

haviors to facilitate accurate and consistent re-

cording within a given context for each client.

Behavior analysts measure “three fundamen-

tal properties, or dimensional quantities”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 75) of behavior:

• Repeatability--Behavior can be counted

in the same way each time it occurs.

• Temporal extent--Behavior can be

measured in relation to time.

• Temporal locus—Behavior occurs in re-

lation to other behaviors.

First, identify which of these three properties

will provide the most accurate method for

quantifying behavior. Then, decides what di-

mension of behavior to measure, such as a

count of occurrences, frequency of behavior

per unit of time, duration, latency, or other.

Last, decide who will record the behavior and

in what context. If a preferred measurement

system is unlikely to be effectively imple-

mented, then the analyst has to reconsider

definitions or recording circumstances in or-

der to obtain adequate and accurate data for

decision-making.

Examples:

• A teacher is asked to record the

number of times a student yells out

inappropriate language in class each

day. Since the time the student

spends in class varies widely during

the week, the behavior analyst de-

signed a measurement system to rec-

ord rate (number of occurrences di-

vided by time in class) of yelling out

inappropriate language. With these

data, the behavior analyst can com-

pare the student’s behavior across

time of unequal durations.

• A parent is committed to accurately

recording data to show duration of a

child’s tantrums, but found that she

was not always in close proximity

with the child when the behavior be-

gins. The behavior analyst identifies

two conditions during the day when

the mother can accurately record du-

ration of each tantrum (the first 30

minutes after school and the last 30

minutes before bedtime). The

mother records duration of total tan-

truming behavior during each 30 mi-

mute-observation twice a day.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee list and describe

each measurable unit of behavior.

• Have supervisee list and describe

each of the three fundamental prop-

erties of behavior.

• Provide the supervisee with a num-

ber of scenarios. Have the supervi-

see design/describe a data collection

procedure to measure target behav-

ior.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

144 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Gast, D. L. (2010). Single subject research method-

ology in behavioral sciences. New York: NY:

Routledge.

Related Lessons:

A-01 Measure frequency

A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).

A-03 Measure duration

A-04 Measure latency

A-09 Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of

measurement procedures.

A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs.

D-05 Use shaping.

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between ob-

served variables (within & between sessions,

time series).

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behav-

ioral program.

FK-33 functional relations

FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g. rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

FK-48 State the advantages and disad-

vantages of using continuous measure-

ment procedures and discontinuous

measurement procedures (e.g. partial-

and whole-interval recording, momen-

tary time sampling.)

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 145

H-02 Select a schedule of observation and

recording periods

BCBAs select the most appropriate forms of

measurement. The target behavior should

have a clear and observable operational defi-

nition so that it can be recorded during a pe-

riod of observation. Using a consistent meas-

urement procedure and schedule of observa-

tion will help ensure that the data are truly re-

flective of the target behavior you want to

measure. Specify a time interval (or observa-

tion period) for recording data. Additionally,

time intervals used in interval recording

should remain consistent across observations

(e.g., if you collect data on a target behavior

during a 15 minute observation using 30-sec-

ond partial intervals then you should use the

same procedure on subsequent observations).

If you change any aspect of the operational

definition, observational period, or measure-

ment procedures, explain the change when

presenting data.

Example:

• If your client’s parent reported that ag-

gression only happens when the client

is asked to brush their teeth, then you

want to ensure that you can observe

the client during times they are asked

to brush their teeth.

• An instructor wanted to use the PLA-

CHECK measurement procedure to

record his students’ involvement in an

in-class group assignment. It would be

appropriate to collect these data when

students separate into groups and start

the assignment. Recording data during

the lecture or a test would not be an

appropriate observation period.

Assessment:

• Provide supervisee with a target behav-

ior and ask supervisee to explain what

measurement procedure should be

used and observation periods should

occur.

• Provide supervisee with various sce-

narios of target behaviors, measure-

ment procedure, and observation pe-

riod and ask supervisee to determine

the appropriateness of the measure-

ment procedure and observation.

• Ask supervisee to develop procedures

for observing and recording a target

behavior in a client’s behavior inter-

vention program.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Behav-

ior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Bailey, J. & Burch, M. (2010). 25 Essential Skills

and Strategies for the Professional Behavior An-

alyst: Expert Tips for Maximizing Consulting

Effectiveness. New York, NY: Routledge.

Related Lessons:

A-01 Measure frequency (i.e., count).

A-02 Measure rate (i.e., count per unit time).

A-03 Measure duration.

A-04 Measure latency.

A-05 Measure interresponse time (IRT).

A-06 Measure percent of occurrence.

A-07 Measure trials to criterion.

A-12 Design and implement continuous meas-

urement procedures (e.g., event recording).

A-13 Design and implement discontinuous

measurement procedures (e.g., partial & whole

interval, momentary time sampling).

A-14 Design and implement choice measures.

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

FK-48 State the advantages and disadvantages of

using continuous measurement procedures and

discontinuous measurement procedures (e.g.,

partial- and whole-interval recording, momen-

tary time sampling).

146 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative rela-

tions

Behavior change is an ongoing process that must

be continuously evaluated. This evaluation occurs

through an analysis of data that reflects the quanti-

fiable form of the behavior of interest. However,

understanding the extent of behavior change can

be difficult if one is looking at raw data alone. As

such, behavior analysts use graphic displays to ana-

lyze, interpret, and communicate the results of be-

havior interventions (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007). The most common graphic displays include

line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative records, Stand-

ard Celeration charts, and scatterplots. The clinical

utility of each graphic display varies so it is im-

portant to select the graphic display that will most

accurately illustrate what the behavior analyst wants

to understand.

Cooper et al. (2007) outlines the following pur-

poses for the different graphic displays.

Line graphs are the most common form of

graphic display and can be used to (1) show multi-

ple dimensions of one behavior, (2) two or more

different behaviors, (3) a behavior under different

conditions, (4) changes in the target behavior rela-

tive to the manipulation of an independent varia-

ble, (5) and the behavior of multiple learners.

Bar graphs are typically used to (1) display dis-

crete data that cannot be captured by an underlying

dimension reflected on a horizontal axis and (2)

provide an easy comparison of variables during dif-

ferent conditions.

Cumulative records are useful when the behav-

ior analyst wants to (1) illustrate the total number

of responses made over time, (2) the graph is used

as a means to provide feedback to the learner, (3)

the behavior of interest can only occur once during

the specified measurement period, and (4) an anal-

ysis of a specific instance during an experiment is

warranted.

The Standard Celeration Chart is a semilogarith-

mic chart that is used to reflect a linear measure of

change across time. Lastly, scatterplots illustrate

the comparative distribution of discrete measures

in a data set and can be useful to uncover relation-

ships across different subsets of data.

Example:

• If you want to see data paths across three be-

haviors and different intervention conditions,

then a line graph is the most appropriate

graphic display.

• Your client has rapidly acquired several lan-

guage targets. A cumulative record can illus-

trate acquisition and is more efficient than

creating a line graph for each acquired lan-

guage target.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to explain the utility of each

type of graphic display.

• Provide supervisee with examples of graphs

and ask supervisee to identify which type of

display is used and interpret the data pre-

sented in the display.

• Ask supervisee to create at least one of each

type of graphic display.

• Provide examples of different measures of be-

havior and what information is desired from

each set of data and ask supervisee to identify

which graphic display would be most appro-

priate to communicate the results.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Constructing and interpreting

graphic displays of behavioral data. Applied

Behavior Analysis (pp. 126-157). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Parsonson, B. S., & Baer, D. M. (1978). The analy-

sis and presentation of graphic data. In T. R.

Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research: Strate-

gies for evaluating change (pp. 101-165). New

York, NY: Academic Press.

Related Lessons:

A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using equal-

interval graphs.

A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using a cumu-

lative record to display data.

A-12 Design and implement continuous measure-

ment procedures (e.g., event recording).

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of be-

havior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interresponse

time).

B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent varia-

bles.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and variabil-

ity.

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between ob-

served variables (within &between sessions, time

series).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 147

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and

variability

Definitions:

Level - “The value on the vertical axis scale

around which a set of behavioral measures

converge is called level. In the visual analysis

of behavioral data, level is examined within a

condition in terms of its absolute value (mean,

median, and/or range) on the y-axis scale, the

degree of stability or variability, and the extent

of change from one level to another… The

mean level of a series of behavioral measures

within a condition can be graphically illus-

trated by the addition of a mean level line: a

horizontal line drawn through a series of data

points within a condition at that point on the

vertical axis equaling the average value of the

series of measures” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, pp. 150-151).

Trend - “The overall direction taken by a data

path is its trend” (Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007, p. 151). Trends can be described in

terms of their direction, i.e., ascending, de-

scending or zero/no trend. They can also be

described in terms of their degree or magni-

tude, and the extent of variability, the data

points around the trend have. The direction

and degree of trend shown in a series of data

points can be visually represented on a graph

by drawing a straight line through the data.

This is called a trend line or line of progress

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

Variability - “How often and the extent to

which multiple measures of behavior yield dif-

ferent outcomes is called variability”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 150).

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisees to define

level/trend/variability.

• Ask your Supervisee to graph a set

of data and describe the

level/trend/variability shown in the

data.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd

ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

Pearson Prentice Hall.

Keohane, D. D., & Greer, R. D. (2005).

Teachers' use of a verbally governed al-

gorithm and student learning. Interna-

tional Journal of Behavioral and Consultation

Therapy, 1, 249-268.

Lindsley, O. R. (1985). Quantified trends in the

results of behavior analysis. Presidential ad-

dress at the Eleventh Annual Conven-

tion of the Association for Behavior

Analysis, Columbus, OH.

McCain, L. J., & McCleary, R. (1979). The sta-

tistical analysis of the simple interrupted

time series quasi-experiment. In T. D.

Cook & D. T. Campbell (Eds.), Quasi -

experimentation: Design and analysis issues for

field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally.

White, O. (2005). Trend lines. In G. Sugai &

R. Horner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavior

modification and cognitive behavior therapy,

Volume 3: Educational applications. Pacific

Grove, CA; Sage Publications.

Related Lessons:

A-10: Design, plot, and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs

A-11: Design, plot, and interpret data using a

cumulative record to display data

H-03: Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations

H-04: Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret ob-

served data

FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions

of behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, inter-

response time)

148 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between

observed variables (within & between ses-

sions, time series)

Behavior analysts can analyze data across sev-

eral temporal relations prior to visual inspec-

tion. “The manner in which data are aggre-

gated before transforming them into a visual

display serves an equally influential role in data

analysis” (Fahmie & Hanley, 2008, p. 320).

Such aggregation occurs with the use of

within-session, between-session in time series

data.

Between-session analysis involves plotting

total number of occurrences of a dependent

variable within some unit of time (i.e., ses-

sions) and visually inspecting point-by-point

(i.e., session-by-session). Another prevalent

type of aggregation occurrences of behavior is

within-session data (likely due to its univer-

sal application).

Within-sessing data can be analyzed via the

observation of data as it changes throughout

the duration of the session or at specific times

during the session. Fahmie and Hanley (2008)

outlined eight conditions under which within-

session data are valuable:

1. Description of naturally occurring

behavioral relations (descriptive as-

sessment)

2. Determination of behavioral func-

tion (functional analyses)

3. Detection of within-session trends

4. Safeguard clients from any risks as-

sociated with prolonged session ex-

posure

5. Creation of sufficient data for analy-

sis following abbreviated data collec-

tion

6. Determination of observation ses-

sion duration

7. Clarification of counterintuitive re-

sponse patterns

8. Understanding behavioral processes

There are several methods of within-session

data analysis. In the descriptive assessment lit-

erature, within-session data are calculated via

conditional probabilities to determine possi-

ble temporal relations between behavior and

environmental events (e.g., occurrence/non-

occurrence of putative reinforcer delivery)

(Vollmer, Borrero, Wright, Camp, & Lalli,

2001). In the functional analysis literature,

within-session data have been used to com-

pare the utility of two types of functional anal-

yses (e.g., trial-based versus multi-element)

(Kahng & Iwata, 1999; LaRue et al., 2010).

Moreover, within-session data have been used

in an effort to further analyze unclear results

following an unclear analysis of full session

data (Call & Mevers, 2014; Kahng & Iwata,

1999; Payne et al., 2014; Roane, Lerman, Kel-

ley, & VanCamp, 1999; Vollmer, Marcus,

Ringhdahl & Roane, 1995; Vollmer et. al.,

1993). For example, Kahng & Iwata (1999)

compared full 15-minute functional analysis

session data with within-session data by plot-

ting the first session of each condition into a

minute-by-minute observation period. One of

their findings was that within-session data

clarified unclear (absence of function) results

of the full session data.

In another example, Payne et al., (2014) ana-

lyzed within-session data in different manner

by comparing data when the putative estab-

lishing operation (EO) was present versus

when the putative EO was absent across the

last five 10-minute sessions of each condition.

The results generated from the within-session

data analysis was used to develop a second ex-

perimental analysis that clarified the function

of the behavior for the two participants.

Assessment:

• Have the supervisee read the Fahmie

& Hanley (2008) article. Then pro-

vide the supervisee with examples of

different data analysis units along the

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 149

continuum the authors display in

Figure 1. Have them place the sce-

narios along the continuum and dis-

cuss.

• Have the supervisee describe differ-

ent methods of within session data

collection ( e.g. minute-by-minute,

event based observation period

comparisons) and their utility ( a re-

view of the methods used in the rel-

evant literature will assist with this

task)

Relevant Literature:

Call, N. A. and Lomas Mevers, J. E. (2014), The

Relative Influence of Motivating Opera-

tions for Positive and Negative Reinforce-

ment on Problem Behavior During De-

mands. Behavioral Interventions, 29: 4–20.

doi: 10.1002/bin.1374

Fahmie, T. A., & Hanley, G. P. (2008). Progress-

ing Toward Data Intimacy: A Review of

Within-Session Data Analysis. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 41(3), 319.

Hartmann, D. P., Gottman, J. M., Jones, R. R.,

Gardner, W., Kazdin, A. E., & Vaught, R.

S. (1980). Interrupted time‐series analysis

and its application to behavioral data. Jour-

nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13(4), 543-

559.

Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lind-

berg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., &

Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisition in

the implementation of functional analysis

methodology. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 33(2), 181-194.

Krause, T. R., Seymour, K. J., & Sloat, K. C. M.

(1999). Long-term evaluation of a behav-

ior-based method for improving safety per-

formance: a meta-analysis of 73 interrupted

time-series replications. Safety Science, 32(1),

1-18.

LaRue, R. H., Lenard, K., Weiss, M. J., Bamond,

M., Palmieri, M., & Kelley, M. E. (2010).

Comparison of traditional and trial-based

methodologies for conducting functional

analyses. Research in Developmental Disabilities,

31(2), 480-487.

Payne, S. W., Dozier, C. L., Neidert, P. L., Jowet,

E. S., & Newquist, M. H. (2014). Using Ad-

ditional Analyses to Clarify the Functions

of Problem Behavior: An Analysis of Two

Cases. Education and Treatment of Children,

37(2), 249-275.

Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., &

Van Camp, C. M. (1999). Within-session

patterns of responding during functional

analyses: The role of establishing opera-

tions in clarifying behavioral function. Re-

search in Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 73-

89.

Tryon, W. W. (1982). A simplified time‐series

analysis for evaluating treatment interven-

tions. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 15(3),

423-429.

Vollmer, T. R., Borrero, J. C., Wright, C. S.,

Camp, C. V., & Lalli, J. S. (2001). Identify-

ing possible contingencies during descrip-

tive analyses of severe behavior disorders.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(3),

269-287.

Vollmer, T. R., Iwata, B. A., Zarcone, J. R.,

Smith, R. G., & Mazaleski, J. L. (1993).

Within-session patterns of self-injury as in-

dicators of behavioral function. Research in

Developmental Disabilities, 14(6), 479-492.

Vollmer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., Ringdahl, J. E., &

Roane, H. S. (1995). Progressing from brief

assessments to extended experimental anal-

yses in the evaluation of aberrant behavior.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(4),

561-576.

Related Lessons:

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret observed

data

J-15 Base decision-making on data displayed

in various formats

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

150 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-01 Define behavior in observable and

measurable terms

The importance of defining behavior in ob-

servable and measurable terms:

• As Baer, Wolf and Risley said in

1968, “since the behavior of an indi-

vidual is composed of physical

events, its scientific study requires

their precise measurement” (p. 93).

In order to be scientific in our study

of behavior, we must be very clear

about what behavior it is we are ac-

tually studying. Therefore, the target

behavior must be observable and

measurable. Cooper, Heron and

Heward (2007) also make the point

that one of the most basic tenets of

science is replication. In order for

other scientists to replicate an exper-

iment or study, the definition of the

behavior under investigation and

how it was measured must be trans-

parent enough, that future replica-

tion is possible.

Technically-sound written definitions of tar-

get behaviors

• Cooper, Heron, and Heward, (2007),

suggest that a good behavioral defini-

tion is:

o Operational (it allows the practitioner

to obtain complete information about

a behavior’s occurrence/non-occur-

rence and allows the accurate applica-

tion of the procedures.)

• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)

also state that good definitions increase

the likelihood that an accurate evaluation

of the effectiveness of a study or exper-

iment will be conducted.

Two types of target behavior definitions

• Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007, p.

65) suggest that there are two types of tar-

get behavior definitions:

o Functional (These types of definition la-

bel responses as part of the target behav-

ior’s response class if they have the same

effect upon the environment.)

o Topographical (These types of defini-

tion look at the shape or form of the tar-

get behavior.)

How to write behavioral definitions

• Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007) cite

Hawkins and Dobes (1977) as giving

three characteristics of good written tar-

get behavior definitions:

o Objective (should refer only to observa-

ble characteristics of the behavior and en-

vironment and shouldn’t utilize inferen-

tial terms, such as “feeling angry”.)

o Clear (the definition should be readable

and unambiguous.)

o Complete (it should outline the bounda-

ries of what is included as an instance of

a response and what is not included.)

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to give you ex-

amples of behavior that is not observ-

able or measurable.

• Ask your Supervisees to write target

behavioral definitions for the follow-

ing behaviors:

o Hand flapping (Answer = Any repet-

itive, rapid motor movement of the

hands in a back and forth motion

which lasts at least 1 second)

o Vocal Manding (Answer = Any oc-

currence of requesting access to a pre-

ferred item/action/event using a vo-

calization such as “cookie please”)

o Throwing (Answer = picking up an

item and throwing it at least a 30 cm

distance from the body)

o Being angry (Answer = this is not an

observable or measurable behavior)

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.

(1968). Some current dimensions of ap-

plied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 151

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd

ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hawkins, R. P., & Dobes, R. W. (1977). Be-

havioral definitions in applied behavior

analysis: Explicit or implicit? In B. C. Et-

zel, J. M. LeBlanc, & D. M. Baer (Eds.),

New developments in behavioral re-

search: Theory, method, and application

(pp. 167-188).

Van Houten, R. (1979). Social Validation: The

evolution of standards of competency

for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 26, 197-203.

Related Lessons:

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

H-02: Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

I-02: Define environmental variables on ob-

servable and measurable terms

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms

FK-47: Identify the observable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

152 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-02 Define environmental variables in ob-

servable and measurable terms

The importance of defining environmental

variables in observable and measurable terms

• As Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007)

state, in order to achieve a high level of

treatment integrity in an experiment, it is

of utmost importance to “develop com-

plete and precise operational definitions

of the treatment procedures” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 235). In the

same way that it is critical to define target

behavior in observable and measurable

terms, so is the case with defining envi-

ronmental variables.

• Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) stress that

the “technological” dimension of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis refers simply to

the fact that “the techniques making up a

particular behavioral application are

completely identified and de-

scribed”(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p.

95). As such, the techniques, or environ-

mental variables being manipulated, must

be defined in observable and measurable

terms to meet the technological dimen-

sion of applied behavior analysis

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

• However, historically, operationally de-

fining independent variables has not

been conducted to the standard required

for a science of behavior that seeks to

achieve the technological dimension of

applied behavior analysis*. It has also not

been done to the same standard as that

of the dependent variables (Johnston &

Pennypacker, 1980; Peterson, Homer &

Wonderlich, 1982; Gresham, Gansle &

Noell, 1993). In 1982 Peterson, Homer

and Wonderlich called for researchers to

measure the independent variables in a

more stringent manner. Unfortunately,

an assessment of this area later on by

Gresham, Gansle and Noell (1993)

found that this had not been accom-

plished.

• Defining environmental variables in ob-

servable and measurable terms

• It is believed that environmental variable

definitions should be written to meet the

same standards as those required to be

met by target behavior definitions

(Gresham, Gansle & Noell, 1993). They

should be “clear, concise, unambiguous,

and objective” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, p. 235).

• Gresham et al. (1993, p. 261) suggest that

independent variable definitions can be

made along four dimensions: spatial, ver-

bal, physical and temporal.

Example Definition

• Gresham et al. (1993, pp. 261-262) give an

example of an adequate definition of

an independent variable, a time-out

procedure, provided by Mace, Page,

Ivancic and O’Brien (1986).

o Immediately following the occurrence

of a target behavior (temporal dimen-

sion), (b) the therapist said, "No, go to

time-out" (verbal dimension), (c) led

the child by the arm to a prepositioned

time-out chair (physical dimension),

and (d) seated the child facing the cor-

ner (spatial dimension). (e) If the

child's buttocks were raised from the

time-out chair or if the child's head was

turned more than 45° (spatial dimen-

sion), the therapist used the least

amount of force necessary to guide

compliance with the time-out proce-

dure (physical dimension). (f) At the

end of 2 min (temporal dimension), the

therapist turned the time-out chair 45°

from the corner (physical and spatial

dimensions) and walked away (physical

dimension).

• Gresham et al., (1993, p. 262) argued that

a failure to define operational variables

along these four dimensions, as done

so by Mace, Page, Ivancic and O’Brien

(1986), makes “replication and external

validation of behavior-analytic investi-

gations difficult.”

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 153

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to explain why

it’s important as a behavior analyst

to define environmental variable in

observable and measurable terms.

• Ask your Supervisee to write an op-

erational definition for the following

independent variable:

o Verbal Praise (Answer = (a) Imme-

diately following the occurrence of a

target behavior (temporal dimen-

sion), (b) the therapist delivered ver-

bal praise, for example, "great

job/nice work/well done” (verbal

dimension), (c) but did not provide

any physical contact such as a hi-five

or pat on the back (physical dimen-

sion). The therapist was within 2 to

20 feet of the client at all times dur-

ing the intervention (spatial dimen-

sion).

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.

(1968). Some current dimensions of ap-

plied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Gresham, F. M., Gansle, K. A. & Noell, G. H.

(1993). Treatment integrity in applied be-

havior analysis with children. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 257-263.

Johnston, J., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1980).

Strategies and tactics of human behavioral re-

search. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.

Peterson, L., Homer, A. L., Wonderlich, S. A.

(1982). The integrity of independent var-

iables in behavior analysis. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 15, 477-492.

Related Lessons:

B-11: Conduct a parametric analysis to deter-

mine the effective values of an independent

variable

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

I-04: Design and implement the full range of

functional assessment procedures

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms

FK-07: Environmental (as opposed to men-

talistic explanations of behavior)

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-33: Functional relations

Footnotes

* See Baer, Wolf & Risley (1968) for more in-

formation on the seven dimensions of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis.

154 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-03 Design and implement individual-

ized behavioral assessment procedures

“Behavioral assessment involves a variety of

methods including direct observations, inter-

views, checklists, and tests to identify and de-

fine targets for behavior change” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 49).

“Applied behavior analysis uses the methods

of FBA to identify antecedent and consequent

events and to use this information in design-

ing interventions to change socially significant

behaviors (Gresham, Watson, & Skinner,

2001, p. 157).”

“FBA is designed to obtain information about

the purpose (function) a behavior serves for a

person….FBA is used to identify the type and

source of reinforcement for challenging be-

haviors as the basis for intervention efforts…

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 501).”

“Once the function of behavior is determined,

this information is used to design interven-

tions to reduce problem behaviors and to fa-

cilitate positive behaviors” (Gresham et al.,

2001, p. 158).

The first step in the process is to define the

target behaviors that the assessment will focus

on. These behaviors are typically identified by

teachers, therapists, or caregivers due to their

interference with learning, adaptive function-

ing, and overall quality of life. In following the

principles of ABA, the behaviors targeted for

assessment must be socially significant.

Another direct method of determining the

function of a behavior is to conduct a func-

tional analysis. This involves systematic ma-

nipulation of the environment, while control-

ling variables to evoke the target behavior un-

der conditions representing each possible

function. The typical functions of behavior in-

clude access to attention, access to tangible

items, escape from demands, and automatic

reinforcement. During a functional analysis,

each function is assessed to determine if they

are maintaining the target behavior. FA is con-

sidered to be the most reliable source for de-

termining the function of a behavior, but may

not be feasible in some settings due to the

time it takes to conduct, safety implications

(depending on the severity of the target be-

havior), and resources needed to conduct each

experimental phase.

Other methods used to gather information

about the function of target behaviors in a be-

havioral assessment include a thorough review

of the client’s previous records (academic re-

ports, past evaluations, behavior support

plans, IEP’s, etc.), the use of behavioral rating

scales such as the FAST (functional analysis

screening tool), MAS (Motivational Assess-

ment Scale), or PBQ (Problem Behavior

Questionnaire)), structured interviews with

caregivers (i.e., functional assessment inter-

view form), direct observation in the target

environment (i.e., home, school, community),

behavior data collection and analysis, and A-

B-C data collection and analysis. These indi-

rect assessments should be used to inform an

experimental functional analysis. They are not

designed to determine the function of a re-

sponse on their own.

Once the direct and indirect assessments

are completed, this information is analyzed

and the BCBA makes recommendations for

intervention based on the results of assess-

ments.

Example:

Rich is completing an FBA on the aggression of one of

his students. After teacher interviews, the completion

of rating scales, and several observations in various set-

tings, Rich hypothesizes that the function of aggression

is escape from demands. He uses this information to

create an intervention plan to decrease aggression at

school.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee complete a behav-

ior rating scale on an individual

based on one of their behaviors.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 155

This can include the FAST, MAS,

PBQ, or another common rating

scale used in behavioral assessments.

Once the supervisee has completed

the rating scale, have them score the

form and present the results.

• Supervisor will create role plays in

which each supervisee will collect

ABC data on specific topography of

problem behavior. After a number

of instances have been recorded, su-

pervisee will analyze the data and

formulate a hypothesized function

of the problem behavior.

• Have supervisee read Iwata, Dorsey,

Slifer, Bauman, & Richman

(1982/1994) and describe the exper-

imental conditions of a functional

analysis.

Relevant Literature:

Carr, E. (1993). Behavior analysis is not ulti-

mately about behavior. The Behavior An-

alyst, 16, 47-49.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 49-71, 300, 335-336, 364-

366, 457, 459-460, 499-524.

Gresham, F., Watson, T.S., & Skinner, C.H.

(2001). Functional Behavioral Assessment:

Principals, Procedures, and Future Directions.

School Psychology Review, 30, 2, 156-

172.

Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bau-

man, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994).

Toward a functional analysis of self‐in-

jury. Journal of applied behavior analy-

sis, 27(2), 197-209.

O’Neill, R., Horner, R., Albin, R., Storey, K.,

& Sprague, J. (1997). Functional assessment

and program development for problem behav-

iors. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sprague, J., Sugai, G. & Walker, H. (1998). An-

tisocial Behavior in Schools. In T.S. Watson

& F.M. Gresham (Eds). Handbook of child

behavior therapy (pp. 451-474). New York:

Pleunum Press.

Witt, J., Daly, E., & Noell, G.H. (2000). Func-

tional Assessment: A step by step guide to solv-

ing academic and behavior problems. Long-

mont, CO. Sopris West.

Related Lessons:

B-03: Systematically arrange independent var-

iables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

G-01: Review records at the outset of a case.

G-04: Conduct a preliminary assessment of

the client in order to identify the referral prob-

lem.

G-05: Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior-analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

G-08: Identify and make environmental

changes that reduce the need for behavior

analysis services.

H-02: Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-02: Define environmental variables in ob-

servable and measurable terms.

I-04: Design and implement the full range of

functional assessment procedures.

I-06: Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms.

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

156 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-04 Design and implement the full range

of functional assessment procedures

Definitions:

Functional behavior assessment (FBA) - "A sys-

tematic method of assessment for obtaining in-

formation about the purposes (functions) a

problem behavior serves for a person; results are

used to guide the design of an intervention for

decreasing the problem behavior and increasing

appropriate behavior" (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 696).

Functional analysis (FA) - "An analysis of the

purposes of problem behavior, wherein anteced-

ents and consequences representing those in the

person's natural routines are arranged within an

experimental design so that their separate effects

on problem behavior can be observed and meas-

ured" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

696).* The FA is considered to be best practice

standard in conducting a functional assessment

(Hanley, Iwata, & McCord 2003).

Descriptive assessment - "Direct observation of

problem behavior and the antecedent and con-

sequent events under naturally occurring condi-

tions" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

693).* The advantages are that the information

yields what happens in the individual's natural

environment, does not disrupt the individual's

routine, and provides information for designing

a functional analysis. The disadvantages of these

assessments are false positives due to behavior

maintained by intermittent reinforcement or the

presence of antecedent and consequent events

which are often present but have no functional

relation, the time required in taking data, and in-

accurate data collection. Also, there is little cor-

respondence between descriptive analysis out-

comes being compared to functional analysis

outcomes (Pence, Roscoe, Bourret, and Ahearn,

2009)

Indirect assessment - “Structured interviews,

checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires used

to obtain information from people who are fa-

miliar with the person exhibiting the problem

behavior" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

697). The advantages of indirect assessments are

that the forms can yield valuable information

and are convenient. The disadvantage is the lack

of research supporting the reliability of these

measurements.

The ethical guidelines of BACB requires BCBAs

to conduct a functional assessment according to

3.01 Behavior-Analytic Assessment. RBT

(a) Behavior analysts conduct current assess-

ments prior to making recommendations or de-

veloping behavior-change programs. The type

of assessment used is determined by clients’

needs and consent, environmental parameters,

and other contextual variables. When behavior

analysts are developing a behavior-reduction

program, they must first conduct a functional as-

sessment.

(b) Behavior analysts have an obligation to col-

lect and graphically display data, using behavior-

analytic conventions, in a manner that allows for

decisions and recommendations for behavior-

change program development (BACB, 2014,

p.8).

Role of Functional Behavior Assessment as out-

lined by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007).

• Identifies antecedent variables that may be

altered to prevent problem behaviors.

• Identifies reinforcement contingencies

which can be altered so problem behavior

no longer receives reinforcement.

• Identifies reinforcers for alternative re-

placement behavior.

• Reduces the reliance on default technolo-

gies such as punishment.

Conducting a functional behavior assessment as

outlined by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007).

• Conduct indirect assessments

• Conduct a descriptive assessment

• Analyze data from the indirect and descrip-

tive assessment and create a hypotheses

• Test conditions the data suggest may be

contributing to the behavior using a func-

tional analysis

• Develop intervention strategies based on

the results.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 157

Assessment:

• Have supervisee list in order the process of

completing a functional assessment.

• Have supervisee describe the benefits and

limitations of each of the assessment pro-

cedures.

• Use behavior skills training techniques to

teach your supervisee how to conduct an

indirect assessment. Accompany the super-

visee in completing their first indirect as-

sessment and provide reinforcement and

feedback following the session.

• Use behavior skills training techniques to

teach your supervisee how to collect ABC

data. Explain the process, model and then

practice using you tube videos of challeng-

ing behaviors. Provide reinforcement and

feedback and continue practicing until the

supervisee clearly demonstrates skills in col-

lecting ABC data. Accompany the supervi-

see in completing live ABC data, take inter-

rater reliability and compare scores provid-

ing reinforcement and feedback.

• Use behavior skills training techniques to

teach your supervisee how to complete an

FA. Practice until the supervisee clearly

demonstrates skills in the control condition

and some test conditions of an FA. Ac-

company the supervisee in completing live

FAs, prompting and providing reinforce-

ment and feedback. Continue to monitor

supervisee in this process until they have

demonstrated the completion of multiple

FA's accurately and are able to set up indi-

vidualized FAs based on the descriptive

data.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1987).

Some still‐current dimensions of applied be-

havior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 20(4), 313-327.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Be-

havior Analyst Certification Board profes-

sional and ethical compliance code for be-

havior analysts. 2014. Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion. Pearson Education, Inc..

Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & McCord, B. E.

(2003). Functional analysis of problem be-

havior: A review. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 36(2), 147-185.

Iwata, B. A., Pace, G. M., Dorsey, M. F., Zarcone,

J. R., Vollmer, T. R., Smith, R. G. Willis, K.

D. (1994). The functions of self-injurious be-

havior: An experimental-epidemiological

analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 27(2), 215–240.

Pence, S. T., Roscoe, E. M., Bourret, J. C., &

Ahearn, W. H. (2009). Relative contributions

of three descriptive methods: Implications

for behavioral assessment. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 425-446.

Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J.,

Wacker, D., Berg, W., Steege, M. & Allaire,

A. (1992). Use of descriptive and experi-

mental analyses to identify the functional

properties of aberrant behavior in school

settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

25(4), 809-821.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent variables

B-05 Use alternating treatment designs

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and dis-

criminative stimuli

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain repre-

sentative data given the dimensions of the behavior

and the logistics of observing and recording

H-03 Select a data display that effectively com-

municates relevant quantitative relations

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between ob-

served variables

I-03 Design and implement individualized behav-

ioral assessment procedures

Footnotes:

*Functional analysis may also be called an analog

analysis or experimental analysis.

*Descriptive analysis may also be called direct as-

sessment.

158 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-05 Organize, analyze and interpret ob-

served data

Organize the data

• Once data have been collected in

their raw format, it is then important

to organize the data into a format

that is easy to analyze (Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007). The most

effective way to do this, and the

most common method utilized by

Behavior Analysts, is to visually dis-

play the data in a graph (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007).

• As Parsonson and Baer (1978, p.

134) said “the function of the graph

is to communicate…..in an attractive

manner, descriptions and summaries

of the data that enable rapid and ac-

curate analysis of the facts” (cited

from Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007, p. 128).

• The visual formats most often used

by behavior analysts are line graphs,

bar graphs, cumulative records,

semilogarithmic charts and scatter-

plots* (Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007).

Analyze and interpret observed data

• Behavior analysts use a systematic

form of assessing graphically dis-

played data called visual analysis

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

• Visual analysis encompasses exam-

ining each of three characteristics in

a graphic display of data, both within

and across the different conditions

and phases of an experiment. These

three characteristics are:

o The level of the data

o The extent and type of var-

iability in the data

o The trends in the data

• Johnston and Pennypacker (1993b,

p. 320) recommend that the viewer

should carefully examine the graph’s

overall construction, paying atten-

tion to details such as the axis labels

and the scaling of each axis, prior to

attempting to interpret the data.

They argue “it’s impossible to inter-

pret graphic data without being in-

fluenced by various characteristics of

the graph itself” (cited from Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 149).

Visual analysis within conditions

• Within given conditions, examina-

tion needs to occur to determine a

few relevant factors (Cooper, Heron

& Heward, 2007):

o The number of data points in

each condition (in general, the

more measurements of the de-

pendent variable there are per

unit of time, the more confi-

dence one can have in the data).

o Variability (A high degree of

variability usually indicates little

control has been achieved over

the factors influencing behav-

ior).

o Level (examined in terms of its

absolute value within a condi-

tion, the degree of stability/var-

iability and the extent of change

from one level to another).

o Trend (the trend indicates

whether a particular behavior

has increased, decreased or has

neither increased nor decreased

within a condition).

Visual analysis between conditions

• After examining the data within each

condition or phase of a study, visual

analysis now proceeds to examining

the data between conditions

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007):

o Comparison needs to be made

between the different condi-

tions of the level, trend and var-

iability of the data (Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 154).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 159

o The data are examined in terms

of the overall level of perfor-

mance between conditions;

generally when there is no over-

lap of data points between the

highest values in one condition

and the lowest values in another

condition, there is a strong like-

lihood that the behavior

changed from one condition to

the next (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, p. 154).

Once an “examination and comparison of

changes in level, trend and variability between

conditions has occurred, a comparison needs

to be made of performance across similar con-

ditions” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.

155). If a behavior change is found to have

occurred over the course of an intervention,

the next question to be asked is, “was the be-

havior change a result of the intervention?”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 155).

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to explain why

it’s important as a behavior analyst

to organize and interpret observed

data.

• Ask your Supervisee to organize a

set of data and display it graphically

in the most appropriate way.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Fisher, W. W. Piazza, C. C. & Roane, H. S.

(2011). Handbook of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis. New York: The Guildford Press.

Johnston, J., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1993b).

Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavioral

research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Parson, B. S. & Baer, D. M. (1978). The anal-

ysis and presentation of graphic data. In T.

R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research:

Strategies for evaluating change (p. 101 – 165).

New York: Academic Press.

Related Lessons:

A-10: Design, plot and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs

A-11: Design, plot and interpret data using a

cumulative record to display data

B-04: Use withdrawal/reversal designs

B-05: Use alternating treatments (i.e., mul-

tielement) designs

B-06: Use changing criterion designs

B-07: Use multiple baseline designs

B-08: Use multiple probe designs

B-09: Use combinations of design elements

J-15: Base decision-making on data displayed

in various formats

Footnotes

* See Cooper, Heron & Heward (2007), pages

129 – 154 for more information on these

graphic displays.

160 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-06 Make recommendations regarding

behaviors that must be established, main-

tained, increased, or decreased.

Hawkins (1984, p. 284) (cited from Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 56) defined habili-

tation as “the degree to which the person’s

repertoire maximizes short and long term re-

inforcers for that individual and for others,

and minimizes short and long term punish-

ers.”

When determining what behaviors to target,

one can use the relevance of behavior rule

(Ayllon and Azrin, 1968) as a guide. This rule

states that a target behavior should only be se-

lected if it is likely to produce reinforcement

for the client in their natural environment.

Another key factor is deciding if the behavior

will generalize to other settings and be sustain-

able once the behavior change program has

ended.

Cooper et al. (2007) provide some considera-

tions when choosing a target behavior to in-

crease, decrease, or maintain. These include:

1. Does this behavior pose any danger to

the client or others?

2. How many opportunities will the person

have to use this new behavior? Or how

often does this problem behavior occur?

3. How long-standing is the problem or skill

deficit?

4. Will changing the behavior produce

higher rates of reinforcement for the per-

son?

5. What will be the relative importance of

this target behavior to the future skill de-

velopment and independent functioning?

6. Will changing this behavior reduce nega-

tive attention from others?

7. Will the new behavior produce reinforce-

ment for significant others?

8. How likely is success in changing this tar-

get behavior?

9. How much will it cost to change this be-

havior?

Example:

Dave has decided to implement an intervention to in-

crease a student’s compliance. He chose this because

lack of compliance interferes with the student’s ability

to learn new skills and access reinforcement by com-

pleting their work and daily routines.

Assessment:

• Write a list of potential target behaviors.

Have supervisee rank the behaviors in or-

der of social significance and give ra-

tionale for their decisions.

• Have supervisee present a case study on

a client they are familiar with, including

the maladaptive behaviors in their reper-

toire. Have the supervisee choose two

behaviors to target for intervention and

state why they chose those behaviors.

Relevant Literature:

Ayllon, T. & Azrin, N.H. (1968). The token econ-

omy: A motivational system for therapy and re-

habilitation. New York: Appleton-Cen-

tury-Crofts.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 55-65, 237-238.

Hawkins, R.P. (1984) What is “meaningful”

behavior change in a severely/pro-

foundly retarded learner: The view of a

behavior analytic parent. In W.L.

Heward, T.E. Heron, D.S. Hill, & J.

Trap-Porter (Eds.) Focus on behavior analy-

sis in education. (pp. 282-286). Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall/ Merrill.

Hawkins, R.P. (1986) Selection of target be-

haviors. In R.O. Nelson & S.C. Hayes

(Eds.), Conceptual foundations of behavioral

assessment (pp. 331-385). New York: Guil-

ford Press.

Rosales-Ruiz, J. & Baer, D.M. (1997). Behav-

ioral cusps: A developmental and prag-

matic concept for behavior analysis. Jour-

nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 533-

544.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 161

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

G-03: Conduct a preliminary assessment of

the client in order to identify the referral prob-

lem.

G-05: Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms.

J-05: Select intervention strategies based on

the client’s current repertoires.

J-08: Select intervention strategies based on

the social validity of the intervention.

J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

J-13: Select behavioral cusps as goals for inter-

vention when appropriate.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

162 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

I-07 Design and conduct preference as-

sessments to identify putative reinforcers.

Definition:

Stimulus preference assessment-“a variety of

procedures used to determine (a) the stimuli that

the person prefers, (b) the relative preference

values of those stimuli, (c) the conditions under

which those preference values change when task

demands, deprivation states, or schedules of re-

inforcement are modified.” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, pp. 275-276)

Preference assessments allow for one to evaluate

a large number of stimuli in a brief period of

time (Hagopian, Long, & Rush, 2004). These

stimuli are likely to function as reinforcers for a

client/participant. Preference assessments also

take into account care provider options (Green

et al. 1988).

Example:

• Example: Marvin is working to teach a stu-

dent to make requests for preferred edibles

using a picture exchange communication

system. Unfortunately, the child is not

demonstrating a preference and is equally

likely to choose either of the two cards pre-

sented. He is equally likely to consume any

edible that is associated with one of two

cards. Marvin decides to do a preference as-

sessment to see if he can identify an edible

that the boy does not like. He conducts a

paired stimulus preference assessment with

eight items he thinks the student will poten-

tially not prefer. He notices that initially the

boy chooses the black licorice but then spits

it out. Over several presentations the child’s

selection avoids this item. It is not con-

sumed on any of the presentations scoring it

as 0% or “not preferred.”

• Example: The Zippadeedooda Perfume

Company is testing a new line of products.

They hire ten women to rate their new line

of fragrances. They ask the ladies to smell

each of the 8 samples provided and use a

Likert type scale to have them rate each of

the fragrances; really like, somewhat like, neutral,

somewhat dislike, and really dislike. Those that

score the overall lowest ratings according to

the test group are not marketed, as it is un-

likely that their client base will find them ap-

pealing either.

• Non-example: Marvin’s student has

worked hard on his schoolwork and has

earned a choice of an edible. Marvin takes a

box of candies out of his desk containing

eight different types of sweets and tells his

student that he can pick one. The boy

chooses a chocolate candy over all the other

options and eats it. He cannot assume that

the child dislikes the rest of the candies be-

cause he did not observe the boy eating any

of the others.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to define a putative rein-

forcement assessment

• Ask your supervisee to state the purpose of a

putative reinforcement assessment

• Require your supervisee to run a couple dif-

ferent types of reinforcer assessments. Pro-

vide feedback during role play and other ob-

servations.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson

Green, C.W., Reid, D. H., White, L. K., Halford, R.

C., Brittain, D. P., & Gardner, S. M. (1988).

Identifying reinforcers for persons with pro-

found handicaps: Staff opinion versus sys-

tematic assessment of preferences. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 31-43.

Hagopian, L. P., Long, E. S., & Rush, K. S. (2004).

Preference assessment procedures for indi-

viduals with developmental disabilities. Behav-

ior Modification, 28(5), 668-677.

Related Lessons:

D-01-Use positive and negative reinforcement

I-07-Design and conduct preference assessments

to identify putative reinforcers

J-04-Select intervention strategies based on client

preferences

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 163

J-01 State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms

“Target behaviors are selected for study in ap-

plied behavior analysis because of their im-

portance to the people involved. Applied be-

havior analysts attempt to increase, maintain,

and generalize adaptive, desirable behaviors

and decrease the occurrence of maladaptive,

undesirable behaviors” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 69).

Van Houten (1979) cited in Cooper et al.

(2007, p. 69) suggests “two basic approaches

to determining socially valid goals: (a) Assess

the performance of people judged to be highly

competent, and (b) experimentally manipulate

different levels of performance to determine

empirically which produces optimal results.

Regardless of the method used, specifying

treatment goals before intervention begins

providing a guideline for continuing or termi-

nating treatment. Further, setting objective,

predetermined goals helps to eliminate disa-

greements or biases among those involved in

evaluating a program’s effectiveness.”

Examples:

• The intervention goal: Client’s ag-

gression will decrease by 80% of

baseline levels across 5 consecutive

school days. Staff will record every

instance of hitting across the school

day on the data collection sheet.

• The intervention goal: Client will ex-

pressively identify 10 different col-

ors with 80% accuracy, across 3 con-

secutive days. Staff will record data

on correct and incorrect responses.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create a sample in-

tervention goal that targets a re-

sponse for increase.

• Have supervisee create a sample in-

tervention goal that targets a re-

sponse for decrease.

• Have supervisee explain why it’s im-

portant to have objective predeter-

mined intervention goals.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Houten, R. V. (1979). Social validation: The

evolution of standards of competency

for target behaviors. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 12(4), 581-591

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-02 Define environmental variables in ob-

servable and measurable terms.

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mental-

istic) explanations of behavior

164 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-02 Identify potential interventions based

on assessment results and the best availa-

ble scientific evidence.

“Interventions should be functionally equivalent to

problem behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 513). In other words, the intervention

should serve as a more appropriate way of access-

ing a specific function than the interfering behav-

ior. “One effective way to design interventions is

to review confirmed hypotheses to determine how

the ABC contingency can be altered to promote

more positive behavior” (Cooper, et al., 2007, p.

513). In other words if you can change the ante-

cedents or consequences associated with a problem

behavior, you may be able to decrease occurrences

of that behavior.

Wolf (1978) recommended that interventions

should be assessed based on appropriateness and

the potential social significance of the outcomes.

Specific social validity assessments can be con-

ducted “to help choose and guide (behavior

change) program developments and applications”

(Baer & Schwartz, 1991, p. 231).

Results of an FBA can help determine which in-

terventions would not be appropriate to decrease

the target behavior. Once assessments are com-

pleted, monitor the progress of the interventions

put in place and conduct follow up assessments

regularly. Any intervention program should be

based on techniques found in behavior analytic lit-

erature. This ensures that the intervention is a

proven technology and has stood up to experi-

mental manipulation and decreased or increased

similar types of behavior.

In regard to assessments that are not based on

the function of the behavior, (i.e., adaptive assess-

ments, verbal behavior assessments, cognitive as-

sessments) a profile of strengths and weaknesses as

well as standard scores and rankings are typically

provided once the assessment is completed. The ar-

eas that present as weaknesses should typically be

addressed first based on their social significance to

the client. Once these areas have been identified,

appropriate interventions can be put into place to

build the client’s missing repertoires and skill base.

Example:

George completed an FBA on Sam’s instances of aggression

in the classroom. The hypothesized function for this behavior

was escape from demands. George created an intervention

plan that would allow Sam to functionally ask for breaks to

briefly escape work demands.

Assessment:

• Assign a specific behavior as well as a hypoth-

esized function of that behavior. Have super-

visee research and identify 3 potential inter-

ventions to decrease the target behavior based

on the hypothesized function.

• Have supervisee explain under what circum-

stances they would use each intervention.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D.M. & Schwartz, I.S. (1991). If reliance on

epidemiology were to become epidemic, we

would need to assess its social validity. Journal

of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 321-334.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 55-65,

237-240, 513-523, 623-624.

Gresham, F., Watson, T.S., & Skinner, C.H. (2001).

Functional Behavioral Assessment: Principals, Proce-

dures, and Future Directions. School Psychology

Review, 30, 2, 156-172.

Lerman, D.C., Iwata, B.A., Smith, R.G., Zincone,

J.R., & Vollmer, T.R. (1994). Transfer of be-

havioral function as a contributing factor in

treatment relapse. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 27, 357-370.

Related Lessons:

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and dis-

criminative stimuli.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measura-

ble terms.

I-02: Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

I-04: Design and implement the full range of func-

tional assessment procedures.

I-06: Make recommendations regarding behaviors

that must be established, maintained, increased, or

decreased.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results and the best available scientific ev-

idence.

J-10: When a behavior is to be decreased, select an

acceptable alternative behavior to be established or

increased.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 165

J-03 Select intervention strategies based

on task analysis

What are the options for intervention strategies

when it comes to teaching a chain of behavior

through a task analysis?

• Once a person’s baseline level has been as-

sessed (through the single or multiple-oppor-

tunity method*) to determine what compo-

nents of the task analysis he/she can perform,

the appropriate intervention strategy needs to

be selected. Cooper, Heron & Heward (2007)

suggest there are four appropriate intervention

strategies which practitioners can choose from;

forward chaining, total-task chaining, and back-

ward chaining.

• Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007, p. 446) ar-

gue that research to date does not suggest a

clear answer to the question “which chaining

strategy to use?” As such, it is very important

to examine the results of the baseline level as-

sessment, to consider the client and how they

learn best, and what the different intervention

strategies can offer in different situations, in or-

der to select the most appropriate method.

Total-task chaining

• If the client performs quite a few steps in the

task analysis but is not performing them in the

correct sequence, the most appropriate method

to choose would probably be total-task chain-

ing.

• Total-task chaining would also be an appropri-

ate intervention strategy to select when the cli-

ent has generalized motor imitation and mod-

erate to severe disabilities (Test et al., 1990,

cited from Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

• When the chain is quite short and not too com-

plex, this may also be an appropriate teaching

method to utilize (Cooper, Heron & Heward,

2007).

Forward chaining

• This approach may be more appropriate to use

when the client has demonstrated more profi-

ciency with the first couple of steps in the chain

and/or the last steps in the chain are more

complex to complete.

• It may also be useful to use this approach when

it is necessary to link smaller chains into larger

ones. For example, if you have a skill such as

bed making and this is made up of perhaps

four/five skill clusters, forward chaining is a

useful method to link the skill clusters alto-

gether (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007).

Backward chaining

• Backward chaining may be more appropriate to

use when the client has demonstrated more

proficiency with the last couple of steps in the

chain and/or steps that appear earlier in the

chain are more complex to complete.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in

which he/she might suggest forward chaining

• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in

which he/she might suggest backward chaining

• Ask your Supervisee to identify situations in

which he/she might suggest total-task chaining

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper

Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice

Hall.

Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior Modifications in applied

settings (6th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Miltenberger, R. G. (2001). Behavior Modification:

Principles and procedures (2nd ed). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Test, D. W., Spooner, F. Keul, P. K., & Grossi, T.

(1990). Teaching adolescents with severe disa-

bility to use the public telephone. Behavior Mod-

ification, 14, 157-171. Cited from, Cooper, J. O.,

Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007, p. 446).

Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

D-06: Use chaining

D-07: Conduct task analyses

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results & best scientific evidence.

J-05: Select intervention strategies based on the cli-

ent’s current repertoire

Footnotes

* Please see task list item D-07 for more infor-

mation on conducting task analyses

* Please see task list item D-06 for a more detailed

description of the different chaining procedures.

166 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-04 Select intervention strategies based

on client preferences

The importance and ethical necessity of bas-

ing intervention strategies on client prefer-

ences

• As behavior analysts, it is our ethical re-

sponsibility to continually put our client’s

needs first, and this includes, considering

which type of intervention may be more

preferred by the clients we serve. As Bai-

ley and Burch (2011) state, one of our

core ethical principles is treating others

with care and compassion and this en-

compasses giving our clients choices

(Bailey & Burch, 2011).

• Historically, consideration of client pref-

erences is an area that within behavior

analysis, perhaps has not been given as

much attention as it deserves. In one area

of study, Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, Con-

trucci & Maglieri (1997) reported that,

“few if any studies have examined the so-

cial acceptability of or consumer prefer-

ences” for the relevant treatment options

but had instead given more weight to the

opinions of the caregivers as opposed to

those of the client (Hanley et al., 1997, p.

460). Another interesting train of thought

has been that “choice making is often not

taught” (Bannerman, Sheldon, Sherman,

& Harchik, 1990, p. 81).

• Another reason for considering clients’

preferences over treatment options is it

may make the intervention more successful.

Data from Miltenberger, Suda, Lennox

and Lindeman (1991) indicated it was

very important for successful treatment,

to consider client preferences when se-

lecting interventions. Findings from

many other studies have also supported

this premise (e.g., Berk, 1976; Hanley, Pi-

azza, Fisher, & Maglieri, 2005; Mendonca

& Brehm, 1983; Perlmuter & Montry,

1973).

Selecting interventions based on client prefer-

ences

• There are methods reported in the

literature for determining which

treatment method is more preferred

by a client*. As such, once it has

been established that an intervention

is necessary to treat a behavior, it is

imperative then to consider as-

sessing a client’s preference for one

treatment option over others to as-

sist with the behavior change pro-

gram. In this way, treatment is more

likely to be successful, will likely

have more social validity (Schwartz

& Baer, 1991) and will be meeting

more of our ethical standards as be-

havior analysts.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to explain why

it’s important as behavior analysts to

select interventions based on client

preferences.

• Ask your Supervisee to investigate

what different methods are available

for evaluating clients’ preferences

for different interventions and re-

port them back to you, along with

advantages and disadvantages of

each method.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J. & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behavior

Analysts, 2nd ed. New York, London:

Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Bannerman, D. J., Sheldon, J. B., Sherman, J.

A., & Harchik, A. E. (1990). Balancing the

right to habilitation with the right to per-

sonal liberties: The rights of people with

developmental disabilities to eat too many

doughnuts and take a nap. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 23, 79–89.

Berk, R. A. (1976). Effects of choice of in-

structional methods on verbal learning

tasks. Psychological Reports, 38, 867-870.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 167

Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W.,

Contrucci, S. A. & Maglieri, K. A. (1997).

Evaluation of client preferences for func-

tion-based treatment packages. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 459-473.

Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W. &

Maglieri, K. A. (2005). On The Effective-

ness of And Preference For Punishment

And Extinction Components Of Func-

tion-Based Interventions. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 38, 51-65.

Mendonca, P. J. & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Effects

of choice on behavioral treatment of over-

weight children. Journal of Social and Clinical

Psychology, 1, 343-358.

Miltenberger, R. G., Suda, K. T., Lennox, D.

B. & Lindeman, D. P. (1991). Assessing

the acceptability of behavioral treatments

to persons with mental retardation. Amer-

ican Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 291–

298.

Perlmuter, L. C. & Montry, R. A. (1973). Ef-

fect of choice of stimulus on paired-asso-

ciate learning. Journal of Experimental Psy-

chology, 99, 120-123.

Related Lessons:

E-08: Use the matching law and recognize fac-

tors influencing choice

I-07: Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

J-05: Select intervention strategies based on

the client’s current repertoire

J-06: Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments

J-07: Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints

J-08: Select intervention strategies based on

the social validity of the intervention

Footnotes

*1 See Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, Contrucci &

Maglieri (1997) and Miltenberger, Suda, Len-

nox & Lindeman (1991) for more information

about how to test clients’ preferences for dif-

ferent interventions.

168 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-05 Select intervention strategies based

on the client’s current repertoires

The importance of considering the client’s current

repertoires

• Basing intervention strategies on the client’s

current repertoires is a key foundation of what

behavior analysts do. It is imperative that prior

to implementing any type of intervention or

strategy with a client, the behavior analyst is ex-

tremely clear about what the client already does

and can therefore, consider possible interven-

tion strategies. Noell, Call, and Ardoin (2011)

state that “one of the considerable challenges

in teaching arises from identifying not only the

behaviors that are prerequisites for the target

response, but also the level of skill proficiency

needed to set the occasion for teaching the tar-

get skill” (Noell, Call, & Ardoin, 2011, cited

from Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2011, p. 251).

The importance of accurate assessments

• In order to assess a client’s current repertoires,

it is imperative that these repertoires are

properly assessed. For example, assessments to

evaluate the presence of a particular skill or rep-

ertoire should take place in a variety of different

environments, with many different examples of

stimuli, with the antecedent presented in a va-

riety of different ways, and with many different

people presenting the skill. Novel examples of

the skill should also be tested. Noell et al. (2011)

emphasize this point by suggesting that “as-

sessment of behavior under varied conditions

in a manner that tests consequences should be

an element of any pre-teaching assessment”

(Noell, Call & Ardoin, 2011, cited from Fisher,

Piazza & Roane, 2011, p. 255).

Once assessments of the client’s current repertoires

are complete

• Once the assessment stage is complete, it is

then appropriate to select possible intervention

strategies. As Noell et al. (2011) propose it is

important at this point that behavior analysts

“keep the long-term view in mind” (Noell, Call

& Ardoin, 2011, cited from Fisher, Piazza

&Roane, 2011, p. 266). We should be attempt-

ing to “not bring individual operants under

stimulus control” but instead “help clients and

students develop the complex, flexible reper-

toires that are adaptive, that remain in contact

with reinforcement, and that confer adaptive

advantage and endure” (Noell, Call & Ardoin,

2011, cf. Fisher, Piazza & Roane, 2011, p. 266).

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to explain why it’s im-

portant as a behavior analyst to select interven-

tions based on the client’s current repertoires.

• Ask your Supervisee to conduct an assessment

with a client, if possible, and design potential

interventions or strategies. Give feedback as

appropriate.

• Have you Supervisee take the lead on assessing

and developing interventions with your super-

vision.

Relevant Literature:

Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Roane, H. S. (Eds.).

(2011). Handbook of applied behavior analysis.

Guilford Press.

Noell, G. H., Call, N. A. & Ardoin, S. P. (2011).

Building complex repertoires from discrete be-

haviors by establishing stimulus control, be-

havioral chains, and strategic behavior.

Shapiro, E. S. (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct

assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). New York:

Guildford Press.

Related Lessons:

D-09: Use the verbal operants as a basis for lan-

guage assessment.

G-03: Conduct a preliminary assessment of the cli-

ent in order to identify the referral problem.

I-03: Design and implement individualized behav-

ioral assessment procedures.

J-03: Select intervention strategies based on task

analysis.

I-04: Design and implement the full range of func-

tional assessment procedures.

J-02: Identify potential interventions based on as-

sessment results & best scientific evidence.

J-06: Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments

J-07: Select intervention strategies based on envi-

ronmental and resource constraints

J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the so-

cial validity of the intervention

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 169

J-06 Select intervention strategies based

on supporting environments.

“Achieving optimal generalized outcomes requires

thoughtful, systematic planning. This planning be-

gins with two major steps: (1) selecting target be-

haviors that will meet natural contingencies of re-

inforcement, and (2) specifying all desired varia-

tions of the target behavior and the settings/situa-

tions in which it should (and should not) occur af-

ter instruction has ended” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 623). In other words, an interven-

tion must be selected that will allow the client to

access reinforcement in a specific environment. If

that is not possible, then alternative interventions

should be explored.

Ayllon and Azrin (1968) state that an important

rule of thumb is to choose interventions that will

help produce reinforcement after the intervention

is discontinued. The intervention should support

the student until they can access naturally existing

contingencies (i.e., verbal praise from a teacher)

and then more intensive, contrived contingencies

should be systematically faded. The goal of most

intervention programs is to teach a skill and then

fade support so the client can implement that skill

across settings.

Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2007, p. 626) iden-

tify 5 strategic approaches to promote generalized

behavior change.

1. Teach the full range of relevant stimulus con-

ditions and response requirements (i.e., teach-

ing sufficient stimulus and response examples

based on the setting)

2. Make the instructional setting similar to the

generalization setting. (i.e., program common

stimuli and teach loosely)

3. Maximize the target behavior’s contact with

reinforcement in the generalization setting.

(i.e., ask people in the generalization setting to

reinforce the target behavior, teach the learner

to recruit reinforcement, and teach the target

behavior to levels of performance required by

natural existing contingencies of reinforce-

ment.)

4. Mediate generalization (i.e., teach self-man-

agement skills & contrive mediating stimulus)

5. Train to generalize. (i.e., reinforce response

variability and instruct learner to generalize)

Example:

George set up a token economy for Bill that sys-

tematically increased the number of responses

needed to earn a token. After some time, Bill was

earning tokens for completing an entire worksheet

rather than earning a token for each question an-

swered. This allowed Bill to independently com-

plete worksheets in his general education class-

room without a paraprofessional by his side giving

him tokens after each answer.

Assessment:

• Give supervisee a reinforcement program.

Have him/her create a fading procedure for

this program to increase the number of re-

sponses required to earn a token.

• Have supervisee list the five strategies for pro-

moting generalized behavior change and have

him/her give examples of each.

• Have supervisee describe and differentiate be-

tween contrived contingencies and naturally

existing contingencies and give several exam-

ples of each.

Relevant Literature:

Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N.H. (1968). The token economy: A

motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New

York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Baer, D.M. (1999). How to plan for generalization (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX.: Pro-Ed.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 55-65, 623-624,

652.

Snell, M.E., & Brown. F. (2006). Instruction of students

with severe disabilities (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice Hall.

Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit tech-

nology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 10, 349-367.

Stokes, T.F., & Osnes, P.G. (1989). An operant pur-

suit of generalization. Behavior Therapy, 20, 337-

355.

Related Lessons:

G-08: Identify and make environmental changes that

reduce the need for behavior analysis services.

J-07: Select intervention strategies based on environ-

mental and resource constraints.

J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the social

validity of the intervention.

J-11: Program stimulus & response generalization

J-12: Program for maintenance.

K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral

program.

K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain the cli-

ent’s behavioral repertoires in their natural environ-

ments.

170 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-07 Select intervention strategies based

on environmental and resource con-

straints.

“The independent variable should be evaluated not

only in terms of its effects on the dependent varia-

ble, but also in terms of its social acceptability,

complexity, practicality, and cost” (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007, p. 250).

One method for determining the feasibility of an

intervention is by asking consumers (parents,

teachers, administrators) to rate the social validity

of the client’s performance. Questions that are typ-

ically posed to consumers before interventions are

implemented include asking the consumer how rea-

sonable they feel the intervention is, asking the

consumer’s willingness to implement the interven-

tion strategies, asking if the consumer would be

willing to change the environment to implement

the intervention, asking how disruptive the inter-

vention may be to the natural environment, asking

how costly it would be to implement the interven-

tion, asking if there will be any discomfort in the

client when implementing these procedures, and

asking if carrying out the intervention will fit with

the classroom or setting routines (Reimers &

Wacker, 1988 cited from Cooper et al., 2007, pp.

238-239).

Example:

Rob has decided to implement a reinforcement program based

on appropriate responses rather than a fixed time DRO pro-

gram. He understands that there is no paraprofessional in

the classroom to help run the program and the teacher has

other educational duties so she cannot run a timer and deliver

reinforcement consistently enough for a rigorous DRO.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee come up create a list of

appropriate questions to ask consumers

when determining an interventions ap-

propriateness and acceptability. Have

each supervisee create his/her own treat-

ment acceptability rating form.

• Have supervisee list and describe various

extraneous factors that must be taken

into consideration before implementing

an intervention. Have supervisee explain

why it is important to have consumer

satisfaction with an intervention pro-

gram.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper

Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 240

(Figure 10.5), 250, 652, 674-676.

Hawkins, R.P. (1984). What is “meaningful” behav-

ior change in a severely/ profoundly re-

tarded learner: The view of a behavior ana-

lytic parent. In W.L. Heward, T.E. Heron,

D.S. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on

behavior analysis in education (pp. 282-286).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall/Mer-

rill.

Reimers, T.M., & Wacker, D.P. (1988). Parent’s rat-

ings of the acceptability of behavior treat-

ment recommendations made in an outpa-

tient clinic: A preliminary analysis of the in-

fluence of treatment effectiveness. Behavioral

Disorders, 14, 7-15.

Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social Validity: The case for

subjective measurement or how applied be-

havior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203-214.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the possible unwanted ef-

fects of reinforcement.

G-06: Provide behavior-analytic services in collab-

oration with others who support and/or provide

services to one’s clients.

G-08: Identify and make environmental changes

that reduce the need for behavior analysis services.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measura-

ble terms.

1-02: Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

J-06: Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments.

J-08: Select intervention strategies based on the so-

cial validity of the intervention.

K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral

program.

K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain the

client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural envi-

ronments.

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 171

J-08 Select intervention strategies based

on the social validity of the intervention

A distinguishing characteristic of applied be-

havior analysis is assessing an individual’s

functioning within the context of natural en-

vironments. This applied aspect focuses the

behavior analyst on identifying meaningful

goals and acceptable methods for intervention

that will increase the individual’s independ-

ence and level of functioning in natural set-

tings. The behavior analyst sets intervention

goals that comply with stated preferences of

the individual client, goals of those who live

and work with the individual, and consider

how typical individuals function in similar en-

vironments. Analysts seek goals that are so-

cially valid and intervention methods that are

not only scientifically validated strategies for

accomplishing those goals, but strategies that

can be expected to be implemented consist-

ently and with fidelity by those who will apply

the strategies. Although an intervention might

be effective in a clinical, controlled setting, the

behavior analyst must consider intervention

limitations related to “social acceptability,

complexity, practicality, and cost. Regardless

of their effectiveness, treatments that are per-

ceived by practitioners, parents, and/or cli-

ents as unacceptable or undesirable for what-

ever reason are unlikely to be used” (Cooper

et al, 2007, p. 250).

Examples:

A child hits her six month-old sister even

when their parents model and reinforce ap-

propriate behaviors toward the baby. The par-

ents find it difficult to avoid explaining to the

child, at the same time that they block her

physically, reasons her behaviors are unkind

and even dangerous. The behavior analyst

talks to the parents about how the parent’s ex-

planations might be reinforcing the big sister

aggression. The parents and the analyst in-

crease the opportunities they have to individ-

ually attend to the child during appropriate

play throughout the day. The parents ask the

analyst to help them design a structured plan

to teach appropriate sibling behaviors through

language, modeling, literature, role play, mov-

ies, and increased reinforcement for appropri-

ate behaviors of the sister toward her younger

sibling.

A man hits his head and pulls at his ears

with such force that he has required emer-

gency medical care. At the beginning of treat-

ment, the behavior analyst recommends that

the man be given access to a helmet to prevent

significant injury when he is not adequately

staffed to stop his behavior. His family is

against the man appearing in public with a

protective helmet. The behavior analyst ex-

plains the reasons such equipment might be

important for protecting the man from harm

when his 1:1 staff person is distracted by driv-

ing a car or interacting with clerks or others in

the community. The analyst and the family

agree that until interventions stops the severe

self-injury, the man will participate in commu-

nity activities with a helmet unless a family

member accompanies staff in the community

with him.

Assessment:

A behavior analyst wants to increase a non-

verbal teenager’s independent functioning

during daily care routines by teaching him to

dress, brush teeth, and bathe independently.

The boy’s mother says she doesn’t mind phys-

ically prompting her son through those daily

care routines, but states that she hates his

screaming while she does it.

The analyst completes a functional assess-

ment and learns the following: The boy can

complete most of the steps for dressing,

brushing teeth, and bathing independently,

but has not learned a consistent chain of steps

for each skill. The boy screams at other times

during the day when his mother uses physical

172 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

prompting. Ask the supervisee to consider the

social validity of the behavior analyst’s goals

and the preferences expressed by the boy’s

mother.

1. Ask the supervisee to write at least

one hypothesis to explain, based on

the information above, what might

be the relations between the self-care

skills and the screaming behavior.

2. Ask the supervisee to explain to the

mother why teaching the son

chained steps for each skill is im-

portant for ending the screaming be-

havior in non-technical language in

order to gain her support for teach-

ing self-care routines.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Fawcett, S. B. (1991). Social validity: A note

on methodology. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 24(2), 235-239.

Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case

for subjective measurement or how ap-

plied behavior analysis is finding its

heart. Journal of applied behavior analy-

sis, 11(2), 203-214.

Related Lessons:

G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients

G-08 Identify and make environmental

changes that reduce the need for behavior

analysis services.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-04 Select intervention strategies based on

client preferences.

J-05 Select intervention strategies based on

the client’s current repertoires.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments.

J-12 Program for maintenance.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the

behavior of those responsible for carrying out

behavior-change procedures and design inter-

ventions accordingly.

K-03 Design and use competency-based train-

ing for persons who are responsible for carry-

ing out behavioral assessment and behavior-

change procedures.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their nat-

ural environments.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 173

J-09 Identify and addresspractical and eth-

ical considerations when using experi-

mental designs to demonstrate treatment

effectiveness

The general goal of behavioral research is “to

demonstrate that measured changes in the tar-

get behavior occur because of experimentally

manipulated changes in the environment”

(Cooper, 2007, p. 160). Without a controlled

research design, practitioners cannot claim a

causal relation between intervention and be-

havior change. Practical and ethical concerns

limit practitioner’s use of experimental de-

signs in most settings. Typical risks associated

with controlled research include the need to

delay treatment while collecting baseline data

or to withdraw interventions that are success-

ful. Each research design has specific risks to

participants associated with its application. In

applied practice, meaningful, socially valid,

and lasting change is the goal. Clients, parents,

staff, and teachers prefer the most efficient

and effective path toward treatment goals. For

such reasons, practitioners seek to show evi-

dence of a correlation rather than a causal re-

lation between changes in a client’s behavior

and an intervention by providing comparison

of patterns of baseline (A) and intervention

(B) responding over time. The AB design has

poor experimental control but strong practical

and ethical value in natural settings.

Examples:

A researcher-practitioner designed a multiple

baseline study for a woman who hit and

scratched herself. The researcher’s review of

the first three days of baseline data showed

that occurrences of the behavior were highly

variable without an obvious pattern of re-

sponding. The researcher concluded that fur-

ther delay of treatment that might decrease a

dangerous behavior was not ethical. The re-

searcher knew that the strength of the results

of his research would be threatened if he be-

gan treatment before he had a clear pattern in

baseline responding, but his responsibility to

his client, and those close to her, was his pri-

mary concern. He regretted not anticipating

this possibility by choosing a research design

that could have demonstrated experimental

control without depending on highly stable

baseline responding.

A student’s teacher did not want the student

to participate in a graduate supervisee’s study

because the supervisee planned to work with

the student during classroom reading instruc-

tion. Even though the research study was de-

signed to provide a benefit to the student by

increasing sight-word reading, the boy’s par-

ent refused to sign permission for his partici-

pation. The supervisee realized that social va-

lidity was threatened by his original plan and

he would have to arrange to work with the stu-

dent after school or exclude him from the

study.

Assessment:

1. Ask the supervisee to explain what

baseline logic is and why it is im-

portant for showing causal (experi-

mentally controlled research) or cor-

relational (change over time) rela-

tions between an intervention and an

individual’s behavior change.

2. A graduate student supervisee was

planning to conduct single subject

research using a withdrawal (ABAB)

design. The supervisee wanted to

test for a causal relation between a

gel-filled wedge pillow and the fidg-

ety, out-of-seat behavior of a middle

school student in his class. His su-

pervisor warned that removing an

effective treatment might have long-

lasting results on the student’s per-

formance. What design might the su-

pervisee recommend that would

show repetitive positive effects of

the gel-filled pillow intervention

174 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

without requiring the supervisee to

withdraw a beneficial treatment?

Ask the supervisee to demonstrate

his decision by drawing a rough line

graph showing both designs with the

gel-filled pillow as the intervention

and explain why one design is a bet-

ter choice ethically while still meet-

ing practical goals for the supervisee

and student.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Gast, D. L. (2010). Single subject research method-

ology in behavioral sciences. New York: NY:

Routledge.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

G-08 Identify and make environmental

changes that reduce the need for behavior

analysis services.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

J-02 Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

06 Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints.

J-08 Select intervention strategies based on

the social validity of the intervention.

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the

behavior of those responsible for carrying out

behavior-change procedures and design inter-

ventions accordingly.

K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behav-

ioral program

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 175

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased,

select an acceptable alternative be-

havior to be established or increased.

Definition:

Differential reinforcement of alternative behav-

ior (DRA) - “a procedure for decreasing problem

behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for a

behavior that serves as desirable alternative to the

behavior targeted for reduction and withheld fol-

lowing instances of the problem behavior”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 693).

When choosing a replacement behavior, look at

behavior that would serve the same function or

would meet the same reinforcers for the problem

behavior. This response could be using vocal-ver-

bal behavior, exchanging a symbol, using sign lan-

guage, etc. Consider the pros and cons of each

mode. How quickly can the response be taught? Is

it likely to be less or more effortful than the prob-

lem behavior? Will the new response meet rein-

forcement in natural settings?

Initially, the response to be taught should be re-

inforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule

to ensure that the individual makes steady contact

with the reinforcer and that this new replacement

behavior occurs often and becomes strengthened

in the individual’s repertoire. Once the new re-

sponse is at strength, the DRA schedule should be

thinned to reflect reinforcement rates that occur in

the natural environment (e.g., a child learning to re-

quest for a break in lieu of eloping will not likely be

granted a break every time he/she asks for one in a

typical classroom environment).

Challenging behavior may resurge when DRA

schedules are thinned. There are several techniques

that can be utilized to decrease this occurrence: in-

crease the response requirement of the alternative

response (e.g., if the alternate response is to ask for

a break, allow a break only after completion of a set

amount of work), provide a delay for reinforce-

ment for the alternative response (e.g., provide a

break after several minutes), decrease availability of

alternative response materials (e.g. if break is re-

quested utilizing a break card, limit amount of

breaks or decrease presentation), and use of a mul-

tiple schedule of reinforcement such as providing

more reinforcement for completing work than ask-

ing for a break (Sweeney & Shahan, 2013).

Assessment:

• At a job or during role-play, ask supervisee

what would be an appropriate alternative be-

havior that would allow the individual to access

same or similar reinforcer. Ask about alterna-

tive responses for a variety of reinforcer types.

• Have your supervisee list considerations when

selecting an appropriate alternative replace-

ment behavior

• At a job or during role-play, have your supervi-

see design criteria for when DRA schedule

should be thinned and what that process

should look like.

Relevant Literature:

Athen, E.S., & Vollmer, T.R., (2010). An investiga-

tion of differential reinforcement of alternative

behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied

Behavioral Analysis, 43(4), 569-589.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sweeney, M.M., & Shahan, T.A., (2013). Effects of

high, low, and thinning rates of alternative re-

inforcement on response elimination and re-

surgence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of

Behavior, 100(1), 102-116.

Vollmer, T. R., Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E., &

Marcus, B. A. (1999). Evaluating treatment

challenges with differential reinforcement of al-

ternative behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 32(1), 9-23.

Related Lessons:

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and schedules of

reinforcement.

D-18. Use Extinction.

D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement with

punishment and extinction.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding behaviors

that must be established, maintained, increased or

decreased.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on envi-

ronmental and resource constraints.

176 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-11 Program for stimulus and response

generalization

Behavior analysts teach socially significant

skills to help clients function where they work

or live. Program interventions for the client

behavior to contact naturally occurring rein-

forcement contingencies in their typical envi-

ronments using new skills. Generalization

might result in a “a great deal of generalized

behavior change; that is, after all components

of an intervention have been terminated, the

learner may emit the newly acquired target be-

havior, as well as several functionally related

behaviors not observed previously in his rep-

ertoire, at every appropriate opportunity in all

relevant settings, and he may do so indefi-

nitely” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

621).

To increase stimulus generalization, the be-

havior analyst systematically varies where in-

tervention is implemented, conditions under

which it is implemented, and people who im-

plement it in a gradual manner from acquisi-

tion through practicing stages. To develop a

response class of functionally equivalent skills,

the behavior analyst trains using a variety of

responses that eventually may include incor-

rect responses and novel correct responses.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee read Stokes and

Baer (1977).

• Have supervisee list and describe the

ways one might program for gener-

alization.

• Provide examples of skills that may

be taught to an individual. Have su-

pervisee describe how they can pro-

gram for generalization and indicate

which type of generalization (stimu-

lus or response) they will be training.

Example:

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit

technology of generalization. .Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 349-367.

Related Lessons:

E-02 Use discrimination training procedures.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-02 Identify potential interventions based on

assessment results and the best available sci-

entific evidence.

J-12 Program for maintenance.

FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-12 stimulus equivalence

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-36 response generalization

Stimulus generaliza-

tion strategies

Teach:

Response generali-

zation strategies

Teach:

A range of appropriate

situations and people to

greet socially: Teacher;

peer; parent; sibling; or

stranger passing on

sidewalk.

A range of appropri-

ate responses:

“Hello”; “HI”; head

nod; or “How are

you?”

A range of appropriate

math addition sen-

tences: Two plus two

equals four;

2 + 2 = 4

A range of appropri-

ate behaviors to

show the math prob-

lem total: written

number 4; saying

“four;” or holding

up four fingers.

A range of ways for

others to ask for a

choice: “Tell me what

you want”; “point to

what you want”; “take

one”.

A range of behaviors

for appropriately

making choices:

point; take; sign; or

tell.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 177

J-12 Program for Maintenance

Response maintenance refers to “the extent to

which a learner continues to perform the tar-

get behavior after a portion or all of the inter-

vention responsible for the behavior’s initial

appearance in the learner’s repertoire has been

terminated” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007,

p. 703). Rusch and Kazdin (1981) note that

withdrawing or gradually fading components

of an individual’s treatment package can sup-

port response maintenance.

Program for behavior learned in structured

environments to be maintained with contin-

gencies in the client’s natural environment.

Thin reinoforcement schedules so that the

natural environment can support and con-

tinue to maintain similar rates in behavior (e.g.

While learning to mand, a child may be given

a chip every time she asks for a chip. How-

ever, as she becomes more adept with this

goal, the schedule of reinforcement should

move from a continuous schedule to an inter-

mittent schedule because the child will not al-

ways be given a chip upon request in her nat-

ural environment.)

Response maintenance can often be confused

with generalization across multiple exemplars.

The key difference is that response mainte-

nance is said to occur if the response can be

maintained in settings and situations in which

it was previously exhibited, after generalization

to that setting and/or situation has already oc-

curred at least once in the past. For instance,

if an individual was taught how to purchase

items at a store and did so successfully at some

point at Starbucks, McDonald’s and Target

but did not exhibit this skill at Starbucks a

month later, a lack of response maintenance is

said to occur. If, however, the individual did

not exhibit the skill at Macy’s where the indi-

vidual has never performed the skill, a lack of

generalization is said to occur (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Assessment:

• Have supervisee give examples of re-

sponse maintenance.

• In a role-play or on the job, ask su-

pervisee how he/she would program

for response maintenance.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rusch, F. R. & Kazdin, A.E. (1981). Toward

a methodology of withdrawal designs for

the assessment of response maintenance.

Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 14 (2),

131-140.

Related Lessons:

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on

supporting environments

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on

environmental and resource constraints

J-08 Select intervention strategies based on

social validity of intervention

J-11 Program for stimulus and response gen-

eralization

178 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-13 Select behavioral cusps as goals for in-

tervention when appropriate.

“A behavior that has consequences beyond

the change itself, some of which may be con-

sidered important…What makes a behavior

change a cusp is that it exposes the individ-

ual’s repertoire to new environments, espe-

cially new reinforcers and punishers, new con-

tingencies, new responses, new stimulus con-

trols, and new communities of maintaining or

destructive contingencies. When some or all

of these events happen, the individual’s reper-

toire expands; it encounters a differentially se-

lective maintenance of the new as well as

some old repertoires, and perhaps that leads

to some further cusps.” (Rosales-Ruiz & Baer,

1997, p. 534).

Bosch and Fuqua (2001) cited 5 criteria for a

behavior to be considered a behavioral cusp.

“They stated that a behavior might be a cusp

if it meets one or more of five criteria: “(a) ac-

cess to new reinforcers, contingencies, and en-

vironments; (b) social validity; (c) generative-

ness; (d) competition with inappropriate re-

sponses; and (e) number and the relative im-

portance of people affected.” (Bosch &

Fuqua, 2001, p. 125 via Cooper et al., 2007, p.

59).

Examples:

Common behavioral cusps include crawling,

reading, imitation skills, walking, talking, and

writing. These skills set the stage for the client

to develop and learn many other skills (i.e.,

reading allows a client to access leisure mate-

rial, access information, and is necessary in re-

gards to reading street and safety signs, and

accessing various other forms of reinforce-

ment).

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify 5 behaviors that

he/she feels are behavioral cusps. Have

him/her describe why the behavior is a

behavioral cusp.

• Have supervisee read Rosales-Ruiz &

Baer (1997) article on behavioral cusps.

Have him/her summarize the main

points of this article.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 58-59.

Rosales-Ruiz, J., & Baer, D. M. (1997). Behav-

ioral cusps: A developmental and prag-

matic concept for behavior analysis. Jour-

nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 533–

544.

Bosch, S. & Fuqua, R.W. (2001). Behavioral

cusps: a model for selecting target behav-

iors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

34(1), 123-125.

Related Lessons:

G-08: Identify and make environmental

changes that reduce the need for behavior

analysis services.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-06: Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms.

J-08: Select interventions based on the social

validity of the intervention.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived rela-

tions).

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 179

J-14 Arrange instructional procedures to

promote generative learning (i.e., derived

relations).

Generative learning involves applying learning

to novel contexts without being explicitly taught

and is related to language and cognition. Deriv-

ing relations is based on the stimulus equivalence

paradigm and procedures (Sidman, 1971). A

small number of taught relations among stimuli

may generate numerous derived relations (Wul-

fert & Hayes, 1988). Readers are encouraged to

understand stimulus equivalence prior to arrang-

ing instructional procedures to promote genera-

tive learning. Experimental procedures often uti-

lize matching-to-sample tasks or a computerized

program called Implicit Relational Assessment

Procedure (IRAP) to teach derived relations. It

has been extensively studied in children with au-

tism (Kilroe, Murphy, Barnes-Holmes, &

Barnes-Holmes, 2014). The general instructional

procedure involves providing explicit reinforce-

ment for a series of conditional discriminations,

after which untrained relations (i.e., derived rela-

tions) will emerge and can be subsequently rein-

forced.

Stimulus equivalence is one of several empiri-

cally supported examples of derived relations, as

relations can be derived based on opposition,

temporality, analogy, comparison, and distinc-

tion (Stewart, McElwee, & Ming, 2013). Rela-

tional Frame Theory (RFT) was developed as a

behavior analytic account of human language

and cognition (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche,

2001) and addresses the need for a theoretical

explanation for generative learning, Resources

for learning RFT are included in the relevant lit-

erature section.

Example:

• A learner is taught that spoken word “apple”

= picture of an apple = written word “apple”

= picture of an apple. These two relations are

directly taught. However, through this ex-

plicit training, the learner can derive that the

spoken word “apple” = written word “ap-

ple.” In this example, reinforcement should

occur for successful matching of the two

trained relations. Once the third relation is

derived, the response should be reinforced.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to provide a definition of de-

rived relations.

• Ask supervisee to provide examples of de-

rived relations.

• Supervisor should ensure that supervisee

thoroughly understands stimulus equiva-

lence, matching-to-sample procedures, and

conditional discriminations, in order to ar-

range instructional procedures to promote

generative learning. Once this foundational

learning has occurred, supervisor can ask su-

pervisee to demonstrate teaching procedures

that will facilitate generative learning.

Relevant Literature:

Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B.

(2001). Relational frame theory: A post-skinner-

ian account of human language and cognition.

New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and

behavior: A research story. Boston, MA:

Author’s Cooperative.

Stewart, I., McElwee, J., & Ming, S. (2013). Lan-

guage generativity, response generalization,

and derived relational responding. Analysis

of Verbal Behavior, 29, 137-155.

Torneke, N. (2010). Learning RFT: An introduction

to relational frame theory and its clinical applica-

tion. Oakland, CA: Context Press.

Wulfert, E., & Hayes, S. C. (1988). Transfer of a

conditional ordering response through

conditional equivalence classes. Journal of the

Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 125-

144.

Related Lessons:

E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class.

FK-24 stimulus control.

FK-34 conditional discriminations.

180 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

J-15 Base decision-making on data dis-

played in various formats

Behavior analysts make decisions during as-

sessment and intervention based on data.

Graphic displays (e.g., line graphs, bar graphs,

and cumulative graphs) aid accurate and effi-

cient interpretation of quantitative data and

facilitate communication with others. “The

primary function of a graph is to communi-

cate without assistance from the accompany-

ing text” (Spriggs & Gast, 2010, p. 167). Line

graphs are most often used by behavior ana-

lysts to show effects and possible functional

relations between intervention (independent

variable) and a defined behavior (dependent

variable). Bar graphs are often used by behav-

ior analysts to summarize or compare discrete

aspects of recorded behavior. Cumulative

graphs show the rate of change in responding

across time. Although they may be used with

duration or latency data, they are most often

used to show frequency data. Behavior ana-

lysts often use tables to summarize data or

other information. “An informative table sup-

plements—rather than duplicates—the text”

(APA, 2010). As with graphs, a table should

communicate efficiently but include enough

information to be understood alone without

explanations in the text.

Examples:

Example 1: A behavior analyst interprets the

effectiveness of a constant time delay proce-

dure for teaching a student 10 sight words us-

ing the following line graph:

2: A behavior analyst uses a table to summa-

rize the number of times a child chose a spe-

cific toy during seven sessions of free-play

with four toys available.

Assessment:

Example 1 data display: Ask the supervisee to

interpret results of the constant time delay in-

tervention using only the graphic data. Would

the supervisee recommend CTD for teaching

discrete skills to this student? Ask the super-

visee to write a title for this graph.

Example 2 data display: Ask the supervisee to

interpret information in the table to decide

which toys she would place in a free time area

for this child to enjoy. Would the supervisee

consider adding different types of any one toy

to the playtime area based on this data? If so,

which type? If not, why not? Ask the supervi-

see to write a title for this table.

Toy

Chosen

1st

Chosen

3rd

Cho-

sen 4th

Frequency of toy as 1st or

choice

Car

Blocks

Bubbles

Doll

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 181

Relevant Literature:

American Psychological Association. (2010).

Publication manual of the American Psycholog-

ical Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC:

Author.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Spriggs, A. D., & Gast, D. L. (2010). Visual

representation of data. In D. L. Gast

(Ed.), Single subject research methodology in be-

havioral sciences (pp 166-198). New York,

NY: Routledge.

Related Lessons:

A-10 Design, plot, and interpret data using

equal-interval graphs.

A-11 Design, plot, and interpret data using a

cumulative record to display data.

A-12 Design and implement continuous

measurement procedures (e.g., event record-

ing).

A-14 Design and implement choice measures.

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend, and

variability.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

I-07 Design and conduct preference assess-

ments to identify putative reinforcers.

J-01 State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

K-04 Design and use effective performance

monitoring and reinforcement systems.

FK-33 functional relations

182 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

K-01 Provide for Ongoing Documentation

of Behavioral Services

Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to

documentation in 2.10 and 2.11 of the Behav-

ior Analyst Certification Board professional

and ethical compliance code for behavior an-

alysts Boundaries of Competence:

2.10 Documenting Professional Work and

Research.

(a) Behavior analysts appropriately document

their professional work in order to facilitate

provision of services later by them or by other

professionals, to ensure accountability, and to

meet other requirements of organizations or

the law.

(b) Behavior analysts have a responsibility to

create and maintain documentation in the

kind of detail and quality that would be con-

sistent with best practices and the law.

2.11 Records and Data.

(a) Behavior analysts create, maintain, dissem-

inate, store, retain, and dispose of records and

data relating to their research, practice, and

other work in accordance with applicable

laws, regulations, and policies; in a manner

that permits compliance with the require-

ments of this Code; and in a manner that al-

lows for appropriate transition of service

oversight at any moment in time.

(b) Behavior analysts must retain records and

data for at least seven (7) years and as other-

wise required by law. (BACB, 2014, p.9)

Written documentation of work products

(such as raw data sheets, reports and spread-

sheets) must be kept be kept in secure loca-

tions in the event that this information may

need to be transferred to other professionals

that are also supporting the client. Ongoing

documentation and record-keeping also en-

sures accountability for services rendered.

Documentation should be thorough and well-

maintained; should the behavioral analysts’

professional services be involved in legal pro-

ceedings, documentation must be detailed and

comprehensive enough to meet judicial scru-

tiny (Bailey & Burch, 2011).

Record disposal must sufficiently eliminate

all confidential records that may reveal client’s

private health information. Electronic transfer

of client’s identifying information and records

under any insecure medium (e.g. public areas,

fax and email) are prohibited by the Health In-

surance Portability and Accountability Act

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Assessment:

• Provide hypothetical scenarios and

ask your supervisee if documenta-

tion of behavioral services was suffi-

cient.

• Ask your supervisee where current

work products are stored. Request to

see written documentation of work

products assess to see if documenta-

tion is thorough and well-main-

tained.

• Use behavioral skills training to

practice documenting sessions with

clients or observations of staff mem-

bers.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 183

K-02 Identify the contingencies govern-

ing the behavior of those responsible for

carrying out behavior-change procedures

and design interventions accordingly.

Behavior is understood to be a product of the

environment in which it occurs. This is the

same for all organisms, including the client,

the caretakers, the professionals working with

the client, and ourselves. A well trained behav-

ior analyst accounts for the environmental ar-

rangement for all of the individuals involved

in the behavior change process.

For instance, if a procedure is very effortful

and will not produce an effect for several

weeks, what will reinforce the behavior of the

family member/teacher who will be imple-

menting it? If a procedure produces lots of ag-

gression or screaming, it should be considered

that these are often aversive stimuli to the

people implementing it.

“Treatment drift occurs when the applica-

tion of the independent variable during later

phases of an experiment differs from the way

it was applied at the outset of the study.”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 235).This is often the

result of a practitioner’s behavior meeting

competing contingencies after having fol-

lowed the plan for a period of time.

High treatment integrity can be achieved by

creating a thorough and precise definition for

the independent variables, simplifying the

treatment procedures, providing ample train-

ing and practice to all individuals responsible

for treatment, and assessing the contingencies

each person’s behavior will meet while follow-

ing through with these interventions.

Other factors that can help improve treat-

ment integrity and regulate the behavior of

those involved in the experiment include us-

ing less expensive and less intrusive proce-

dures, seeking help and input from the partic-

ipants family members and other people close

to them, setting socially significant but easy-

to-meet criterion for reinforcement, eliminat-

ing reinforcement gained outside of perform-

ing the target response, and contrive contin-

gencies that will compete with natural contin-

gencies.

Example:

Don has been asked to help deliver a new dif-

ferential reinforcement program to decrease

his student’s self-injury. However, he has been

short of staffing lately and cannot do this con-

sistently throughout the day. This has caused

the program to be run without integrity and

the self-injury to remain at the same rates.

Rick, the BCBA who designed the program,

started observing the classroom to see why

the program was not working. After noticing

that Don was only delivering the reinforcers

intermittently and missing opportunities for

reinforcement, Rick decided to retrain Don

and ask the principal for extra staff when

someone calls out sick.

Non-example:

Roger is implementing a new response cost

program to decrease verbal protesting for one

of his students. However, even though the

program has been run as designed for several

weeks, there has been no effect on the verbal

protesting of the student. The supervisor col-

lected integrity data and found that the plan

had been run as prescribed. The problem is

likely related to the procedure itself and not its

implementation.

Assessment:

• Make sure the supervisee makes consid-

erations about the effort and practicality

of the treatment they attempt to get other

people to implement.

• Have supervisee identify several strate-

gies for increasing treatment integrity.

184 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

Have him/her describe how they would

use these strategies in an applied setting.

• Have supervisee read several articles in

which an intervention was implemented

to decrease or increase a target behavior.

Have him/her identify the strategies the

researcher used to increase treatment in-

tegrity.

• Have supervisee define and describe

treatment drift. Have him/her describe

how they would account for the occur-

rence of treatment drift and adjust an in-

tervention or experiment accordingly.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 235-236, 603-604, 607-609,

652, 659-678.

Fryling, M.F., Wallace, M.D., & Yassine, J.N.

(2012). Impact of treatment integrity on

intervention effectiveness. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 45, 2, 449-453.

DiGennaro-Reed, F.D, Reed, D.D, Baez,

C.N, & Maguire, H. (2011) A parametric

analysis of errors of commission during

discrete-trial training. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 44,611–615.

Wheeler, J.J, Baggett, B.A, Fox, J., & Blevins,

L. (2006). Treatment integrity: A review

of intervention studies conducted with

children with autism. Focus on Autism and

Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 45–54.

Wilder, D.A, Atwell, J., & Wine, B. (2006).

The effects of varying levels of treatment

integrity on child compliance during

treatment with a three-step prompting

procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 39, 369–373.

McIntyre, L.L, Gresham, F.M, DiGennaro,

F.D, & Reed, D.D. (2007). Treatment in-

tegrity of school-based interventions

with children in the Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis 1991–2005. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 659–672.

Peterson, L, Homer, A.L, & Wonderlich,

S.A.(1982). The integrity of independent

variables in behavior analysis. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 477–492.

St. Peter Pipkin, C, Vollmer, T.R, & Sloman,

K.N. (2010). Effects of treatment integ-

rity failures during differential reinforce-

ment of alternative behavior: A transla-

tional model. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 43, 47–70.

Related Lessons:

J-01: State intervention goals in observable

and measurable terms.

K-03: Design and use competency-based

training for persons who are responsible for

carrying out behavioral assessment and be-

havior-change procedures.

K-04: Design and use effective performance

monitoring and reinforcement systems.

K-05: Design and use systems for monitoring

procedural integrity.

K-06: Provide supervision for behavior-

change agents.

K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic

services from direct and indirect consumers.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 185

K-03 Design and use competency-based

training for persons who are responsible

for carrying out behavioral assessment

and behavior change procedures

Rationale

In order for staff and family members to col-

lect accurate data and to carry out a behavior

intervention plan effectively and consistently,

all staff must receive training. Inconsistent

applications of procedures may lead to slow

improvement or have effects that make be-

havior worse than before treatment.

Training models

Much research has studied competency based

training for staff, teachers and parents. Par-

sons and Reed (1995) increased staff perfor-

mance by using classroom-based instruction,

observation, and feedback on the work site.

Shore et al. (1995) provided training in data

collection, calculation, and review of treat-

ment procedure, followed by training in treat-

ment implementation in-situ with feedback

and assistance. A third phase of instructing

supervisors how to train direct service provid-

ers was implemented. Sarokoff and Sturmey

(2004) provided staff with a written definition

of the plan, feedback regarding their baseline

performance, rehearsal with reinforcement

and corrective feedback, and in-situ modeling

and rehearsal for 10 minutes. Miles and Wil-

der (2009) used Behavior Skills Training

(BST) that involved providing a written de-

scription, reviewing baseline performance, re-

hearsal and feedback, and then repeating

modeling and rehearsal until the staff com-

pleted three trials accurately.

BST has also been used to train individuals to

conduct behavioral assessments such as func-

tional analyses. For example, Iwata et al.

(2000) and Lambert, Bloom, Clay, Kunnava-

tanna, and Collins (2014) trained participants

to conduct functional analysis conditions with

adequate fidelity.

Elements of competency-based training

• Clear instructions

• Modeling

• Rehearsal

• Feedback

• Repetition until skills mastered

• Treatment Integrity data monitored

Threats to accuracy and reliability

Poor staff training can lead to inaccurate base-

line, functional assessment and treatment

data. Systematic training of occurrence and

nonoccurrence and other critical data collec-

tion information and providing booster train-

ing will help to minimize the following chal-

lenges:

• Observer drift

• Observer reactivity

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to list elements

of competency-based training.

• Ask your supervisee to create an ex-

ample curriculum for training staff

to collect ABC data collection.

• Use behavior skills training to teach

your supervisee to teach a treatment

procedure to staff.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd

Edition. Pearson

Education, Inc..

Iwata, B. A., Wallace, M. D., Kahng, S., Lind-

berg, J. S., Roscoe, E. M., Conners, J., ...

& Worsdell, A. S. (2000). Skill acquisi-

tion in the implementation of functional

analysis methodology. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 33(2), 181-194.

Lambert, J. M., Bloom, S. E., Clay, C. J., Kun-

navatana, S. S., & Collins, S. D. (2014).

Training residential staff and supervi-

sors to conduct traditional functional

186 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

analyses. Research in developmental disabili-

ties, 35(7), 1757-1765.

Miles, N. I., & Wilder, D. A. (2009). The ef-

fects of behavioral skills training on

caregiver implementation of guided

compliance. Journal of applied behavior

analysis, 42(2), 405-410.

Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1995). Training

residential supervisors to provide feed-

back for maintaining staff teaching skills

with people who have severe disabilities.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3),

317-322.

Sarokoff, R. A., & Sturmey, P. (2004). The ef-

fects of behavioral skills training on staff

implementation of discrete‐trial teach-

ing. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

37(4), 535-538.

Shore, B. A., Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., Ler-

man, D. C., & Zarcone, J. R. (1995). Py-

ramidal staff training in the extension of

treatment for severe behavior disorders.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3),

323-332.

Related Lessons:

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training

D-05 Use shaping

E-03 Use instructions and rules

F-03 Use direct instruction

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the

behavior of those responsible for carrying out

behavior-change procedures and design inter-

ventions accordingly

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 187

K-04 Design and use effective perfor-

mance monitoring and reinforcement sys-

tems

Rationale

Staff performance in the application of behavioral

strategies is critical to the success of the behavior

intervention plan. Developing a system to monitor

staff performance and motivate staff performance

is just as important as developing an effective inter-

vention plan.

Staff performance models

Richman, Riordan, Reiss, Pyles, and Bailey (1988)

found that self-monitoring and supervision feed-

back increased staff performance.

Arco (2008) found that defining the process be-

fore training, providing on-the job supervisory

feedback, and having staff provide self-generated

outcome feedback before and after training was ef-

fective at increasing and maintaining the perfor-

mance in behavioral treatment programs.

Codding, Feinberg, Dunn, and Pace (2004)

found that treatment integrity increased following

a one hour performance feedback session every

other week. Social validity ratings provided favor-

able feedback for the frequent supervisions.

Iwata, Bailey, Brown, Foshee, and Alpern (1976)

found that performance-based lottery improved

the performance of institutional staff.

Elements of providing effective performance

based monitoring and reinforcement systems

• Provide clear instructions and objectives in

observable measurable terms

• Develop treatment integrity checklist

• Train the supervisor to provide supervision

and frequent on the job feedback (both cor-

rective and positive)

• Train staff to collect a self-monitoring system

for their performance

• Train the supervisor to provide social or tan-

gible reinforcement based on performance of

the staff

• Teach the supervisor to graph and monitor

staff performance while looking for trend

lines

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to list elements of

providing effective performance based mon-

itoring and reinforcement systems.

• Ask your supervisee to create an example of

performance based monitoring and a rein-

forcement system for a current intervention

plan.

• Use behavior skills training to teach your su-

pervisee to implement the approved proce-

dure with staff.

Relevant Literature:

Arco, L. (2008). Feedback for improving staff

training and performance in behavioral treat-

ment programs. Behavioral Interventions, 23(1),

39-64.

Codding, R. S., Feinberg, A. B., Dunn, E. K., &

Pace, G. M. (2005). Effects of immediate per-

formance feedback on implementation of be-

havior support plans. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 38(2), 205-219.

Iwata, B. A., Bailey, J. S., Brown, K. M., Foshee, T.

J., & Alpern, M. (1976). A performance-based

lottery to improve residential care and training

by instituational staff. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 9(4), 417-431.

Richman, G. S., Riordan, M. R., Reiss, M. L., Pyles,

D. A., & Bailey, J. S. (1988). The effects of self‐

monitoring and supervisor feedback on staff

performance in a residential setting. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 21(4), 401-409.

Related Lessons:

D-01 Use positive reinforcement

F-01 Use self-management strategies

F-02 Use token economies and other conditioned

reinforcement systems

F-03 Use direct instruction

H-03 Select a schedule of observation and record-

ing periods

H-04 Select a data display that effectively com-

municates relevant qualitative relations

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and variabil-

ity

I-01 Define behavior in observable measurable

terms

K-03 Design and use competency-based training

for persons responsible for carrying out behavioral

assessment & behavior-change procedures

K-05 Design and use systems for monitoring pro-

cedural integrity

188 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

K-05 Design and use systems for monitor-

ing procedural integrity

Definitions:

Procedural Integrity - "The extent to which

the independent variable is applied exactly as

planned and described and no other un-

planned variables are administered inadvert-

ently along with the planned treatment"

(Cooper Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 706-707).

Treatment Drift - "An undesirable situation

in which the independent variable of an exper-

iment is applied differently during later stages

than it was at the outset of the study" (Cooper

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 706).

Low treatment integrity is not only bad for re-

search (confounding, cannot interpret the re-

sults) but can also lead to inconsistencies and

poor outcomes in treatments. These can be

related to many factors such as experimenter

bias (unfair advantage to see positive results),

staff implementing only procedures they fa-

vor, treatment too difficult to implement,

poor staff training, or staff turnover.

Systems to Avoid Treatment Drift

• Precise operational definition

• Make behavioral plan simple and easy

to administer

• Provide competency-based training

(use behavior skills training)

• Assess treatment integrity

Assessing Treatment Integrity

• Provide a brief checklist of each of the

components in the treatment plan

• May be self-monitored but important

to conduct inter-rater reliability

• Establish a schedule to complete the

treatment integrity

• Graph the percent of treatment integ-

rity and monitor to ensure treatment

drift does not occur

Assessment:

1. Ask supervisee to describe why proce-

dural integrity is important.

2. Ask supervisee to create a procedural

integrity checklist for a behavioral pro-

gram.

3. Ask supervisee to collect data using

the procedural integrity checklist in the

natural environment and take inter-

rater reliability measurement with

yourself, discuss discrepancies, repeat

if necessary.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion. Pearson Education, Inc.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.

(2011). Strategies and tactics of behavioral re-

search. Routledge.

Wolery, M. (1994). Procedural fidelity: A re-

minder of its functions. Journal of Behavioral

Education, 4(4), 381-386.

Related Lessons:

F-01 Use self-management strategies

H-03 Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods

H-04 Select a data display that effectively com-

municates relevant qualitative relations

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and varia-

bility

K-03 Design and use competency-based training

for persons who are responsible for carrying out

behavioral assessment and behavior-change pro-

cedures

K-04 Design and use effective performance

monitoring and reinforcement systems

Footnotes:

Also called procedural fidelity, treatment integ-

rity, procedural reliability, or treatment adher-

ence

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 189

K-06 Provide supervision for behavior-

change agents

Smith, Parker, Taubman, and Lovaas (1992) found

that knowledge transfer from a staff training work-

shop did not generalize to the group home. Re-

search suggests that training is most effective if

there is training and ongoing supervision in the en-

vironment where the behavior change program is

occurring (Parsons & Reed, 1995; Sarokoff & Stur-

mey, 2004; Miles & Wilder, 2009)

Codding, Feinberg, Dunn and Pace (2004)

found that treatment integrity increased following

a one hour performance feedback session every

other week. Social validity ratings provided favor-

able feedback for the frequent supervisions.

Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007) suggest that

supervision of data takers and booster training is

necessary to avoid observer drift.

Observing and graphing data will provide imme-

diate feedback on the participant's performance.

This can lead to quick decisions, modifications if

necessary, or the termination of ineffective pro-

grams. This supervision is necessary to create the

most effective interventions and troubleshoot areas

for improvement. It is also important to observe

the intervention in the natural environment in or-

der to determine if the intervention is realistic and

practical in the natural environment.

Summary of Rationale for Supervision of Behavior

Change Agents

• Provides effective knowledge transfer for in-

dividuals implementing the intervention

• Increases motivation and treatment integrity

• Reduces error associated with data collection

• Allows for quick clinical decisions to modify

or terminate programs which ensures the

most effective treatment

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to describe why it is important

to provide supervision of behavior change

agents.

• Look at data with supervisee and ask them to

discuss what modification they may consider

• Have supervisee observe intervention in the

home environment and ask them to write

down suggestions to increase the effective-

ness of the plan.

Relevant Literature:

Codding, R. S., Feinberg, A. B., Dunn, E. K., &

Pace, G. M. (2005). Effects of immediate

performance feedback on implementation of

behavior support plans. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 38(2), 205-219.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edition.

Pearson Education, Inc.

Miles, N. I., & Wilder, D. A. (2009). The effects of

behavioral skills training on caregiver imple-

mentation of guided compliance. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 405-410.

Parsons, M. B., & Reid, D. H. (1995). Training res-

idential supervisors to provide feedback for

maintaining staff teaching skills with people

who have severe disabilities. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 28(3), 317-322.

Sarokoff, R. A., & Sturmey, P. (2004). The effects

of behavioral skills training on staff imple-

mentation of discrete‐trial teaching. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(4), 535-538.

Smith, T., Parker, T., Taubman, M., & Ivar Lovaas,

O. (1992). Transfer of staff training from

workshops to group homes: A failure to gen-

eralize across settings. Research in Developmen-

tal Disabilities, 13(1), 57-71.

Related Lessons:

H-03 Select a schedule of observation and record-

ing periods.

H-04 Select a data display that effectively com-

municates relevant qualitative relations

H-04 Evaluate changes in level, trend and variabil-

ity.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the be-

havior of those responsible for carrying out behav-

ior-change procedures and design interventions ac-

cordingly.

K-03 Design and use competency-based training

for persons who are responsible for carrying out

behavioral assessment and behavior-change proce-

dures.

K-04 Design and use effective performance moni-

toring and reinforcement systems.

190 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the be-

havioral program

In the field of applied behavior analysis, it is

crucial to have ongoing evaluation of the ef-

fectiveness of behavior programs. This helps

to ensure that the most effective treatments

are being offered to a client based on ethical

practices, the most current research, and the

individual’s needs.

Birnbrauer (1999) lists the following steps

for evaluating the effectiveness of treatment:

1. Describe the exact purposes of the

treatment –what is it intended to

achieve?

2. Describe exactly how the treatment is

conducted –there should be no mystery

or secrecy about the methods and pro-

cedures being used.

3. Describe how treatment effects were

measured –what numerical data were

collected and how were they collected?

4. Show before and after data collected by

independent, unbiased evaluators

5. Show follow up data –do the persons

maintain gains? Do they continue to im-

prove? Do they regress?

“The data obtained throughout a behavior

change program or a research study are the

means for that contract; they form the empir-

ical basis for every important decision: to con-

tinue with the present procedure, to try a dif-

ferent intervention, or to reinstitute a previous

condition” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 167). It is important that if there is evidence

of behavioral regression or that the treatment

package is ineffective, that the team re-evalu-

ate, make changes or adjustments, or discon-

tinue a behavioral program entirely. It is un-

ethical to continue a behavioral program that

is deemed ineffective.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to state why ongoing

evaluation of a behavioral program is

important.

• Ask the supervisee to state what all im-

portant program decisions should be

driven by.

• Ask the supervisee to state who should

be evaluating data.

• Ask the supervisee under which condi-

tions to discontinue a behavioral pro-

gram.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Birnbrauer, J.S (1999). How to Evaluate In-

tervention Programs. Cambridge Center

for Behavioral Studies, Inc.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, &Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

FK-47 Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time).

G-01 Review records and available data at the

outset of the case.

H-01 Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms.

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

I-06 Make recommendations regarding be-

haviors that must be established, maintained,

increased, or decreased.

J-01 State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

K-07 Evaluate the effectiveness of the behav-

ioral program.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 191

K-08 Establish support for behavior ana-

lytic services from direct and indirect con-

sumers

As a behavior analyst, it is important to con-

duct yourself with professionalism to your cli-

ents and their family and also to individuals

from other disciplines that may support your

client. You must enlist a circle of care around

your client, which will help you to better un-

derstand your client through the lenses of an-

other discipline. For example if you have a

child who has feeding refusal, taking the time

to enlist information from the nutritionist,

speech pathologist, doctors and occupational

therapists will help you to provide safe and ef-

fective treatment.

In addition, when providing treatment hav-

ing help from people within the client's family,

the community, and from the circle of care

around your client will enable you to general-

ize skills to new environments, new people

and new activities. These individuals can be a

great asset in troubleshooting and providing

additional data as well.

Additionally, when your goals are met, you

will leave. In order for the continued support

of your client and the maintenance of the

goals, it is important to enlist individuals who

will be with the client for a longer period.

Bailey and Burch (2010) provide a useful

book on professional strategies. He provides

several suggestions on how to establish a

working relationship in the best interest of the

client. Establishing yourself as a positive re-

inforcer for your colleagues by demonstrating

integrity, basic meeting etiquette, providing a

professional image, using nontechnical lan-

guage, listening to others, and bringing their

opinions into the assessment.

Assessment:

1. Ask supervisee to describe the im-

portance of enlisting the help of di-

rect and indirect consumers.

2. Use behavior skill tracking to teach

and practice describing interventions

in nontechnical terms.

3. Discuss challenges in dealing with

colleagues within different fields and

strategies to help.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J. S., & Burch, M. R. (2009). 25 Essential

Skills & Strategies for the Professional Behav-

ior Analyst: Expert Tips for Maximizing Con-

sulting Effectiveness. Taylor & Francis.

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Related Lessons:

G-07 Practice within one's limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision,

training, or make referrals as necessary.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain

the client's behavioral repertoires in their nat-

ural environments.

K-10 Arrange for the orderly termination of

services when they are no longer required.

192 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

K-09 Secure the support of others to main-

tain the client’s behavioral repertoires in

their natural environments.

Foxx (1996, p. 230) stated that in programming

successful behavior change interventions, “10% is

knowing what to do; 90% is getting people to do

it…Many programs are unsuccessful because these

percentages have been reversed.” (Cooper et al.,

2007, p. 652).

Being explicit yet simplistic in describing pro-

grams and protocols will help secure support from

other individuals in a client’s environment. If a be-

havior change procedure or program is too diffi-

cult, technical, or places unreasonable demands on

the other individuals involved, they are less likely to

implement these programs. In addition, adequate

training of behavior procedures should be provided

to ensure proper implementation by those interact-

ing with the client in the natural environment. Spe-

cifically, training pertaining to the delivery of rein-

forcers, which maintain the individual’s newly ac-

quired behavioral repertoires.

Jarmolowicz et al. (2008) compared the effec-

tiveness of conversational language instructions

and technical language instructions when explain-

ing how to implement a treatment to caregivers.

They found that the caregivers that were given con-

versational language instruction implemented the

treatment more accurately.

Example:

Richard is trying to generalize skills learned in the

special education classroom for one of his students.

He went to each teacher to explain how this will

help the student in their class and answered any

questions they may have about the programs. In

addition, he conducted a training on the specific

program and offered to consult with each teacher

in order to make sure generalization was successful

and the repertoire was maintained.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify ways they can build a

rapport with other service providers and help

support them when they have a student who

needs to generalize and maintain skills in new

settings.

• Have supervisee choose a particular behavior

change program or strategy. Have him/her de-

scribe and explain this program to an individual

who does not have a background in applied be-

havior analysis.

• Have supervisee choose a specific behavior

change program. Have him/her practice ex-

plaining the benefits of this program to others

in order to get them on board with implement-

ing this program.

• Give supervisee a complex behavior change

program. Have him/her simplify this program

and create guidelines and instructions that they

could give to an individual who does not have

knowledge of applied behavior analytic strate-

gies and techniques.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 641-642, 652.

David P. Jarmolowicz, SungWoo Kahng, Einar T.

Ingvarsson, Richard Goysovich, Rebecca

Heggemeyer, Meagan K. Gregory, and Steven

J. Taylor (2008) Effects of Conversational Ver-

sus Technical Language on Treatment Prefer-

ence and Integrity. Intellectual and Develop-

mental Disabilities: June 2008, Vol. 46, No. 3,

pp. 190-199.

Stokes, T.F., Baer, D.M., & Jackson, R.L. (1974).

Programming the generalization of a greeting

response in four retarded children. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 599-610.

Related Lessons:

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain…

J-01: State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

K-03: Design and use competency-based training

for persons responsible for carrying out behavioral

assessment & behavior-change procedures.

K-04: Design and use effective performance mon-

itoring and reinforcement systems.

K-06: Provide supervision for behavior-change

agents.

K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic ser-

vices from direct and indirect consumers

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 193

K-10 Arrange for the orderly termination of

services when they are no longer required

Behavior analysts follow guidelines related to

arranging for termination of services in 2.15

of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board

professional and ethical compliance code for

behavior analysts:

2.15 Interrupting or Discontinuing Ser-

vices.

(d) Discontinuation only occurs after efforts

to transition have been made. Behavior

analysts discontinue a professional rela-

tionship in a timely manner when the

client: (1) no longer needs the service,

(2) is not benefiting from the service, (3)

is being harmed by continued service, or

(4) when the client requests discontinu-

ation.

(e) Behavior analysts do not abandon clients.

Prior to discontinuation, for whatever

reason, behavior analysts: discuss the

client’s views and needs, provide appro-

priate pre-termination services, suggest

alternative service providers as appro-

priate, and take other reasonable steps

to facilitate timely transfer of responsi-

bility to another provider if the client

needs one immediately, upon client con-

sent. (BACB, 2014, P. 10).

Before services are terminated, behavior

analysts must discuss the client’s needs with all

pertinent parties (e.g. client’s parents, legal

guardians, school administrators). The client’s

welfare should be prioritized above all else

and a transition plan should be put in place

well before services are discontinued. Refer-

rals to other professionals should be given if

appropriate. (Bailey & Burch, 2005)

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to describe condi-

tions under which services should be

discontinued for a client

• Ask supervisee what steps they

should undergo before discontinu-

ing a client’s services

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics for Behav-

ior Analysts: 2nd Expanded Edition. Taylor

& Francis.

Behavior Analyst Certification Board

(BACB) Behavior Analyst Certification

Board professional and ethical compli-

ance code for behavior analysts. 2014.

Retrieved from

http://www.bacb.com/Download-

files/BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf.

Related Lessons:

G-07 Practice within one’s limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their nat-

ural environments.

194 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior

Definition:

Lawfulness of behavior – “behavior is the

result of some condition that has caused it to

happen” (Malott, 2012, p. 168)

The lawfulness of behavior makes a science of

behavior possible. “Science is, of course, more

than a set of attitudes. It is a search for order,

for uniformities, for lawful relations among

the events in nature” (Skinner, 1953, p.13).

If behavior did not follow universal laws re-

lated to the environment that hosts it, it would

not be possible to predict or control respond-

ing in a scientific way. Skinner describes the

necessity for lawfulness of behavior in this

quote: “If we are to use the methods of sci-

ence in the field of human affairs, we must as-

sume that behavior is lawful and determined.

We must expect to discover that what a man

does is the result of specifiable conditions and

that once these conditions have been discov-

ered, we can anticipate and to some extent de-

termine his actions” (Skinner, 1953, p. 6).

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to describe why an

understanding of lawfulness of behavior

is important when designing treatments

for their client.

• Ask your supervisee to role-play a sce-

nario in which he/she discusses lawful-

ness of behavior with a caretaker or

teacher of a client.

Relevant Literature:

Malott, R. (2012). Issues in the Analysis of Behav-

ior. Behaviordelia.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behav-

ior. New York: Macmillan.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,

cultural)

FK-03 Determinism

FK-04 Empiricism

FK-05 Parsimony

FK-06 Pragmatism

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 195

FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, onto-

genic, cultural)

Definition:

Selectionism - refers to selection by conse-

quences, a scientific paradigm, which asserts

that all forms of operant behavior evolve as a

result of the consequences that occurred dur-

ing one’s lifetime.

Skinner (1981) wrote:

“Human behavior is the joint product of (i)

the contingencies of survival responsible for

the natural selection of the specific and (ii) the

contingencies of reinforcement responsible

for the repertoires acquired by its members,

including (iii) the special contingencies main-

tained by the social environment. (Ultimately,

of course, it is all a matter of natural selection,

since operant conditioning is an evolved pro-

cess, of which cultural practices are special ap-

plications.)” (p. 502).

Skinner’s paradigm emphasizes the role of

function and draws on evolutionary theory

and natural selection (phylogeny). Ontogeny

refers to the learning history of an individual.

Skinner viewed cultural practices as an

evolved process maintained by operant condi-

tioning. Variation in behavior is required for

selection by consequences, meaning the most

adaptive behavioral repertoire persists be-

cause it serves a valuable function for the or-

ganism (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

Maladaptive, unhealthy, and harmful behavior

can persist because it serves a function for the

individual (e.g., substance abuse, non-suicidal

self-harm, etc.).

Example:

• In evolutionary history, our ancestors ate

certain foods because it had an adaptive

value as it helped ensure survival (natural

selection of behavior; phylogenic selec-

tion). The food did not necessarily need

to be a reinforcer but was necessary for

survival. However, in modern times, we

all have food preferences and may eat

food that has no nutritional value or

health benefits, indicating that specific

foods are eaten because of their reinforc-

ing value (ontogenic selection). This type

of eating habit is not adaptive (e.g., think

about overeating, binge eating, obesity

and the subsequent health problems that

can emerge from this type of eating be-

havior) but it is strengthened and main-

tained by operant conditioning, thus re-

flecting selection by consequences (Skin-

ner, 1981).

• Cultural Selection: Pennypacker (1992)

provides examples of how selection by

consequences is observed in education,

economics, and politics and social organ-

ization.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to define selection-

ism.

• Ask supervisee to read and summa-

rize the relevant literature, while

highlighting examples that reflect se-

lectionism.

• Ask supervisee to provide an exam-

ple of behavior maintained by selec-

tionism.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Be-

havior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Pennypacker, H. S. (1992). Is behavior analy-

sis undergoing selection by conse-

quences? American Psychologist, 47, 1491-

1498.

Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by conse-

quences. Science, 212, 501-504.

Related Lessons:

FK-15 operant conditioning

FK-31 behavioral contingencies

FK-33 functional relations

FK-41 contingency-shaped behavior

FK-42 rule-governed behavior

196 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-03 Determinism

Definition:

Determinism - the assumption that “the universe

is a lawful and orderly place in which all phenom-

ena occur as the result of other events” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.5).

The implication here is that events don’t just occur

by accident; they occur as the result of something

else happening. This is an important attitude of sci-

ence because if the behavior of organisms was not

orderly or lawful, scientists would be unable to

identify why a behavior was occurring and there-

fore modify it. (Fisher, Piazza, & Roane, 2011, p. 9)

Example:

A window banging

A window does not just randomly bang shut; it

bangs shut because a gust of wind has blown it and

this has exerted enough force upon the window to

close it.

Example:

A pipe bursting

A water pipe does not just spontaneously burst; it

bursts because there is a fault somewhere in the sys-

tem, which has caused a build up of water in the

pipes, resulting in so much pressure within the sys-

tem that the pipe has burst.

Example:

Self-injurious behavior (SIB)

A client’s self-injurious behavior does not just sud-

denly decrease after days of high rates of SIB. It

decreases because the sensory-blocking procedure

that’s in place has begun to extinguish the behavior.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to give an explanation to

the scenarios below as they align with deter-

minism.

o A glass breaks. (Possible answers could in-

clude = someone knocks it over causing it to

break, the wind blows through the window

and knocks it over causing it to smash, the dog

kicks the glass as he runs past it, resulting in it

breaking).

o A client begins to emit correct responses

when tacting the colors purple and green,

which he has previously had a low rate of cor-

rect responses for. (Possible answers could in-

clude = the intervention which is in place has

resulted in the appropriate stimulus control

being acquired for purple and green, leading

to an increased rate of correct responding; the

client’s Mother has been working on the col-

ors green and purple at home with him; the

client has been observing a peer tact the col-

ors purple and green during play).

o A client’s sleep pattern changes and he begins

to refuse to go to bed at 10 pm but instead will

not go to bed until 3 am. (Possible answers

could include = the client has been reinforced

when he has been up late as his Mother has

permitted him to watch TV; the client has not

been woken until 4 pm in the afternoon after

not going to bed until 3.30 am the night be-

fore; a client’s medication has been changed

and this results in disturbed sleep and periods

of insomnia).

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed. Upper

Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice

Hall.

Delprato, D. J., & Midgley, B. D. (1992). Some fun-

damentals of B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism.

American Psychologist, 48, 1507-1520.

Fisher, W.W., Piazza, C. C., Roane, H. S. (2011).

Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. The

Guildford Press, New York London.

Related Lessons:

FK-01: Lawfulness of behavior

FK-04: Empiricism

FK-05: Parsimony

FK-06: Pragmatism

Footnotes

* Please refer to FK04-FK06 for a description of

the other attitudes of science

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 197

FK-04 Empiricism

Definition:

Empiricism - “the practice of objective observa-

tion of the phenomena of interest” (Cooper et al.,

2007, p. 5).

According to Fisher (2011), scientists make obser-

vations about the world by using information avail-

able to the senses. Sensory evidence is the primary

source of information and should maintain the at-

titude of empiricism by believing what they observe

the world to be and not what they have been taught

that it should be.

Example:

Mr. Johnson, a BCBA, conducts a functional anal-

ysis to determine the function of Billy’s aggressive

behavior in class. He completes rating scales, inter-

views, and other indirect assessment procedures,

but doesn’t use these to guess the reinforcer for

Billy’s aggression. Mr. Johnson uses the indirect as-

sessment procedures to inform his experiment. He

designs a pairwise functional analysis and runs out

several phases of direct observation until results are

conclusive. He concludes that Billy’s aggressive be-

havior is sensitive to attention as a maintaining var-

iable. At the IEP meeting, Billy’s parents applaud

Mr. Johnson’s empiricism for completing such a

thorough assessment and analyzing all the possible

factors before determining a function.

Non-example:

Mr. Riley is a district BCBA and has been asked to conduct

a functional behavior assessment for Mary in regards to her

aggressive behavior. Mr. Riley hypothesizes that Mary is en-

gaging in aggressive behavior to get access to her dolls because

all little girls like dolls. Based on his reasoning he has al-

ready decided that Mary’s aggression is maintained by access

to dolls. Since he already has a strong hypothesis for the func-

tion of aggression, Mr. Riley writes a report and creates a

treatment for Mary.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee describe the term empiricism

and how it relates to applied behavior analysis.

Have him/her identify ways that they can

make sure that their work is empirically based.

• Have supervisee read an article on decreasing

problematic behavior. Have him/her identify

what makes this article empirically sound.

• Have supervisee list practices that are not em-

pirically based and then identify what the in-

dividual could do to make sure that they were

practicing appropriate empiricism.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 5, 22, 159.

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).

Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

1, 1, 91-97.

Fisher, W.W., Piazza, C. C., Roane, H. S. (2011).

Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis. The

Guildford Press, New York London.

Schmidt, F.L. (1992). What do data really mean?

Research findings, meta-analysis, and cumula-

tive knowledge in psychology. American Psy-

chologist, 47, 10, 1173-1181.

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior anal-

ysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate

whether interventions are behavior analytic in na-

ture.

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain rep-

resentative data given the dimensions of the behav-

ior and the logistics of observing and recording.

H-03: Select a data display that effectively com-

municates relevant quantitative relations.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measura-

ble terms.

I-03: Design and implement individualized behav-

ioral assessment procedures.

I-05: Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data.

J-01: State intervention goals in observable and

measurable terms.

J-15: Base decision making on data displayed in var-

ious formats.

K-07: Evaluate the effectiveness of the behavioral

program.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

198 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-05 Parsimony

Definition:

Parsimony - The concept “that “simple, log-

ical explanations must be ruled out, experi-

mentally or conceptually, before more com-

plex, or abstract experimentations are consid-

ered” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, p. 22).

Behavior analysts attempt to identify the sim-

plest explanation for an individual’s observed

responses and then apply the least complex in-

tervention that results in improved behavior.

Examples:

• A non-verbal client hits her head re-

peatedly for a period of days each

month. Although the analyst consid-

ered multiple environmental ante-

cedent and consequent factors that

might influence the client’s behavior,

she first looked at the calendar to see

if the client’s head hitting each

month corresponded to her monthly

menstrual cycle. She found that

head-hitting occurred the last days

immediately before her period began

and the first day of her period. The

analyst asked a nurse to review the

data and recommend a medical in-

tervention before the analyst contin-

ued to assess the influence of exter-

nal environmental factors.

• An analyst was asked to design strat-

egies for staff when responding to a

client’s aggressive behavior after ask-

ing him to brush his teeth. He re-

viewed the data staff had recorded

about self-care behaviors and saw

that aggression was a relatively new

behavior during teeth-brushing. He

learned that the client became ag-

gressive toward staff shortly after

they began buying a discounted

toothpaste instead of the client’s

usual brand. When the analyst of-

fered the client a choice between the

two brands, the client chose his old

brand and aggression did not occur

after asking him to brush his teeth.

Assessment:

• Give the supervisee 3 scenarios and

ask the supervisee to consider what

might be a parsimonious (simplest

that works) first approach for each

situation.

• Example of a scenario for assess-

ment: An adult client sometimes

asks to go outside before breakfast.

He screams and refuses to eat when

he is made to sit at the table instead

of going outside. Staff believe he

should eat a good breakfast as part

of his regular morning routine be-

fore he begins activities. A parsimo-

nious response from the analyst

might be to suggest that staff add a

choice step before breakfast in

which staff ask the client if he would

like to go outside for 5 minutes be-

fore he eats.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 113-122.

Etzel, B. C., & LeBlanc, J. M. (1979). The sim-

plest treatment alternative: The law of

parsimony applied to choosing appro-

priate instructional control and error-

less-learning procedures for the diffi-

cult-to-teach child. Journal of Autism and

Developmental Disorders, 9(4), 361-382.

Related Lessons:

* FK-01: Lawfulness of behavior.

* FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,

cultural)

* FK-03: Determinism

* FK-04: Empiricism

* FK-06: Pragmatism

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 199

FK-06 Pragmatism

Definition:

Pragmatism – “a reasonable and logical way of

doing things or of thinking about problems that

is based on dealing with specific situations in-

stead of on ideas and theories” (Merriam-Web-

ster.com, 2015).

ABA is an inclusive approach that is easily repli-

cable for socially significant effects by a variety

of individuals that may benefit from its method-

ology. Jon Bailey (2000, p. 477) stated that “It

seems to me that applied behavior analysis is

more relevant than ever before and that it offers

our citizens, parents, teachers, and corporate and

government leaders advantages that cannot be

matched by any other psychological ap-

proach…”

“Classroom teachers, parents, coaches, work-

place supervisors, and sometimes the partici-

pants themselves implemented the interventions

found effective in many ABA studies. This

demonstrates the pragmatic element of ABA.

Although doing ABA requires far more than

learning to administer a few simple procedures,

it is not prohibitively complicated or arduous.”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 19).

In other words, the pragmatism of ABA is in its

practicality and justification of methods that give it

appeal to a wider audience compared to other

sciences searching for “truth”.

Example:

Gloria was looking for a reinforcement program

for her classroom because her students were not

turning their homework in on time. She con-

sulted with the district BCBA and was able to

come up with an effective and simple class-wide

reinforcement program that helped her students

to turn their homework on time.

Non-example:

Richard was a first grade teacher and wanted to represent

his student’s data using a scatterplot graph. However, he

did not have previous training in this area and was una-

ble to accomplish this task. He felt that this method for

graphical display was too difficult to figure out.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee explain reinforcement,

punishment, mand, and tact in simple, prag-

matic terms that a layperson could apply.

• Have supervisee identify and describe some

common ABA practices and techniques

that are used by professionals who have not

been directly trained in ABA. Have

him/her describe why these approaches

represent the pragmatic nature of applied

behavior analysis.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J.S. (2000). A futurist perspective for ap-

plied behavior analysis. In J. Austin & J.E.

Carr (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior anal-

ysis (pp. 473-488). Reno, NV: Context

Press.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice

Hall. 19, 22.

Heward, W.L. (2005). Reasons applied behavior

analysis is good for education and why

those reasons have been insufficient. In

W.L. Heward, T.E. Heron, N.A. Neef, S.M.

Peterson, , D.M. Sainato, G. Cartledge, R.

Gardner, III, L.D. Peterson, S.B. Hersh, &

J.C. Dardig (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis

in education: Achievements, challenges, and oppor-

tunities (pp. 316-348). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate

whether interventions are behavior analytic in

nature.

G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language.

G-06: Provide behavior analytic services in col-

laboration with others who support and/or pro-

vide services to one’s clients.

K-08: Establish support for behavior-analytic

services from direct and indirect consumers.

K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural

environments.

200 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to

mentalistic) explanations of behavior

Definition:

Mentalism-“An approach to explaining behavior

that assumes that a mental, or ‘inner,’ dimension

exists that differs from a behavioral dimension and

that phenomena in this dimension either directly

cause or at least mediate some forms of behavior,

if not all” (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007, p. 699).

An environmental explanation of behavior can be

described by physical events in the phylogenetic or

ontogenetic history of the organism that cause be-

havior to occur. A behavior analyst believes that all

behavior is a result of these physical events and that

there is no reason to believe that there are some

causes of behavior outside of physical dimensions.

It can be difficult sometimes, as we learn behavior

analysis, to describe behavior without the use of

mentalistic explanations (e.g., the hit me because

he’s frustrated). This is because in non-behavior

analytic cultures, where many behavior analysts

spend most of their lives, behavior is described this

way and there is reinforcement available from that

verbal community to perpetuate mentalistic expla-

nations of behavior. For instance, it is common for

people to believe that we each are responsible for

our own actions and that the choices we make are

done so with “free-will”. Johnston (2014) men-

tions that, “After a lifetime of explaining behavior

in terms of such apparent freedom, it is under-

standably difficult to accept what appears to be a

helpless or passive role…” (p.5)

Much of behavior in society is controlled by conse-

quences. Johnston (2014) says “…we assign the re-

sponsibility for behavior not to the individual but

to sources of control in the physical environment.

From this perspective, holding individuals respon-

sible for their behavior by specifying the conse-

quences for certain actions remains an important

contingency because it helps manage those tenden-

cies to act in one way or another” (p.11).

Assessment:

• Provide scenarios for a supervisee describing

repetitive problem behaviors that might lead

to a conclusion that internal events are con-

trolling variables for behavior. Tell the su-

pervisee to write a mentalistic explanation

that might explain the behavior and then

identify a radical behaviorist approach to ex-

plaining the same response.

• Present a scenario in which a supervisee is

working with parents or staff who insist that

their child is hitting them because she is an-

gry or frustrated. Ask the supervisee to role

play explaining to care givers that behavior

analysts look at anger and frustration a dif-

ferent way.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Emotion. In Science and human

behavior (pp.160-170). New York: Macmillan.

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis

(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether inter-

ventions are behavior analytic in nature.

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical

language.

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including private

events, in behavior-analytic (non-mentalistic) terms.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and measurable

terms.

I-02 Define environmental variables in observable and

measurable terms.

K-02 Identify the contingencies governing the behav-

ior of those responsible for carrying out behavior-

change procedures and design interventions accord-

ingly.

FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior

FK-03 Determinism

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic) ex-

planations of behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 201

FK-08 Distinguish between radical and

methodological behaviorism

Definition:

Radical behaviorism – “the philosophy of a

science of behavior treated as a subject matter

in its own right apart from internal explana-

tions, mental or physiological” (Skinner, 1989,

p. 122).

Methodological behaviorism – “represents

a formal and strategic agreement to regard the

relation between publicly observable stimulus

variables and publicly observable behavior as

the appropriate subject matter for psychology

as a science” (Moore, 2008, p. 385).

The distinction between radical and method-

ological behaviorism can be summed up by

the views on private events. Private events, or

events observable by only the individual en-

gaging in the response, are not included in the

analysis of behavior by a methodological be-

haviorist position. Radical behaviorists con-

sider private events to be no different than any

other behavior, therefore, allowing it to be un-

derstood within the same conceptual frame-

work understood for overt behavior.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to describe the

distinction between radical and

methodological behaviorism.

• Have your supervisee describe the

advantages of the methodological

behaviorist’s view.

• Have your supervisee describe the

advantages of the radical behavior-

ist’s view.

Relevant Literature:

Baum, W. M. (2011). What is radical behavior-

ism? A review of Jay Moore's Conceptual

Foundations of Radical Behavior-

ism. Journal of the experimental analysis of be-

havior, 95(1), 119-126.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Moore, J. (2011). A review of Baum's review

of Conceptual Foundations of Radical

Behaviorism. Journal of the experimental

analysis of behavior, 95(1), 127-140.

Moore, J. (2009). Why the radical behaviorist

conception of private events is interest-

ing, relevant, and important. Behavior and

Philosophy, 21-37.

Moore, Jay (2008). Conceptual Foundations of

Radical Behaviorism. Sloan Pub.

Skinner, B. F. (1989). Recent issues in the analysis

of behavior. Prentice Hall. Chicago.

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language.

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior-analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mental-

istic) explanations of behavior

202 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-09 Distinguish between the concep-

tual analysis of behavior, experimental

analysis of behavior, applied behavior

analysis, and behavioral service delivery.

The conceptual analysis of behavior is a com-

bination of philosophical, theoretical, and his-

torical investigations behind the science of be-

havior. The modern philosophy of behavior

analysis is specifically referred to as Radical

Behaviorism and was coined by B.F. Skinner.

Radical Behaviorism is rooted in the idea that

the science of behavior is a natural science en-

compassed by behavioral events that happen

due to the way the universe is arranged (deter-

minism) and explained by other natural events

(Baum, 1995) like the phenomenon of gravity.

These behavioral events are analyzed in rela-

tion to the past and present environment (on-

togenic and cultural contingencies) and evolu-

tionary history (phylogenic contingencies).

This approach sets itself apart from other be-

havioral philosophies (e.g., methodological

behaviorism) by including overt behavior as

an important variable but also acknowledging

unobserved behavior (i.e., private events) (

Skinner, 1953). Moreover, internal states, in-

tervening variables and hypothetical con-

structs (mentalistic explanations) are not used

to understand or analyze behavior (Baum,

2011). This philosophy sets the foundation for

the other three domains described below.

The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)

is a natural science approach to the study of

behavior. The methodology includes rate of

response as a basic dependent variable, re-

peated or continuous measurement of clearly

defined response classes, within subject com-

parisons, visual analysis of data and an empha-

sis on describing functional relations between

behavior and controlling variables. EAB

methodology was founded by B.F. Skinner

and first publicly presented in his book The Be-

havior of Organisms (1938/1966) (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007). EAB is often re-

ferred to as basic research.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a science

that develops its technology based on the

principles of behavior and applies them sys-

tematically to produce socially significant be-

havior change. Furthermore, experimentation

is used to identify the independent variables

responsible for behavior change. Lastly, the

adequacy of ABA work is determined by the

seven characteristics (applied, behavioral, an-

alytic, technological, conceptually systematic

effective and generalizable) set forth by Baer,

Wolf and Risley (1968) (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Behavioral service delivery consists of putting

ABA principles that have been experimentally

validated into practice. Behavioral service

providers design, implement an evaluate be-

havior change procedures applied to socially

significant behavior (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007). It is important that behavioral

service providers apply a conceptual frame-

work in order to offer a thorough explanation

of the causes of behavior that are consistent

with the established science of behavior.

However it is also important that they can ex-

plain these concepts to non-behavioral service

providers and families in everyday language by

essentially, strengthening two verbal reper-

toires (Johnston, 2013).

The four above mentioned domains have

been described as an overlapping continuum

that includes similarities and differences be-

tween each domain. This view emphasizes the

fact that the four domains should be depend-

ent on each other and mutually influenced by

developments in each of the other domains

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward 2007; Moore &

Cooper, 2003). Moore and Cooper (2003) ar-

gue that students of behavior analysis be of-

fered a balanced approach by incorporating all

four domains into their training experience.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 203

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to define each of

the domains and then state how each

influences the other domains.

• Throughout the course of supervi-

sion, when reading behavior analytic

articles have the supervisee describe

the implications of the article in

terms of its relation to each of the

four domains

• Require the supervisee to speak in

technical dialect but also provide the

supervisee with opportunities to

practice restating their precise un-

derstanding of behavioral concepts

in everyday language that can be un-

derstood by families and non-behav-

ioral providers while retaining the

underlying philosophy of behavior.

• Have a discussion with the supervi-

see about how the four domains are

interrelated and why it is important

that the domains influence each

other and not operate in isolation.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R.

(1968). Some current dimensions of ap-

plied behavior analysis. Journal of applied

behavior analysis, 1(1), 91-97.

Baum, W. M. (1995). Radical behaviorism and

the concept of agency. Behaviorology, 3,

93-106.

Baum, W. M. (2011). What is radical behavior-

ism? A review of Jay Moore's Concep-

tual Foundations of Radical Behavior-

ism. Journal of the experimental analysis of be-

havior, 95(1), 119-126.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Johnston, J.V. (2013). Radical Behaviorism for

ABA Practitioners. Publisher Sloan Pub-

lishing

Moore, J., & Cooper, J. O. (2003). Some pro-

posed relations among the domains of

behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst,

26(1), 69.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.

Simon and Schuster.

Related Lessons:

B-01 Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using non-

technical language

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior-analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

G-06 Provide behavior-analytic services in

collaboration with others who support and/or

provide services to one’s clients.

FK-01 Lawfulness of behavior

FK-02 Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,

cultural)

FK-03 Determinism

FK-04 Empiricism

FK-05 Parsimony

FK-06 Pragmatism

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mental-

istic) explanations of behavior

FK-08 Distinguish between radical and meth-

odological behaviorism

204 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-10 Behavior, response, response class

Definitions:

Behavior - “The activity of living organisms;

human behavior includes everything that peo-

ple do” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

25).

Response - A single instance or occurrence

of a specific class or type of behavior”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).

Response Class - “A group of responses of

varying topography, all of which produce the

same effect on the environment” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 703).

Example:

Opening a door

a. Example (behavior): Beezus stands

up from her chair, heads towards a

closed door, and pushes on it. The

door is now open.

b. Example (response): When encoun-

tering a closed door, Beezus extends

an open palm and pushes on it. The

door is now open.

c. Example (response class): Beezus

encounters many doors during her

day. Sometimes she opens them with

an open palm and sometimes with a

closed palm. Some times she opens

them with her left hand and at other

times with her right hand. No mat-

ter which way she chooses to open a

door, the result is always the same.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to define behav-

ior, response, and response class.

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

behavior(s), responses, and response

class from the above examples.

• Ask your supervisee to create other

examples and non-examples of

his/her own.

• Have your supervisee describe how

these three terms are related.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993a).

Strategies and Tactics for Human Behavioral

Research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Be-

havior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo,

MI: Society for the Advancement of

Behavior Analysis.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of Reinforce-

ment: A Theoretical Analysis. New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Related Lessons:

FK-36 Response Generalization

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, includ-

ing private events, in behavior-analytic (non-

mentalistic) terms.

I-01 Define behavior in observable and meas-

urable terms

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 205

FK-11 Environment, Stimulus, Stimulus

Class

Definitions:

Environment - “The conglomerate of real

circumstances in which the organism or refer-

ence part of the organism exists; behavior can-

not occur in the absence of environment”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 694).

Stimulus - “Any physical event, combination

of events, or relation among events” (Catania,

2013, p. 466).

Stimulus class - “A group of stimuli that

share specified common elements along for-

mal (e.g. size, color), temporal (e.g. antecedent

or consequent), and/or functional (e.g., dis-

criminative stimulus) dimensions” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 705).

• “Any group of stimuli sharing a pre-

determined set of common elements

in one or more of these dimensions”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.

27).

Example: A trip to the mall

• Environment: Willis is shopping at

the local mall. The local mall would

be an environment.

• Stimulus: Willis is walking through

the food court. He smells some

pizza cooking from one of the estab-

lishments and suddenly his stomach

starts growling. He stops and gets

some food. All of the things in the

food court, including the smells, the

changes in his stomach, and the food

are stimuli.

• Stimulus class: At the food court,

Willis will buy items that will all

function as reinforcers for eating be-

havior. In this case, the burger, the

fries, and the cookie he bought are in

the same stimulus class.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to define envi-

ronment, stimulus, and stimulus

class.

• Ask your supervisee to identify the

environment, the stimulus (stimuli),

and the stimulus class(es) from the

above examples. Use examples of

stimulus classes related to the for-

mal, temporal, and functional di-

mensions.

• Ask your supervisee to create other

examples and a non-examples of

his/her own.

• Have your supervisee to compare

and contrast these terms.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Corn-

wall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1993a).

Strategies and Tactics for Human Behavioral

Research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Be-

havior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo,

MI: Society for the Advancement of

Behavior Analysis.

Related Lessons:

FK-11 environment, stimulus, stimulus class

206 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-12 Stimulus Equivalence

Definition:

Stimulus equivalence - “The emergence of

accurate responding to untrained and nonre-

inforced stimulus-stimulus relations following

the reinforcement of responses to some stim-

ulus-stimulus relations. A positive demonstra-

tion of reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity is

necessary to meet the definition of equiva-

lence” (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p.

705)”.

Related definitions:

Reflexivity - “A type of stimulus-to-stimulus

relation in which the student, without any

prior training or reinforcement for doing so,

selects a comparison stimulus that is the same

as the same stimulus” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, p. 702).

• Example: Without prior reinforce-

ment or training, when shown a pic-

ture of a dog and given a picture of

the same dog, a rat, and a cow, stu-

dent matches the picture of the two

dogs (e.g. A=A).

Symmetry - “A type of stimulus-to-stimulus

relationship in which the learner, without

prior training or reinforcement for doing so,

demonstrates the reversibility of matched

sample and comparison stimuli” (Cooper,

Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 705).

• Example: Student is taught that

when given the written word dog to

select the picture of a dog. Without

further reinforcement or training,

when given the picture of the dog,

student selects the written word dog

(e.g. If A=B, then B=A).

Transitivity - “A derived stimulus-stimulus

relation that emerges as a product of training

two other stimulus-stimulus relations”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 706).

• Example: Student is taught that

when given the written word dog to

select the picture of the dog (e.g.

A=B). Student is also taught to se-

lect the picture of the dog when

hearing the spoken word dog (e.g.

B=C). Without further reinforce-

ment or training, student selects the

written word dog after hearing the

spoken word dog (e.g. C=A).

Example of Stimulus Equivalence:

• When learner responds without

prior reinforcement and training that

A=A (exhibiting reflexivity) and if

A=B, then B must also = A (exhib-

iting symmetry) and finally that if

A=B and B=C, then C must also

equal A (exhibiting transitivity).

Non-Example of Stimulus Equivalence:

• When learner responds without

prior reinforcement and training that

A=A (exhibiting reflexivity) and if

A=B, then B must also equal A (ex-

hibiting symmetry) but cannot show

that if A=B and B=C, then C must

also equal A (failure to exhibit tran-

sitivity).

Assessment:

• Have supervisees display equivalence

with respect to the words “reflexivity”,

“transitivity”, and “symmetry” in the

spoken form, written form, and written

definitions.

• Have supervisee assess for stimulus

equivalence on the job or during role-play

• Have supervisee demonstrate an example

of stimulus equivalence during role-play

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sidman, M. (1997). Equivalence rela-

tions. Journal of the Experimental Anal-

ysis of Behavior, 68(2), 258-266.

Sidman, M. (2009). Equivalence relations and

behavior: An introductory tutorial. The

Analysis of verbal behavior, 25(1), 5.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 207

FK-13 Reflexive relations (US-UR)

Definition:

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - is a “stimu-

lus change that elicits respondent behavior

(i.e., unconditioned response) in the absence

of prior learning. The UR is typically regarded

as a built-in bodily mechanism that exists

through natural evolution” (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007, pp. 30, 39). The US-UR

relation is an unconditioned reflex.

Example:

• Air blowing in eye (US)  blinking

(UR)

• Cold/low temperature (US)  shiv-

ering (UR)

• Hot/high temperature (US) 

sweating (UR)

• Food in mouth (US)  salivation

(UR)

• Hot surface (US)  move hand

away (UR)

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to provide examples

of US-UR relations.

• Ask supervisee to discriminate be-

tween respondent behavior and op-

erant behavior.

Relevant Literature:

Bijou, S. W., & Baer, D. M. (1961). Child De-

velopment: Volume 1. A Systematic and Em-

pirical Theory. New York, NY: Appleton-

Century-Crofts.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Basic concepts. Applied Behavior

Analysis (pp. 24-46). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An In-

vestigation of the Physiological Activity of the

Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford Univer-

sity Press.

Related Lessons:

FK-14 Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15 Operant conditioning

FK-16 Respondent-operant interaction

208 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-14 Respondent Conditioning (CS-CR)

Definitions:

Reflex - “The reliable production of a re-

sponse by a stimulus” (Catania, 1998, p. 8).

Respondent behavior - “behavior that is

elicited by antecedent stimuli. Respondent be-

havior is induced, or brought out, by a stimulus

that precedes the behavior; nothing else is re-

quired for the response to occur” (Cooper et al.,

2007, p. 29).

“New stimuli can acquire the ability to elicit

respondents. Called respondent conditioning,

this type of learning is associated with Russian

physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlolv…” (Cooper

et al., 2007, p. 30).

Pavlov’s experiments consisted of a group of

dogs who were trained to salivate at the sound

of a metronome started just prior to feeding

them. Before initial training, the presence of

food (US) elicited salivation (UR), but the met-

ronome (NS) was not paired with this response.

After numerous trials of food being paired with

the sound of the metronome, the dogs began sal-

ivating whenever they heard the metronome. Af-

ter being paired with the presentation of food

for several trials, the metronome became a con-

ditioned stimulus (CS) and a conditioned reflex

(CR) was elicited.

Example:

Roger usually drinks soda every day for lunch.

When drinking soda, the sugar (US) inside his

blood elicits the release of insulin from his pan-

creas (UR). Now, when he opens the soda, the

snap of the can (CS) starts to elicit the release of

insulin (CR) before he takes a drink.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee list various examples of re-

spondent behavior. Have him/her explain

respondent conditioning and define stimu-

lus-stimulus pairing, unconditioned stimu-

lus, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus,

and conditioned reflex.

• Have supervisee identify and describe an

example of respondent conditioning (not

an example from the Cooper et al. 2007 text

or Pavlov’s experiments).

• Have supervisee create an abstract for an

experiment involving respondent condi-

tioning. Have him/her describe how they

would conduct the experiment to achieve

respondent conditioning.

• Have supervisee compare and contrast re-

spondent conditioning and operant condi-

tioning.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A.C. (1998). Learning (4th Ed.), Upper

Saddle River, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice

Hall. 29-31 (Figure 2.1), 33 (Table 2.3), 393,

606.

Skinner, B.F. (1984). The Evolution of Behavior.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,

41, 2, 217-221.

Poling, A., & Braatz, D. (2001). Principles of

learning: Respondent and operant condition-

ing and human behavior. Handbook of organi-

zational performance: Behavior analysis and man-

agement, 23-49.

Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms:

an experimental analysis. Oxford, England:

Appleton-Century. (457 pp.)

Pavlov, I.P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned re-

flexes: Twenty-five years of objective study

of the higher nervous activity (behaviour) of

animals. (Horsley, G.W., Trans.). New York,

NY, US: Liverwright Publishing Corpora-

tion. (414 pp.).

Related Lessons:

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR).

FK-15: Operant conditioning

FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions

FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement

FK-24: Stimulus control

FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations

FK-35: Stimulus discrimination

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 209

FK-15 Operant Conditioning

Definition:

Operant Conditioning - “The basic process

by which operant learning occurs; conse-

quences (stimulus changes immediately fol-

lowing responses) result in an increased (rein-

forcement) or decreased (punishment) fre-

quency of the same type of behavior under

similar motivational and environmental con-

ditions in the future” (Cooper, Heron &

Heward, 2007, pp. 700-701).

Examples:

• A rat is deprived of food. The rat walks

near a specific part of their cage and re-

ceives food. As a result, the future prob-

ability of the rat walking toward that area

of the cage increases.

• A child hits their sibling when fighting

over a toy. The child is sent to timeout.

As a result, the future probability of hit-

ting their sister decreases.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee provide examples of op-

erant conditioning.

• Have supervisee describe ways of deter-

mining if operant conditioning is occur-

ring (detect a reinforcing or punishing ef-

fect on behavior).

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

McAllister, L. W., Stachowiak, J. G., Baer, D.

M., & Conderman, L. (1969). The appli-

cation of operant conditioning tech-

niques in a secondary school classroom.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,2(4),

277-285.

Related Lessons:

FK-15 Operant conditioning

FK-31 Behavioral contingencies

FK-33 Functional relations

210 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-16 Respondent-operant interactions

Definitions:

Respondent behavior - “A response component

of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by

antecedent stimuli” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 703).

Operant behavior – “Behavior that is selected,

maintained, and brought under stimulus control as

a function of its consequences” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 701).

Operant and respondent behavior interact very

commonly. They may occur concurrently when a

stimulus both evokes an operant response while at

the same time elicits a respondent response on the

part of the organism. The procedures involved with

what we call operant or respondent conditioning

are names of procedures for the ease of use of our

field. There are respondent and operant interac-

tions occurring whenever an organism behaves.

Pierce and Cheney (2013) describe it this way:

“When biologically relevant stimuli such as food

are contingent on an organism’s operant behavior,

species-characteristic, innate behavior is occasion-

ally elicited at the same time” (p. 194). The presence

of stimuli that have been paired with aversive or

appetitive stimulation will elicit respondent behav-

ior at the same time operant behavior is occurring

to access or avoid those stimuli.

“The neural capacity for operant conditioning

arose on the basis of species history; organisms that

changed their behavior as result of life experience

had an advantage over animals that did not do so”

(Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 194).

Certain respondent behavior interacts with op-

erant behavior. The effects are often described as

motivating operations. For instance, behavior

changes before and after meal times, with or with-

out medications, after traumatic events, or disrup-

tions in family life.

Examples:

• After a traumatic event involving physical abuse,

every time a male walks into the room, your cli-

ent “freezes” and does not follow instructions.

This could be due to elicited behavior (“freez-

ing” in the presence of conditioned aversive

stimuli) in competition with operant behavior

(following instructions).

• A medication, when consumed, will elicit re-

spondent behavior that makes certain things

more or less aversive. Consider if your client

starts taking a medication to decrease aggression

maintained by access to toys. The effect of the

medication may decrease the likelihood that toys

function as a reinforcer in effect decreasing the

amount of aggression. It may increase the likeli-

hood that food functions as a reinforcer.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to describe how respondent

behavior can interact with operant behavior.

• Ask your supervisee to give an example of when

this might occur with one of his/her clients dur-

ing a specific treatment procedure.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed).

Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Merrill-

Prentice Hall.

Cheney, C. D., & Pierce, W. D. (Eds.). (2013). Be-

havior analysis and learning (5th ed). New

York, NY: Psychology Press.

Davis, H., & Hurwitz, H. M. B. (Eds.). (1977). Op-

erant-Pavlovian interactions. Hillsdale, N.J. :

New York: L. Erlbaum Associates ; distrib-

uted by the Halsted Press Division of J.

Wiley.

Related Lessons:

G-02 Consider biological/medical variables that

may be affecting the client.

G-05 Describe and explain behavior, including pri-

vate events, in behavior-analytic terms.

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic)

explanations of behavior

FK-13 reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15 operant conditioning

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 211

FK-17 Unconditioned reinforcement

Definition:

Unconditioned reinforcer - “A stimulus

change that increases the frequency of any be-

havior that immediately precedes it irrespec-

tive of the organism’s learning history with the

stimulus. Unconditioned reinforcers are the

product of the evolutionary development of

the species (phylogeny) Also called primary or

unlearned reinforcer” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007 p.707).

“…momentary effectiveness of an uncondi-

tioned reinforcer is a function of current mo-

tivating operations” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.

39).

Example:

• Food, water, oxygen, warmth, and

sexual stimulation are some exam-

ples of unconditioned reinforcers.

• A teacher gives a child a pretzel after

the child does a task. The child’s en-

gagement in the task increases in the

future.

• This is an example of unconditioned

reinforcement.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee create a list of un-

conditioned reinforcers. Have

him/her define and describe the role

satiation and deprivation plays in un-

conditioned reinforcement.

• Have supervisee give examples of

unconditioned reinforcers. Have

him/her describe the difference be-

tween conditioned and uncondi-

tioned reinforcement.

• Have supervisee explain the relation-

ship between conditioned and un-

conditioned reinforcers and the role

unconditioned reinforcers may play

in creating conditioned reinforcers.

Relevant Literature:

Bijou, S.W., & Baer, D.M. (1965). Child Devel-

opment: Vol. 2. Universal Stage of infancy. New

York, NY. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 38-40, 269-270, 295.

Gerwirtz, J. & Pelaez-Nogueras, M. (2000).

Infant emotions under the positive-rein-

forcer control of caregiver attention and

touch. In J.C. Leslie & D. Blackman (Eds.),

Issues in experimental and applied analyses of hu-

man behavior. Reno, NV. Context Press. 271-

291.

Malott, R.W., Tillema, M., & Glenn, S. (1978).

Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification:

An introduction. Kalamazoo, MI. Behav-

iordelia. 9.

Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Gerwirtz, J.L., Field, T.,

Cigales, M., Malphurs, J., Clasky, S., &

Sanchez, A. (1996). Infants’ preference for

touch simulation in face-to-face interac-

tions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychol-

ogy, 17, 199-213.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behav-

ior. New York, NY. McMillan.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for unwanted effects of

reinforcement.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,

cultural)

FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions

FK-19: Unconditioned punishment

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment.

FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations.

FK-30: Distinguish between motivating oper-

ations and reinforcement effects

212 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-18 Conditioned reinforcement

Definition:

Conditioned reinforcer - “A stimulus

change that functions as a reinforcer because

of prior pairing with one or more other rein-

forcers; sometimes called secondary or

learned reinforcers” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.

692).

Conditioned reinforcement – “the opera-

tion, or process, of a response producing a

conditioned reinforcer that increases the like-

lihood that response occurs in the future”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 40).

Example:

• Money, tokens, stickers.

• A teacher says “good job” after a

student returns their homework.

The student continues to return their

homework in the future.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee explain the differ-

ences between conditioned and un-

conditioned reinforcers.

• Have supervisee explain the process

of producing a conditioned rein-

forcer (i.e., token systems). Have

him/her give an example from their

professional experience.

• Have supervisee read and summa-

rize a journal article on the topic of

conditioned reinforcement.

Relevant Literature:

Alessi, G. (1992) Models of proximate and ul-

timate causation in psychology. American

Psychologist, 48, 1359-1370.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 40-41, 269-270, 295.

Higgins, J.W., Williams, R.L., & McLaughlin,

T.F. (2001). The effects of a token econ-

omy employing instructional conse-

quences for a third grade student with

learning disabilities: A data-based case

study. Education and Treatment of Children,

24, 1, 99-106.

Michael, J. (2004) Concepts and principles of behav-

ior analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo, MI. So-

ciety for the Advancement of Behavior

Analysis. 66.

Morse, W.H., & Kelleher, R.T. (1977). Deter-

minants of reinforcement and punish-

ment. In W.K. Honig & J.E.R. Staddon

(Eds.), Handbook of Operant Behavior, Up-

per Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall. 176-

177, 180.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the unwanted effects

of reinforcement.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-20: Use response-independent (time based)

schedules of reinforcement (i.e., noncontin-

gent reinforcement).

D-21: Use differential reinforcement (e.g.,

DRO, DRA, DRI, DRL, DRH)

F-02: Use token economies and other condi-

tioned reinforcement systems

J-04: Select intervention strategies based on

the client’s preferences.

K-04: Design and use effective performance

monitoring and reinforcement systems.

FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic,

cultural)

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15: Operant conditioning

FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions.

FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 213

FK-19 Unconditioned Punishment

Definition:

Unconditioned punisher – “A stimulus

change that decreases the frequency of any be-

havior that immediately precedes it irrespec-

tive of the organism’s learning history with the

stimulus” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 707).*

Examples:

Bright lights, loud sounds, extreme tempera-

tures, certain tastes (sour, bitter), physical re-

straint, loss of bodily support, extreme mus-

cular efforts, etc.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to describe an ex-

ample of unconditioned punish-

ment.

• Use the supervisee to describe the

difference between unconditioned

punishment and an unconditioned

punisher.

• Ask the supervisee to list as many

unconditioned punishers as possible

in one minute.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion.Pearson Education, Inc.

Herman, R. L., & Azrin, N. H. (1964). Pun-

ishment by noise in an alternative re-

sponse situation. Journal of the Experi-

mental Analysis of Behavior, 7(2), 185-188.

Related Lessons:

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment

D-16 Use positive and negative Punishment

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

E-11 Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditioned reinforcers and punishers

G-07 Practice within one's limits of profes-

sional competence in applied behavior analy-

sis, and obtain consultation, supervision, and

training, or make referrals as necessary

J-10 When a behavior is to be decreased, se-

lect an acceptable alternative behavior to be

established or increased

FK 20 Conditioned punishment

Footnotes:

*Conditioned punishers are products of the

evolutionary development of the species

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

*Conditioned punishers are also called pri-

mary or unlearned punishers (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007).

214 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-20 Conditioned punishment

Definition:

Conditioned punisher – “a stimulus that

functions as a punisher as the result of being

paired with unconditioned or conditioned

punishers” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 40).

Conditioned punishment as defined by

Hake and Azrin (1965) is a process that “re-

sults when it can be shown (1) there is little or

no punishment effect before the stimulus is

paired with an unconditioned punisher, but

(2) a punishment effect occurs after (3) the

stimulus has been paired, or is being paired,

with an unconditioned punisher” (p. 279).

Evidence of conditioned punishment was

suggested in early research when a reduction

in a response was observed following the pro-

cess of pairing a stimulus with an electric

shock followed by discontinuing the shock

and making the stimulus contingent upon a

selected response (Hake & Azrin, 1965).

Example:

• Similar to classical conditioning, a tone

(neutral stimulus) is repeatedly paired

with an electric shock (unconditioned

punisher) whenever a dog barks, in time

the tone (conditioned punisher) sup-

presses the bark in the absence of the

electric shock.

• A child engages in aggression. A parent

responds to aggression by taking away

their child’s favorite video game contin-

gent on every instance of aggression.

The parent begins to pair removal of the

video games with a reprimand. The rep-

rimand may function as a conditioned

punisher if aggression continues to de-

crease following the presentation of a

reprimand without taking away the

video games. This process illustrates

conditioned punishment.

• Conditioned punishers may be referred

to as learned or secondary punishers.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to explain the process of

conditioned punishment.

• Ask supervisee to define a conditioned

punisher.

• Ask supervisee to provide examples of

conditioned punishment and a condi-

tioned punisher.

• Ask supervisee to identify examples of

conditioned punishment in a client’s en-

vironment.

Relevant Literature:

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2011). Ethics in Behavior

Analysis (2nd ed). New York, NY:

Routledge.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Measuring behavior. Applied Be-

havior Analysis (pp. 72-101). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hake, D. F., & Azrin, N. H. (1965). Condi-

tioned punishment. Journal of the Experi-

mental Analysis of Behavior, 8, 279-293.

Iwata, B. A. (1988). The development and

adoption of controversial default tech-

nologies. The Behavior Analyst, 11, 149-

157.

Related Lessons:

C-02 State and plan for the possible unwanted

effects of punishment.

D-15 Identify punishers.

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment.

D-18 Use extinction.

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-17 unconditioned reinforcement

FK-18 conditioned reinforcement

FK-19 unconditioned punishment

FK-21 schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 215

FK-21 Schedules of Reinforcement and

Punishment

Definition:

Schedule of reinforcement/punishment –

“rule that specifies the environmental arrange-

ments and response requirements that will re-

sult in reinforcement or punishment”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 703).

Related Definitions:

A continuous schedule of reinforcement: re-

inforcement is given for each occurrence of

behavior

• Also known as a 1:1 schedule of rein-

forcement or (CRF)

A continuous schedule of punishment: pun-

ishment is given after each occurrence of be-

havior

• Also known as 1:1 schedule of punish-

ment

An intermittent schedule of reinforcement:

reinforcement is given after some, but not all

occurrences of behavior

• Types of intermittent schedules of rein-

forcement:

o A fixed ratio schedule of reinforce-

ment: Requires a completion of a

specified number of responses to gain

access to reinforcement

 Example: A student may have to

complete 5 correct math problems on

a computer game before progressing

to the next level (this is a FR-5 sched-

ule of reinforcement).

o A variable ratio schedule of reinforce-

ment: Requires the completion of a

varied number of responses to gain

access to reinforcement

 Example: A young girl may be called

on when she raises her hand quietly in

class on average once every 5 times.

Sometimes, the teacher calls on her

every 4 times she raises her hand.

Other times the teacher calls on her

every 6 times she raises her hand. The

teacher provides attention on average

every 5 times (this is a VR-5 schedule

of reinforcement).

o A fixed interval schedule of reinforce-

ment: provides reinforcement for the

first response after a fixed duration of

time

 Example: An alarm clock is set for

7:00 am every morning. If an individ-

ual presses snooze, it will allow the in-

dividual to sleep in again for 10

minutes. The individual cannot press

snooze before the alarm rings (this is

a FI-10 minute schedule of reinforce-

ment).

o A variable interval schedule of rein-

forcement: produces reinforcement

for the first response after a variable

duration of time

 Example: A person goes to a fast food

restaurant. Sometimes he has to stand

in line, while other times, he may or-

der immediately upon entering. This

interval varies each time he goes to

the restaurant.

Intermittent schedule of punishment: punish-

ment is delivered after some but not all occur-

rences of behavior.

Assessment:

• During a job or during role-play,

have your supervisee determine

what schedule of reinforcement or

punishment is being used

• Use SAFMEDS or flashcards to

practice definitions related to the

various types of schedules.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Related Lessons:

D-02 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement

D-17 Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment

216 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-22 Extinction

Definition:

Extinction - “The discontinuing of reinforce-

ment of a previously reinforced behavior; the

primary effect is a decrease in the frequency

of the behavior until it reaches a pre-rein-

forced level or ultimately ceases to occur”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 695).

Example:

Screaming to avoid/escape washing hands

• Example: A young woman at a

group home was observed to scream

loudly every time she was instructed

to wash her hands. Each time she

began screaming, she was allowed to

avoid the task for an average of ten

minutes or escape the task alto-

gether. A behavioral analyst in-

structed group home staff to put this

behavior on extinction. After being

instructed to wash her hands, group

home staff physically guided her to

comply even if she began screaming.

After a week, screaming decreased

to near zero levels.

• Non-example: A young woman at a

group home was observed to scream

loudly every time she was instructed

to wash her hands. Each time she

began screaming, she was allowed to

avoid the task for an average of ten

minutes or escape the task alto-

gether. When she engaged in

screaming, group home staff would

tell her that if she stopped screaming

and complied she would be given

chips, a preferred food.

Different types of extinction:

• Extinction of behavior maintained

by positive reinforcement: This oc-

curs when behavior to access tangi-

bles, activities, and/or attention is

no longer reinforced.

• Extinction of behavior maintained

by negative reinforcement: This oc-

curs when behavior to avoid/escape

an aversive stimulus/event is no

longer reinforced.

• Extinction of behavior maintained

by automatic reinforcement: This

occurs when behavior that provides

a natural and automatic sensory con-

sequence is no longer reinforced.

(e.g., a child is blocked each time he

raises both hands above his mid-line

to engage in hand-flapping.)

Assessment:

• -Provide a hypothetical scenario and

have your supervisee determine if an

extinction procedure is in place. If

so, have your supervisee define

which type of extinction.

• -Have your supervisee give you 3

various examples of extinction.

• Describe the pros and cons of ex-

tinction procedures based on read-

ings assigned.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lerman, D. C., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.

(1999). Side effects of extinction: preva-

lence of bursting and aggression during

the treatment of self-injurious behav-

ior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 32(1), 1-8.

Magee, S. K., & Ellis, J. (2000). Extinction ef-

fects during the assessment of multiple

problem behaviors. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 33(3), 313-316.

Related Lessons:

C-03 State and plan for unwanted effects of

extinction

D-18. Use Extinction.

D.-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 217

FK-23 Automatic reinforcement and pun-

ishment

Definition:

Automatic reinforcement - "Reinforcement

that occurs independent of the social media-

tion of others" (Cooper Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 267).

Example:

• Scratching an insect bite removes an

itch; eating food when hungry re-

moves hunger, humming may be au-

ditory reinforcement; nonfunctional

movements such as hand flapping

may produce a sensation, which is

automatically reinforcing; some self-

injurious behavior may produce a

sensation, which the individual may

enjoy.

• Automatic punishment - "Punish-

ment that occurs independent of the

social mediation by others”(Cooper

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 534).

• Albert bites his canker sore, causing

a shocking pain. Albert is becomes

cautious as he eats with his canker

sore until the canker disappears. A

dog gets a thorn in his paw. He ex-

periences pain when he steps down

on his foot. He begins to walk on

three legs.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to come up with

several examples of automatic pun-

ishment and automatic reinforce-

ment.

• Ask your supervisee provide exam-

ples of how extinction of the follow-

ing automatically reinforced behav-

ior may occur: child making sounds

by tapping the table, child receiving

kinesthetic stimulation by flapping

his arms, child throws up and eats

vomit for the taste, child scratching

surface for tactile stimulation on fin-

gers, child flipping light switch on

and off to gain a visual sensation

• Ask supervisee if they will likely have

to treat clients with an automatic

punishment function (yes-many

food refusal behavior may have an

automatic punishment for example).

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion.Pearson

Education, Inc.

Vollmer, T. R. (1994). The concept of auto-

matic reinforcement: Implications for

behavioral research in developmental

disabilities. Research in Developmental Disa-

bilities, 15(3), 187-207.

Related Lessons:

FK-17 Unconditioned reinforcement

FK-19 Unconditioned punishment

FK-22 Extinction

218 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-24 Stimulus control

Definitions:

Stimulus control - "A situation in which the

frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a

behavior is altered by the presence or absence

of an antecedent stimulus” (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007, p. 705).

Example: When the telephone rings, George

picks up the receiver. Picking up the receiver

is under the stimulus control of a ringing

phone.

Discriminated operant - "An operant that

occurs more frequently under some anteced-

ent conditions than under others” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p.694).

Example: In the above example, picking up

the receiver is the discriminated operant.

Discriminative stimulus (

D) - "A stimulus

in the presence of which responses of some

type have been reinforced and in the absence

of which the same type of responses have oc-

curred and not been reinforced” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 694).

Example: In the above example, the tele-

phone's ring is the discriminative stimulus.

Assessment:

• Label the following: The traffic light

turns red, John steps on the break.

What is under stimulus control?

What is the discriminated operant?

What is the discriminative stimulus?

• Ask the supervisee to explain how he

can bring a student's behavior of say-

ing "dog" under the stimulus control

of the picture of a dog.

• Ask supervisee how they could use

stimulus control to reduce the jump-

ing behavior of a man who jumps up

and down so much that he is damag-

ing his feet.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis: 2nd Edi-

tion. Pearson Education, Inc.

Related Lessons:

D-19 Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction

FK-22 Extinction

FK-29 Distinguish between discriminative

stimulus and motivating operation

Discriminative

Stimulus

•"What is your

name?"

Response

•"John"

Stimulus

Change

•"That's right,

good for you!"

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 219

FK-25 Multiple functions of a single stim-

ulus

The same stimulus may serve multiple func-

tions depending on the context. For instance,

an aversive stimulus can function as a positive

punisher or a negative reinforcer depending

on whether it is added or removed contingent

on a response. An appetitive stimulus can

function as a positive reinforcer or a negative

punisher depending on whether it is added or

removed contingent on a response.

In a behavior chain, a stimulus can function

as a discriminative stimulus and a reinforcer

depending on how much of the chain has

been completed. Behavior chains are de-

scribed by Catania as “a sequence of discrimi-

nated operants such that responses during one

stimulus are followed by other stimuli that re-

inforce those responses and set the occasion

for the next ones” (Catania, 2013, p. 431).

Respondent behavior interacts with oper-

ant behavior in ways that can cause a single

stimulus to be an eliciting stimulus for re-

spondent behavior as well as a discriminative

stimulus for operant behavior. For example,

when seeing your best friend arrive to your

home for a visit, this may elicit respondent be-

havior one might describe as “excitement”.

Seeing your friend may also serve as a discrim-

inative stimulus for waving at him/her.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to give exam-

ples of a single stimulus serving mul-

tiple functions.

• Look at a task analysis with your su-

pervisee. Have him/her pick a stim-

ulus that serves as a discriminative

stimulus and a reinforcer at certain

parts of the performance.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed). Corn-

wall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Pub.

Catania, A. C., & Overmier, J. B. (1971). Dis-

criminative stimulus functions of drugs:

Interpretations. In Stimulus properties of

drugs (pp. 149-160). Springer New York.

Bullock, C. E., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2015).

The several roles of stimuli in token re-

inforcement. Journal of the Experi-

mental Analysis of Behavior, 103(2),

269–287.

http://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.117

Related Lessons:

E-01 Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

D-01 Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-16 Use positive and negative punishment.

FK-14 respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15 operant conditioning

FK-16 respondent-operant interactions

220 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-26 Unconditioned motivating opera-

tions

Definition:

Unconditioned motivating operations -

“…events, operations, and stimulus conditions

with value-altering motivating effects that are un-

learned” (Michael, as cited in Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 377).

Deprivation of basic human needs such as water,

food, and sleep all create “evocative effects” that

establish these items as reinforcers.

Cooper et al., 2007 identifies nine unconditioned

motivating operations (UMOs) including food dep-

rivation, water deprivation, sleep deprivation, activ-

ity deprivation, oxygen deprivation, sex depriva-

tion, becoming too warm or cold, and an increase

in painful stimulation. The withholding of any of

these will lead to an increase in the reinforcing

value of obtaining that which has been deprived.

On the other hand, when there is no longer dep-

rivation, this serves as a UMO having an abative

effect on behavior, making it less likely to occur.

Example:

Roger has not slept in three days because he has

been studying for his chemistry final. Sleep be-

comes more valuable the more deprived of sleep he

gets.

Non-example:

Roger lost his key to his apartment and cannot get

in. The locked door serves as motivation for him to

find his key to get into his apartment. The key

serves as a reinforcer because his learning history

identifies this as the only way to unlock his door

and get into his apartment.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify at least 7 uncondi-

tioned motivating operations. Have him/her

describe their reinforcer-establishing effect as

well as their evocative effect. (see page 379,

table 16.1 in Cooper et al., 2007)

• Have supervisee identify UMOs that decrease

reinforcer effectiveness and abate relevant be-

havior. Have him/her describe the reinforcer-

abolishing effect and the abative effect of each

UMO. (See page 380, table 16.2 in Cooper et

al., 2007).

• Have supervisee explain how to weaken the

effects of a UMO. (See page 380-381 in

Cooper et al., 2007).

• Have supervisee explain the difference be-

tween motivating operations and discrimina-

tive stimuli. (See page 377 in Cooper et al.,

2007).

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Sad-

dle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A.

(2001). The abative effect: A new term to de-

scribe the action of antecedents that reduce

operant responding. The Analysis of Verbal Be-

havior, 18, 101-104.

Lotfizadeh, A.D., Edwards, T.L., Redner, R., &

Poling, A. (2012). Motivating operations af-

fect stimulus control: A largely overlooked

phenomenon in discrimination learning. Be-

havior Analyst, 35, 1, 89-100.

Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discrim-

inative and motivational functions of stimuli.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,

37, 149-155.

Michael, J. (2000). Implications and refinements of

the establishing operation concept. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 401-410.

Ulrich, R.E., & Azarin, N.H. (1962). Reflexive

fighting in response to aversive stimulation.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5,

511-520.

Related Lessons:

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and

Discriminative stimuli.

I-02: Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

FK-02: Selectionism (phylogenic, ontogenic, cul-

tural)

FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement.

FK-19: Unconditioned punishment

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.

FK-28: Transitive, reflexive, and surrogate motivat-

ing operations.

FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative

stimulus and the motivating operation.

FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation

and reinforcement effects.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 221

FK-27 Conditioned motivating operations

Definition:

Conditioned motivating operation - “A motivat-

ing operation whose value-altering effect depends

on a learning history” (Michael, as cited in Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 384).

Three types of conditioned motivating operations

(CMOs): surrogate (CMO-S), reflexive (CMO-R),

and transitive (CMO-T)

• Surrogate CMOs replace and have the same

effect as the motivating operation that it was

previously paired with.

o Example: A rat is placed in a distinctive envi-

ronment when food deprived. This is repeated a

number of times. Over time, the rat is placed in the

same environment when they have not been de-

prived of food. The distinctive environment and

it’s relation to a state of food deprivation results in

an increase in the value of food as a reinforcer and

an increase in the frequency of behavior with a his-

tory of producing food. In this example, the dis-

tinctive environment is paired with a uncondi-

tioned motivating operation (food deprivation).

Over time, the distinctive environment functions

as a motivating operation in the absence of food

deprivation.

• Reflexive CMOs create a circumstance in

which its own removal serves as the reinforce-

ment.

o Example: The presence of instructional mate-

rials often precedes the presentation of instruc-

tional tasks. If an individual engages in behavior

maintained by access to escape from instructional

tasks, in time they may engage in escape maintained

behavior in the presence of instructional materials

and the removal of these materials may function as

a reinforcer. In this example, the instructional ma-

terials serve as a CMO-R.

• Transitive CMOs make other stimuli more ef-

fective reinforcers.

o Example: A locked door functions as a CMO-

T to establish a key as a reinforcer.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee describe the three types of

CMOs. Have him/her give examples of each.

• Have supervisee explain the definitions for

conditioned and unconditioned motivating

operations in simple terms that someone who

does not have ABA experience can under-

stand.

• Have supervisee explain how to weaken the

effects of each of the three types of CMO.

Relevant Literature:

Catania, A. C. (1993). Coming to terms with estab-

lishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16,

219-224. Catania, A. C. (1994). Learning. Eng-

lewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Clark, F. C.

(1958). The effects of deprivation and fre-

quency of reinforcement on variable interval

responding. Journal of the Experimental Anal-

ysis of Behavior, 1, 221-228.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 384-389.

Endicott, K., & Higbee, T.S. (2007). Contriving

motivating operations to evoke mands for in-

formation in preschoolers with autism. Research

in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1, 3, 210-217.

Hesse, B. (1993). The establishing operation revis-

ited. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 215- 217.

Iwata, B. A., Smith, R. G., & Michael, J. (2000).

Current research on the influence of establish-

ing operations on behavior in applied settings.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 411-

418.

Lotfizadeh, A.D., Edwards, T.L., Redner, R., &

Poling, A. (2012). Motivating operations affect

stimulus control: A largely overlooked phe-

nomenon in discrimination learning. Behavior

Analyst, 35, 1, 89-100.

Michael, J. (1993). Establishing operations. The Be-

havior Analyst, 16(2), 191.

Related Lessons:

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and

Discriminative stimuli.

I-02: Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

FK-02: Selectionism

FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-17: Unconditioned reinforcement.

FK-19: Unconditioned punishment

FK-26: Unconditioned motivating operations.

FK-28: Transitive, reflexive, and surrogate motivat-

ing operations.

FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative

stimulus and the motivating operation.

FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation

and reinforcement effects.

222 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-28 Transitive, reflexive, surrogate mo-

tivating operations

Conditioned motivating operations consist of

“…motivating variables that alter the reinforcing

effectiveness of other stimuli, objects, or events,

but only as a result of an organism’s learning his-

tory…” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 384).

The 3 types of conditioned motivating opera-

tions are surrogate (CMO-S), reflexive (CMO-R),

and transitive (CMO-T).

“Any stimulus that systematically precedes the

onset of painful stimulation becomes a CMO-R

(reflexive- CMO), in that its occurrence will evoke

any behavior that has been followed by such rein-

forcement” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 385).

“When an environmental variable is related to

the relation between another stimulus and some

form of improvement, the presence of that variable

functions as a transitive CMO, or CMO-T, to es-

tablish the second condition’s reinforcing effective-

ness and to evoke the behavior that has been fol-

lowed by that reinforcer” (Cooper et al., 2007, p.

387).

Surrogate CMO’s are stimuli that have been

paired with another motivating operation and “ac-

quired a form of behavioral effectiveness by being

paired with a behaviorally effective stimulus”

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 384). There is not strong

evidence for this type of CMO.

Example:

• (CMO-R) A child engages in escape-maintained

problem behavior during matching to sample in-

struction. In time, the child engages in escape-

maintained problem behavior when the materi-

als for matching to sample are brought out, be-

fore instruction has begun.

• (CMO-T) You walk up to your front door and

turn the knob, but the door is locked. You reach

into your pocket and grab your keys and unlock

the door.

• (CMO-S) In the presence of a stimulus that has

been paired with a cold environment, the value

of stimuli that produce warmth increases.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee list and define the 3 types of

conditioned motivating operations.

• Have him/her give examples of each type of

conditioned motivating operation.

• Have supervisee explain the difference be-

tween conditioned and unconditioned moti-

vating operations.

Relevant Literature:

Carbone, V.J., Morgenstern, B., Zecchin-Tirri, G., &

Kolberg, L. (2007). The role of the reflexive con-

ditioned motivating operation (CMO-R) during

discrete trial instruction of children with autism.

Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 4,

4, 658-680.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 384-388, 390-

391.

Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A.

(2003). Motivating operations and terms to de-

scribe them: Some further refinements. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 3, 407-414.

McGill, P. (1999). Establishing Operations: Implica-

tions for assessment, treatment, and prevention of

problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-

ysis, 32, 393-418.

Michael, J. (1993). Concepts and Principles of Behavior

Analysis. Kalamazoo, MI. Society for the Ad-

vancement of Behavior Analysis.

Michael, J. (1993). Establishing Operations. The Behav-

ior Analyst, 16, 191-206.

Mineka, S. (1975) Some new perspectives on condi-

tioned hunger. Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Animal Behavior Processes, 104, 143-148.

Rosales, R., & Rehfeldt, R.A. (2007). Contriving tran-

sitive conditioned establishing operations to es-

tablish derived manding skills in adults with severe

developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behav-

ior Analysis, 40, 1, 105-121.

Related Lessons:

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforcement.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation…

FK-13: Reflexive relations (US-UR)

FK-14: Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-15: Operant conditioning

FK-16: Respondent-operant interactions.

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement.

FK-20: Conditioned punishment

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.

FK-29: Distinguish between the discriminative

stimulus and the motivating operation

FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation

and reinforcement effects.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 223

FK-29 Distinguish between the discrimi-

native stimulus and the motivating opera-

tion

Definitions:

Discriminative stimulus

D) - “A stimulus in

the presence of which responses of some type have

been reinforced and in the absence of which the

same type of responses have occurred and not been

reinforced; this history of differential reinforce-

ment is the reason an

D increases the momentary

frequency of the behavior” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 694).

Motivating operation - “An environmental

variable that (a) alters (increases or decreases) the

reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of some

stimulus, object, or event; and (b) alters (increases

or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior

that has been reinforced or punished by that stim-

ulus, object, or event” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 699).

Examples:

• A child often asks their parents to play video

games after school. The child’s father often

says “yes” to this request, while the child’s

mother says “no” and tells the child to get

started on their homework. Over time the

child continues to ask their father if they can

play video games, but has stopped asking their

mother. In this example the presence of the

father likely functions as an

D due to the his-

tory of requests being granted in his presence,

but not in the presence of their mother.

• After playing outside for an hour, a child

walks into the house and gets a drink of water.

In this example, playing outside likely func-

tions as a motivating operation, more specifi-

cally as establishing operation, in that it in-

creases the value of water as a reinforce and

increases the frequency of behavior with a his-

tory of producing water.

• A student earns tokens throughout the school

day and can trade them in for a preferred item

or activity. Usually the student chooses to

trade in their tokens for a small snack, accept

after lunch. Usually after lunch the student

chooses computer over snacks. In this exam-

ple, consuming food during lunch likely func-

tions as a motivating operation, more specifi-

cally an abolishing operation, in that it de-

creases the value of food as a reinforcer and

decreases the frequency of behavior with a

history of producing food.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee explain the difference be-

tween

D s and MOs.

• Have the supervisee to create additional ex-

amples of

D s and MOs.

• Provide the supervisee with examples of re-

sponses and the reinforcers for those re-

sponses. Have the supervisee describe poten-

tial ways to increase and decrease the value of

the reinforcer.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discrim-

inative and motivating functions of stimuli.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Be-

havior, 37, 149–155.

Related Lessons:

E-01 Use interventions based on manipulation of

antecedents, such as motivating operations and dis-

criminative stimuli.

G-08 Identify and make environmental changes

that reduce the need for behavior analysis services.

I-02 Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

J-04 Select intervention strategies based on client

preferences.

J-06 Select intervention strategies based on sup-

porting environments.

J-07 Select intervention strategies based on envi-

ronmental and resource constraints.

K-09 Secure the support of others to maintain the

client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural envi-

ronments.

FK-07 Environmental (as opposed to mentalistic)

explanations of behavior

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-26 unconditioned motivating operation

FK-31 behavioral contingencies

FK-33 functional relations

224 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-30 Distinguish between motivating

operation and reinforcement effects.

Understanding motivating operations (MO)

and reinforcement effects are critical compo-

nents in the analysis of behavior. To briefly

explain the difference, MOs are antecedent

variables that have behavior-altering effects in

that they alter the current frequency of rele-

vant behaviors whereas the process of rein-

forcement is a consequence-based process (as

is extinction and punishment) said to have

repertoire-altering effects in that the future

frequency of the behavior that preceded the

consequence is altered (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007). While this explanation can

help clarify the difference between MO ef-

fects and reinforcement effects, it is also im-

portant to understand the basic features of

MOs. Specifically, MOs have a value-altering

effect or a behavior-altering effect. As defined

by Cooper et al., (2007),

The value-altering effect is either (a) an in-

crease in the reinforcing effectiveness of some

stimulus, object, or event, in which case the

MO is an establishing operation (EO); or (b)

a decrease in reinforcing effectiveness, in

which case the MO is an abolishing operation

(AO). The behavior-altering effect is either

(a) an increase in the current frequency of be-

havior that has been reinforced by some stim-

ulus, object, or event, called an evocative ef-

fect; or (b) a decrease in the current frequency

of behavior that has been reinforced by some

stimulus, object, or event, called an abative ef-

fect (p. 375).

Examples:

• Being deprived of food or water increases

the reinforcing value of food and water (i.e.,

a value altering effect in which the MO

functions as an EO), and there will likely be

an increase in the current frequency of all

behavior that has previously been rein-

forced with food and water (i.e., an evoca-

tive behavior-altering effect). Conversely, if

a large meal was just consumed then it is

unlikely that food will be reinforcing (i.e., a

value-altering effect in which the MO func-

tions as an AO) and there will be a reduc-

tion in the current frequency of all behavior

previously reinforced with food (i.e., an

abative behavior-altering effect).

• This next example can illustrate the differ-

ence between MO effects and reinforce-

ment/punishment effects (i.e., repertoire-

altering effects). Before leaving for work

you realize that it is going to be a cold day.

The heater in your car does not work well

so you plan ahead by putting a blanket and

extra jacket in your car to use if it becomes

too cold. During your drive to work, it be-

comes increasingly cold so you turn on your

car heater, put your extra jacket on, and lay

the blanket over you so you become much

warmer. In this example, there was an in-

crease in the current frequency of all behav-

ior that has been reinforced by becoming

warmer (i.e., an evocative behavior-altering

effect). For the rest of the winter, to avoid

becoming too cold on your drive to work,

you leave every morning already wearing an

extra jacket and put a blanket on you as

soon as you get in the car (i.e., repertoire-

altering effect on future behavior).

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to define MOs and explain

the basic characteristics.

• Ask supervisee to discriminate between be-

havior-altering effects and repertoire-altering

effects.

• Ask supervisee to identify potential MOs

for client’s behavior.

• Ask supervisee to provide examples of be-

havior-altering effects and repertoire-altering

effects that are operating in a client’s envi-

ronment.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Motivating operations. Applied

Behavior Analysis (pp. 374-391). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 225

Iwata, B. A., Smith, R. G., & Michael, J.

(2000). Current research on the influence

of establishing operating on behavior in

applied settings. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 33, 411-418.

Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Pol-

ing, A. (2001). The abative effect: A new

term to describe the action of anteced-

ents that reduce operant responding. The

Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 101-104.

Schlinger, H., & Blakely, E. (1987). Function-

altering effects of contingency-specifying

stimuli. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 41-45.

Related Lessons:

E-01 Use interventions based on manipula-

tion of antecedents, such as motivating oper-

ations and discriminative stimuli.

FK-25 multiple functions of a single stimulus

FK-26 unconditioned motivating operations

FK-27 conditioned motivating operations

FK-28 transitive, reflexive, surrogate motivat-

ing operations

FK-29 distinguish between the discriminative

stimulus and the motivating operation

226 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-31 Behavioral contingencies

“The AB because of C formulation is a general

statement that the relation between an event (B)

and its context (A) is because of consequences

(C)….Applied to Skinner’s three-term contingency,

the relation between (A) the setting and (B) behav-

ior exists because of (C) consequences that oc-

curred for previous AB (setting-behavior) relations.

The idea [is] that reinforcement strengthens the set-

ting-behavior relation rather than simply strength-

ening behavior” (Moxley, 2004, p. 111).

“The three term contingency- antecedent, be-

havior, and consequence- is sometimes called the

ABC’s of behavior analysis…The term contin-

gency has several meanings signifying various types

of temporal and functional relations between be-

havior and antecedent and consequent varia-

bles…When a reinforcer (or punisher) is said to be

contingent on a particular behavior, the behavior

must be emitted for the consequence to occur”

(Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 41-42).

Example:

When John has not eaten in a while he asks his

caregiver for a snack. When John asks he’s given a

snack. In this case the antecedents are food depri-

vation and the presence of someone who can pro-

vide food. The behavior would be the request for a

snack and the consequence is being provided with

a snack.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee identify and describe the

ABC three term contingency.

• Have supervisee give specific examples of the

ABC three term contingency.

• Have supervisee identify and describe other

principles and terms related to the three term

contingency (i.e., motivating operations, set-

ting events, establishing operations, discrimi-

native stimulus, stimulus control, etc…)

• Have supervisee state how the ABC three

term contingency related to both punishment

and reinforcement.

Relevant Literature:

Azrin, N.H. & Holz, W.C. (1966). Punishment. In

W.K. Honig (Ed.), Operant Behavior: Areas of re-

search and application (pp. 380-447). New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L. (2007). Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.), Upper Saddle

River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall. 35, 41-42, 258-

259, 261, 263-265, 292-294, 331 (Figure 14.2).

Glenn, S.S., Ellis, J., & Greenspoon, J. (1992). On the

revolutionary nature of the operant as a unit of

behavioral selection. American Psychologist, 47,

1329-1336.

Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior

Analysis (rev. ed.) Kalamazoo, MI: Society for

the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A the-

oretical analysis. (pp. 7, 114) New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts.

Moxley, R.A. (2004). Pragmatic selectionism: The phi-

losophy of behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst

Today, 5, 108-125.

Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G.R. (1977). Applying be-

havior analysis procedures with children and youth. New

York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Vollmer, T.R. (2002). Punishment happens: Some

comments on Lerman and Vorndran’s review.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 469-473.

Vollmer, T.R. & Iwata, B.A. (1991). Establishing Op-

erations and reinforcement effects. Journal of Ap-

plied Behavior Analysis, 24, 279-291.

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis

(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate whether inter-

ventions are behavior analytic in nature.

E-01: Use interventions based on manipulation of an-

tecedents, such as motivating operations and discrim-

inative stimuli.

G-04: Explain behavioral concepts using nontechnical

language.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measurable

terms.

I-02: Define environmental variables in observable

and measurable terms.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class.

FK-15: Operant Conditioning

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and punishment

FK-27: Conditioned motivating operations.

FK-30: Distinguish between motivating operation and

reinforcement effects.

FK-33: Functional relations

FK-34: Conditional discriminations

FK-35: Stimulus discrimination

FK-41: Contingency-shaped behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 227

FK-32 Contiguity

Definition:

Contiguity - “The juxtaposition of two or

more events when they occur simultaneously

or very closely together (e.g. the succession of

a response and a reinforcer in a superstition

procedure or of a CS and a US in a respondent

procedure)” (Catania, 1998, p. 383).

Example:

• Perseus wears his favorite lucky socks to

the Patriots game for the first time. On

the same day he wears his socks the team

wins the game.

• Dr. Zeus is working in an experimental lab

with rats. He trips on a banana peel im-

mediately after a rat pulled a level in the

operant chamber.

• Perseus also loves to play Monopoly. He

needs a 4 to land on free parking. He

blows on the dice and says “come on 4!”

He rolls a 4.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to define contiguity.

• Ask your supervisee to give an ex-

ample and a non-example of conti-

guity

• Ask your supervisee to explain how

contiguity could result in supersti-

tious behavior.

Relevant Literature:

Buehner, MJ. (2005). Contiguity and Covaria-

tion in Human Causal Inference. Learning

and Behavior, 33, 230–238.

Catania, A. C. (1998). Learning (4th ed.). Up-

per Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Shanks, D.R., Pearson, S.M., & Dickinson A.

(1989). Temporal Contiguity and the

Judgment of Causality by Human Sub-

jects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psy-

chology, 41B, 139–159

Related Lessons:

FK-14 Respondent conditioning (CS-CR)

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-32 Contiguity

FK-36 Response generalization

228 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-33 Functional relations

Definition:

Functional relation - “An experimentally de-

termined relation that shows that the depend-

ent variable depends on or is a function of the

independent variable and nothing else”

(Johnston & Pennypacker, 2009, p. 358).

“A ‘cause’ becomes a ‘change in an inde-

pendent variable’ and an ‘effect’ a ‘change in a

dependent variable.’ The old ‘cause-and-effect

connection’ becomes a ‘functional relation.’

The new terms do not suggest how a cause

causes its effect; they merely assert that differ-

ent events tend to occur together in a certain

order” (Skinner, 1953, p.23).

For every response are a number of factors

that influence the likelihood that it occurs.

Each one of these factors can be used as an

independent measure in an experiment. If an

experiment shows that there is a different be-

tween a context in which this variable is pre-

sent vs when this variable is absent, we con-

sider it to be a functional relation (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007).

For behavior analysts, functional relations

are important to discover. When we under-

stand how a behavior is related to the environ-

ment, we can then decide what treatment to

use.

Example:

• Sonny has been engaging in some eloping

behavior within a school building. He has

been known to leave his classroom area

and to run to other rooms within the

building. His teachers have started deliver-

ing small pieces of candy for on-task be-

havior, as he works on his schoolwork.

The teachers have started seeing an in-

crease in on-task behavior and a decrease

in elopement. A substitute teacher came

into the classroom for a week but did not

know about the on-task candy delivery the

first couple of days. Sonny started eloping

again. When the aides told the substitute

teacher about the contingency for on-task

behavior, the substitute started delivering

the candy on the same schedule as the

other teacher. Sonny again started sitting

down, remaining on task, and elopement

decreased. It can be said that there is likely

a functional relation between the schedule

of candy delivery and the elopement

and/or on-task behavior.

• Three semi-busy 3-way intersections in the

small town of Passamaquoddy has had a

series of accidents over the past few years.

These intersections have had yield signs up

but there have been several accidents at

each location. The town decides to replace

the yield signs with 3 stop signs instead.

They use a multiple baseline design across

locations. After seeing that when, and only

when, the new stop signs are implemented,

accidents have decreased in that location.

It can be said that there is a functional re-

lation between the placement of the stop

signs and the change in accidents reported

there.

• Non-example:

A child with autism has been engaging in

some eloping behavior within a school

building. He has been known to leave his

classroom area and to run to other rooms

within the building. His teachers have ex-

plained to him that the other rooms are off

limits but this has not had an impact on his

behavior nor has simply ensuring that the

doors are closed. His teacher decides to put

up a green light on rooms that it is o.k. to

enter. There has been no change in behav-

ior from the previously recorded levels of

entering the off-limits classrooms. It can be

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 229

said that there is no functional relation be-

tween the presence of green light signs and

the off-limits classroom entering behavior.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to give a definition

for functional relation.

• Ask your supervisee to create other exam-

ples and a non-example of his/her own.

• Ask the Supervisee why it is important to

only manipulate one variable at a time

• Ask the Supervisee to state how you would

know if a functional relation exists be-

tween the independent variable and the

dependent variable.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S.

(2009). Strategies and tactics of behavioral re-

search. Routledge.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior.

Simon and Schuster.

Related Lessons:

B-03 Systematically arrange independent vari-

ables to demonstrate their effects on depend-

ent variables.

FK-33 Functional relations

H-03 Select a data display that effectively

communicates relevant quantitative relations.

H-05 Evaluate temporal relations between ob-

served variables (within &between sessions,

time series).

I-05 Organize, analyze, and interpret observed

data

230 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-34 Conditional discriminations

Definition:

Conditional discrimination – “refer to a con-

cept related to stimulus equivalence and can be

created using matching-to-sample procedures.

Conditional discriminations operate within a

four-term contingency that accounts for the en-

vironmental context, such that the contingency

appears as the following: contextual stimulus 

SD response  reinforcement” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 400).

The contextual events operating within this

four-term contingency become conditional dis-

criminations (Sidman, 1994). Moreover, a spe-

cific conditional discrimination implies that

there is a specific conditional relation, referring

to the direct outcome of the reinforcement con-

tingency (Carrigan & Sidman, 1992). Different

conditional relations are reflected in the proper-

ties of stimulus equivalence (e.g., reflexivity,

symmetry, and transitivity). In order for new

conditional discriminations to emerge, at least

one conditional discrimination must be directly

trained. This initial discrimination is often arbi-

trary (e.g., training A > B implies that B < A).

Example:

• In a matching-to-sample trial, “A” is given

as the conditional sample and is then pre-

sented in a series of five letters “z”, “k”,

“a”, “t”, and “b.” By correctly matching

“A” to “a” the learner is discriminating

stimuli and selecting the correct compari-

son that will be reinforced. The learner’s

response will not be reinforced if a stimulus

other than “a” is selected. In this example,

the conditional sample “A” reflects the

contextual stimulus as it creates a context

for which stimulus to discriminate.

Assessment:

• Conditional discriminations can be a diffi-

cult concept to understand without having

adequate knowledge of stimulus control,

stimulus equivalence, and matching-to-

sample procedures. Therefore, in order to

assess for learning, the supervisee should be

asked to define and provide examples of

conditional discriminations within the con-

text of explaining stimulus control, stimulus

equivalence, and matching-to-sample pro-

cedures.

• Once the supervisee can explain condi-

tional discriminations, applied knowledge

can be assessed by asking supervisee to

demonstrate direct training of conditional

discriminations by using matching-to-sam-

ple and stimulus equivalence procedures.

The supervisor will model these proce-

dures, have supervisee demonstrate the skill

and provide feedback based on their per-

formance.

Relevant Literature:

Bush, K. M., Sidman, M., & De Rose, T. (1989).

Contextual control of emergent equiva-

lence relations. Journal of the Experimental

Analysis of Behavior, 51, 29-45.

Carrigan, P. F., & Sidman, M. (1992). Condi-

tional discrimination and equivalence rela-

tions: A theoretical analysis of control by

negative stimuli. Journal of the Experi-

mental Analysis of Behavior, 58, 183 204.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Stimulus control. Applied Behavior

Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Johnson. C. & Sidman, M. (1993). Conditional

discrimination and equivalence relations:

Control by negative stimuli. Journal of the

Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 59, 333-

347.

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behav-

ior: A research story. Boston, MA: Author’s

Cooperative.

Related Lessons:

E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-35 Stimulus discrimination

FK-37 Stimulus generalization

J-14 Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 231

FK-35 Stimulus discrimination

Definition:

Stimulus discrimination – “is when a re-

sponse consistently occurs in the presence of

a specific SD

or controlling antecedent stimulus

and not in the presence of new or related stim-

uli. This is in direct contrast to stimulus gen-

eralization in which related antecedent stimuli

may evoke the same response” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 395-396).

Example:

• During a tooth brushing routine, a

child selects their tooth brush from

the cup that holds a number of

toothbrushes.

• You own a small white car and can

walk directly to your car after leaving

the mall even though there are sev-

eral small white cars parked around

your car.

• You are taking three graduate level

ABA classes. Two of the professors

keep track of attendance and incor-

porate that into your final grade and

one professor does not track attend-

ance or incorporate that into your fi-

nal grade. As a result, you periodi-

cally miss this class since that your

grade will not be lowered due to at-

tendance and you regularly attend

the other two classes.

Assessment:

• Ask supervisee to identify natural ex-

amples of stimulus discrimination.

• Ask supervisee to compare and con-

trast stimulus discrimination and

stimulus generalization.

• Observe supervisee use stimulus dis-

crimination procedures with clients.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Stimulus control. Applied Behav-

ior Analysis (pp. 392-409). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Green, G. (2001). Behavior analytic instruc-

tion for learners with autism: Advances

in stimulus control technology. Focus on

Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities,

16, 72-85.

Related Lessons:

E-06 Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

FK-11 Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-24 Stimulus control

FK-34 Conditional discriminations

FK-37 Stimulus generalization

232 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-36 Response Generalization

Definition:

Response generalization - “The extent to

which a learner emits untrained responses that

are functionally equivalent to the trained tar-

get behavior” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 620).

“Improvements in behavior are most benefi-

cial when they are long lasting, appear in other

appropriate environments, and spill over to

other related behaviors…When evaluating ap-

plied behavior analysis research, consumers

should consider the maintenance and general-

ization of behavior change in their evaluation

of a study” (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 250).

Example:

• A young child learns to open a door

at their house by turning a door

knob. One day, while at a friend’s

house, they encounter a door that

has a handle rather than a knob. The

child is able to turn the handle and

open the unfamiliar door. This is an

example of response generalization

because functional both responses

are equal (they open result in the

door being opened) but the response

topographies are different.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee provide examples

of response generalization.

• Provide examples of both response

generalization and stimulus generali-

zation and have supervisee indicate

which type of generalization the ex-

ample is referring to and describe

why.

• Have supervisee describe why re-

sponse generalization is important

when assessing behavior change and

skill acquisition.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).

Some current dimensions of applied be-

havior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 250-251, 620-622.

Fantuzzo, J.W., & Clement, P.W. (1981). Gen-

eralization of the effects of teacher and self-

administered token reinforcers to non-

treated students. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 14, 435-447.

Goetz, E.M., & Baer, D.M. (1973). Social con-

trol of form diversity and the emergence of

new forms in children’s block building.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 209-

217.

Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and be-

havior: A research story. Boston: Author’s

Cooperative.

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evaluate

whether interventions are behavior analytic in

nature.

E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

E-11: Use pairing procedures to establish new

conditioned reinforcers.

I-01: Define behavior in observable and measur-

able terms.

I-02: Define environmental variables in observ-

able and measurable terms.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response gener-

alization.

J-12: Program for maintenance.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived relations).

K-09: Secure the support of others to maintain

the client’s behavioral repertoires in their natural

environments.

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-12: Stimulus equivalence

FK-37: Stimulus generalization.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 233

FK-37 Stimulus generalization

Definitions:

Stimulus generalization - “When an ante-

cedent stimulus has a history of evoking a re-

sponse that has been reinforced in its pres-

ence, the same type of behavior tends to be

evoked by stimuli that share similar physical

properties with the controlling antecedent

stimulus” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 705).

Example:

A child says, “mommy” in the presence of her mother,

but also says “mommy” when she sees her grandmother

or daycare provider.

• Have supervisee identify the differ-

ence between response generaliza-

tion and stimulus generalization.

• Have supervisee identify the differ-

ence between stimulus generaliza-

tion and stimulus discrimination.

Have him/her identify the qualities

of each and give examples.

• Have supervisee give examples from

their workplace of stimulus generali-

zation.

Relevant Literature:

Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968).

Some current dimensions of applied be-

havior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd

Ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson

Prentice Hall. 394-396, Figure 17.1,

616, 632.

Cuvo, A.J. (2003).On stimulus generalization

and stimulus classes. Journal of Behavioral

Education, 12, 77-83.

Guttman, N., & Kalish, H. (1956). Discrimi-

nability and generalization. Journal of Ex-

perimental Psychology, 51, 79-88.

Johnston, J.M. (1979). On the relation be-

tween generalization and generality. The

Behavior Analyst, 2, 1-6.

Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit

technology of generalization. Journal of

Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.

Related Lessons:

B-01: Use the dimensions of applied behavior

analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) to evalu-

ate whether interventions are behavior ana-

lytic in nature.

E-06: Use stimulus equivalence procedures.

J-11: Program for stimulus and response gen-

eralization.

J-14: Arrange instructional procedures to pro-

mote generative learning (i.e., derived rela-

tions).

FK-10: Behavior, response, response class.

FK-11: Environment, stimulus, stimulus class

FK-12: Stimulus equivalence

FK-36: Response generalization.

234 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-38 Behavioral contrast

Definition:

Behavioral contrast - “The phenomenon in

which a change in one component of a multi-

ple schedule that increases or decreases the

rate of responding on that component is ac-

companied by a change in the response rate in

the opposite direction on the other, unaltered

component of the schedule; behavior pun-

ished in one situation may increase in other

situations where it's not punished…..Contrast

effects of punishment can be minimized, or

prevented altogether, by consistently punish-

ing occurrences of the target behavior in all

relevant settings and stimulus conditions,

withholding or at least minimizing the per-

son’s access to reinforcement for the target

behavior, and providing alternative desirable

behaviors” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 337)

Example:

Rich sneaks candy from home and eats it in

class. His teacher catches him one day and he

stops eating candy in the classroom. However,

he now asks to go to the bathroom every

morning and eats candy in the bathroom

where the teacher cannot see him.

Assessment:

• Have supervisee describe the principles

of punishment and reinforcement and

how behavioral contrast relates to each.

• Have supervisee explain why rates may

fluctuate based on punishment and rein-

forcement contingencies in multiple

schedules.

• Have supervisee give examples of behav-

ioral contrast from their experiences and

what they have done in those circum-

stances.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E. & Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd Ed.),

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Pren-

tice Hall. 337-338, 349.

Gross, A.M. & Drabman, R.S. (1981) Behav-

ioral contrast and behavior therapy. Be-

havior Therapy, 12, 2, 231-246.

Koegel, R.L. & Williams, J.A. (1980). Behav-

ioral contrast and generalization across

settings in the treatment of autistic chil-

dren. Journal of Experimental Child Psychol-

ogy, 30, 3, 422-437.

Nevin, J.A. (1992). Behavioral contrast and

behavioral momentum. Journal of Experi-

mental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes,

18, 2, 126-133.

Reynolds, G.S. (1961) Behavioral Contrast.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behav-

ior, 4, 1, 57-71.

Related Lessons:

C-01: State and plan for the possible un-

wanted effects of reinforcement.

C-02: State and plan for the possible un-

wanted effects of punishment.

D-01: Use positive and negative reinforce-

ment.

D-02: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of reinforcement.

D-15: Use positive and negative punishment.

D-16: Identify and use punishers.

D-17: Use appropriate parameters and sched-

ules of punishment.

D-19: Use combinations of reinforcement

with punishment and extinction.

E-07: Plan for behavioral contrast effects.

FK-18: Conditioned reinforcement

FK-20: Conditioned punishment

FK-21: Schedules of reinforcement and pun-

ishment

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 235

FK-39 Behavioral momentum

Definition:

Behavioral momentum - “A metaphor to

describe a rate of responding and its resistance

to change following an alteration in reinforce-

ment conditions” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 691).

“In classical physics, momentum is defined

as the product of velocity and mass. Translat-

ing metaphorically, behavioral momentum is

the product of response rate and resistance to

change” (Nevin, 1992, p. 302).

Response rate had been used as the meas-

ure of response rate for many years. With the

introduction of behavioral momentum, Nevin

challenges this and describes resistance to

change as a better way to measure response

strength (Nevin, 1974).

Behavioral momentum is not synonymous

with the high-p request sequence. Use caution

when describing behavioral momentum this

way (Nevin, 1996).

Examples:

• “If you are working at the computer,

and you keep working even though

you are called to dinner, that is an ex-

ample of behavioral momentum”

(Pierce & Cheney, 2013, p. 134).

• A student is coloring at his desk. The

teacher asks him to come down to

the rug to listen to a story. He con-

tinues to color for a few more sec-

onds.

• James is watching TV. His remote

stops working. He continues to push

the button despite the battery being

dead.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to describe be-

havioral momentum

• Ask your supervisee to give an ex-

ample of behavioral momentum.

Relevant Literature:

Brandon, P. K., & Houlihan, D. (1997). Ap-

plying behavioral theory to practice: An

examination of the behavioral momen-

tum metaphor. Behavioral Interven-

tions, 12(3), 113-131.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Nevin, J. A. (1974). Response strength in mul-

tiple schedules. Journal of the Experimental

Analysis of Behavior, 21(3), 389–408.

doi:10.1901/jeab.1974.21-389

Nevin, J. A. (1992). An integrative model for

the study of behavioral momentum. Jour-

nal of the Experimental Analysis of Behav-

ior, 57(3), 301.

Nevin, J. A. (1996). The Momentum of Com-

pliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

29(4), 535–547.

Nevin, J. A., Mandell, C., & Atak, J. R. (1983).

The analysis of behavioral momen-

tum. Journal of the Experimental analysis of

behavior, 39(1), 49.

Related Lessons:

E-09 Arrange high-probability request se-

quences.

FK-10 behavior, response, response class

236 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-40 Matching law

Definition:

Matching law - “a quantitative formulation

stating that the relative rates of different re-

sponses tend to equal the relative reinforcement

rates they produce” (Catania, 2007, p. 449).

Herrnstein (1961) described pigeon’s distribu-

tion of responding on concurrent schedules of

reinforcement. He found the relation between

absolute rate of reinforcement and the absolute

rate of responding is a linear function that passes

through the origin. In other words, if rate of re-

inforcement and rate of responding are plotted

on the x and y axis the result of the data is very

close to a line that passes through the origin with

the slope of 1. The matching equation can be de-

noted as follows:



(+)=



(+)

The term  is behavior measured as rate of re-

sponse for behavior a, and  is behavior measured

as rate of response for behavior b. The term  is

the scheduled rate or reinforcement for response a,

and  is the scheduled rate of reinforcement for

response b.

The matching law has been demonstrated across

a variety of species including pigeons, cows

(Mathews & Temple, 1979), rats (Poling, 1978),

free ranging flocks of birds (Baum, 1974), and hu-

mans (Conger & Killeen, 1974).

There are also multiple applied examples. For

example, Mace, Neef, Shade, and Mauro (1994)

found special education high school students spent

time on math problems, arranged in different

stacks, that was equal to the relative rate of rein-

forcement for completing math problems from the

different stacks. Also, Borrero and Vollmer (2002),

after conducting functional analyses to find main-

taining variables for problem behavior, found that

proportional rates of problem behavior relative to

problem behavior matched the proportional rate of

reinforcement for 4 individuals with disabilities.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to describe matching law

and how it relates to choice (response alloca-

tion).

• Have supervisee explain a situation where the

matching law could be applied and describe

the concurrent rates of reinforcement in place

for two different behaviors.

• Relate matching law to the selection of alter-

native behavior in a DRA.

Relevant Literature:

Baum, W. M. (1974). Choice in free-ranging wild

pigeons. Science, 185(4145), 78-79.

Borrero, J. C., & Vollmer, T. R. (2002). An applica-

tion of the matching law to severe problem be-

havior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35(1),

13-27.

Conger, R., & Killeen, P. (1974). Use of concurrent

operants in small group research: A demonstra-

tion. Pacific Sociological Review, 399-416.

Herrnstein, R. J. (1961). Relative and absolute

strength of response as a function of frequency

of reinforcement. Journal of the experimental anal-

ysis of behavior, 4(3), 267.

Mace, F. C., Neef, N. A., Shade, D., & Mauro, B.

C. (1994). Limited matching on concurrent-

schedule reinforcement of academic behavior.

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(4), 585.

Matthews, L. R., & Temple, W. (1979). Concurrent

schedule assessment of food preference in

cows. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behav-

ior, 32(2), 245-254.

Poling, A. (1978). Performance of rats under con-

current variable-interval schedules of negative

reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analy-

sis of Behavior, 30(1), 31-36.

Related Lessons:

A-14 Design and implement choice measures.

B-03 Systematically arrange independent variables

to demonstrate their effects on dependent varia-

bles.

E-08 Use the matching law and recognize factors

influencing choice.

G-04 Explain behavioral concepts using nontech-

nical language.

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 237

FK-41 Contingency-shaped behavior

Definition:

Contingency shaped behavior – Behavior

that is “selected and maintained by controlled,

temporally close consequences” (Cooper,

Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 42). These con-

sequences may either be reinforcing or pun-

ishing.

Example:

Soda sippers

• Melvin puts a dollar into the soda

machine and pushes the cola button.

Seconds later a can of soda comes

out. He opens the soda and drinks it.

He buys 3 more drinks from the

same machine that week.

• Simon’s friend Ernest is a prankster.

Ernest shakes up a can of soda and

offers Simon a drink. The can sprays

him in the face and soaks his cloth-

ing. The next time Ernest offers a

soda, Simon is hesitant to accept.

Although he’d like to open the soda

and drink it, he hands it back expect-

ing another explosive surprise.

• Thirsty Floyd finds a 12 pack of old

sodas in the storeroom. He cracks a

can and starts to drink. Unfortu-

nately, the soda has gone bad. Floyd

gets sick from drinking the soda. In

the future Floyd avoids drinking old

sodas.

Non-example: Horace’s mom tells him that

drinking soda is bad for him. Horace avoids

drinking soda in the future.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to explain con-

tingency shaped behavior

• Ask your supervisee how contin-

gency shaped is different from rule-

governed behavior

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own.

• Ask your supervisee to state why it

might be better to use contingency

shaped consequences as opposed

consequences, which are more de-

layed or rule governed

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Malott, R. & Trojan-Suarez, E. (2004) Princi-

ples of Behaviour. New Jersey: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Michael, J. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Be-

havior Analysis (rev. ed.). Kalamazoo, MI:

Society for the Advancement of Behav-

ior Analysis.

Related Lessons:

E-04 Use contingency contracting (i.e., behav-

ioral contracts).

FK-42 Rule-governed behavior

238 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-42 Rule Governed Behavior

Definition:

Rule governed behavior - “Behavior gov-

erned by a rule (i.e., a verbal statement of an

antecedent-behavior-consequence contin-

gency), enables human behavior (e.g., fas-

tening a seatbelt) to come under the indirect

control of temporarily remote or improbable

but potentially significant consequences (e.g.,

avoiding injury in auto accident). Often used

in contrast to contingency-shaped behavior; a term

used to indicate behavior selected and main-

tained by controlled, temporally close conse-

quences” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 703).

Examples:

• Matilda’s mother told her that if she gets

all of her homework done this week that

she will take her out for ice cream on Sat-

urday. It is only Wednesday and Matilda

still hasn’t finished all of the work. This

is a new contingency for Matilda, but

when Saturday arrived, all of her home-

work was done.

• Felicia has never put a metal fork in the

toaster before but her dad told her that

she could be electrocuted if she tried to

get her bagel out that way. She always

gets a wooden spoon to get the bagel out.

• Non-example: Matilda’s mother told her

that if she gets all of her homework done

this week that she will take her out for ice

cream on Saturday. It is only Wednesday

and Matilda still hasn’t finished all of the

work. Her mother brings her to get ice

cream every week that she gets her home-

work done. When Saturday arrived, all of

her homework was done.

Assessment:

• Ask your supervisee to explain rule-

governed behavior

• Ask your supervisee how rule-gov-

erned behavior is different from

contingency-shaped behavior

• Ask your supervisee to create an-

other example and non-example of

his/her own.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L. (2007).

Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson

Malott, R. W. (1988). Rule-governed behavior

and behavioral anthropology. The Behav-

ior Analyst, 11(2), 181–203.

Malott, R.W. & Garcia, M.E. (1991). The role

of private events in rule-governed behav-

ior. In L.J. Hayes & P. Chase (Eds.), Di-

alogues on verbal behavior (pp. 237-254).

Reno, NV: Context Press.

Schlinger Jr, H. D. (1990). A reply to behavior

analysts writing about rules and rule-gov-

erned behavior. The Analysis of Verbal Be-

havior, 8, 77.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforce-

ment: A Theoretical Analysis. New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Related Lessons:

E-04 Use contingency contracting (i.e., behav-

ioral contracts).

FK-41 Contingency-shaped behavior

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 239

FK-43 Echoics

Definition:

Echoic - “An elementary verbal operant in-

volving a response that is evoked by a verbal

discriminative stimulus that has point-to-

point correspondence and formal similarity

with the response” (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007, p. 694).

Examples:

Teaching the class

• Mrs. Platypus is instructing her 3rd grade

class on their math facts. She holds up a

card stating that, “three times nine is

eighteen”. She then restates the fact ask-

ing the class to repeat. The class says,

“three times nine is eighteen” in unison.

Mrs. Platypus praises the students for

their repetition.

• Mr. Penguin is a kindergarten teacher.

He is working with one student on his

reading skills. He shows little Timmy the

letter R. He tells him that the letter R

makes the “rrr” sound and asks him to

repeat. Little Timmy says, “rrr,” and Mr.

Penguin comments, “Nice job Timmy.”

• Mrs. Dodo the art teacher needs one of

her students to run to the office and get

some supplies. One of the children vol-

unteers. She tells him that she needs him

to get, “Crayons, markers, and paint.”

He repeats, “Crayons, markers, and

paint.” “Exactly,” Mrs. Dodo says send-

ing him on his way.

Non-example:

Mrs. Platypus is still working on math facts

with her class. She holds up the math fact

4x9= and asks the students to give the answer.

Susie Q raises her hand and answers “thirty-

six.”

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to give the defi-

nition of an echoic

• Ask the supervisee to give several

examples of echoics

• Ask the supervisee to give a non-ex-

ample of an echoic

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O., Heron T.E, Heward W.L.

(2014). Applied behavior analysis. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal Behavior Mile-

stones Assessment and Placement Program.

Concorde, CA: AVB Press

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century

Related Lessons:

D-04 Use modeling and imitation training.

D-10 Use echoic training.

240 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK 44 Mands

Definition

Mand - “An elementary verbal operant that is

evoked by an MO and followed by specific re-

inforcement” (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 699).

Examples:

• “I want a cookie” (mand for an item;

can also include verbs, use of adjec-

tives, prepositions, pronouns etc.)

• A child says “watch me” after learn-

ing how to ride a bike independently

(mand for attention)

• Asking questions like “what’s your

name? or “where’s the phone?”

(mand for information)

• Child says, “No!” when parent is

about to use blender (mand for

avoidance of an aversive)

Things to remember about mands:

• The form of the response is specific

and under control of motivating op-

erations.

• Response topography can vary: vo-

cal, sign language, augmentative

communication, pushing, reaching,

hitting etc.

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to recall how

they asked for supervision

• Ask your Supervisee to list the types

of mands they would emit if they

were lost in a foreign county and

needed directions to a local gas sta-

tion

• Ask you supervisee to list 5 ways

they use mands in an inappropriate

way (eg. complain about work to get

attention)

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson: Pren-

tice Hall.

Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Pol-

ing, A. (2003). Motivating operations and

terms to describe them: Some further re-

finements. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-

ysis, 36(3), 407-414.

Michael, J. (1988). Establishing operations

and the mand. The Analysis of Verbal Be-

havior, 6, 3.

Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The

benefits of Skinner’s analysis of verbal

behavior for children with autism. Behav-

ior Modification, 25(5), 698-724.

Sweeney-Kerwin, E. J., Carbone, V. J.,

O'Brien, L., Zecchin, G., & Janecky, M.

N. (2007). Transferring control of the

mand to the motivating operation in chil-

dren with autism. The Analysis of verbal be-

havior, 23(1), 89.

Related Lessons:

D-09 verbal operant as a basis for language as-

sessment

D-11 Use mand training

FK 27 Conditioned motivating operations

FK 28 Transitive, reflexive, surrogate moti-

vating operations

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 241

FK-45 Tacts

Definition:

Tact – “An elementary verbal operant evoked

by a nonverbal discriminative stimulus and

followed by generalized conditioned rein-

forcement (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007,

p. 705).”

Examples:

• Dexter walks outside with his

mother and sees birds in a tree.

“Robins,” he says. “You’re right.

Those are robins,” Dexter’s mom

says. “Robins” is a tact.

• Hector is in the store shopping for

Valentines Day. He sees a variety of

flowers before noticing the ones he

wants to buy. “Red roses,” Hector

says quietly to himself. “Red roses”

in this context is likely a tact.

• Chester goes to his friends Super-

bowl party. Upon scanning the array

of delicious apps and snacks on the

counter, he hones in on one that is

his favorite. “Ooh, buffalo chicken

dip,” he comments. “Buffalo

chicken dip” would be likely a tact in

this context.

• Non-example: Dexter is thinking

about buying some cookies the next

time he goes to the supermarket. He

writes the word “cookies” down on

his shopping list.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to define “tact.”

• Ask the supervisee to give several

examples of tacts.

• Ask the supervisee to give a non-ex-

ample of a tact. Discuss why.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Related Lessons:

D-12 Use tact training.

242 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-46 Intraverbals

Definition:

Intraverbal – “An elementary verbal operant

that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stim-

ulus and that does not have point-to-point cor-

respondence with that verbal stimulus”

(Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007, p. 698).

Examples:

• A new employee shows up for his

first day on the job. The man in the

cubical next to him asks, “What is

your name?” “Harvey,” the man re-

plies.” Saying “Harvey” is an in-

traverbal in that context.

• Hanks boss stops his office to let

him know that his sales were “out-

standing this week.” “Thanks. I re-

ally put in some long hours,” Hank

notes. “Thanks,” is an intraverbal in

that context.

Non-example:

The office phone rings. Harvey picks up the

phone and answers “Hello.” There is no one

on the line so he hangs up and keeps working.

Assessment:

• Ask the supervisee to define “in-

traverbal”

• Ask the supervisee to give several

examples of intraverbals.

• Ask the supervisee to give a non-ex-

ample of an intraverbal.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J.O, Heron T.E, Heward W.L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Partington, J. W., & Bailey, J. S. (1993). Teach-

ing intraverbal behavior to preschool

children. The Analysis of Verbal Behav-

ior, 11, 9.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New

York: Appleton-Century.

Related Lessons:

D-13 Use intraverbal training

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 243

FK-47 Identify measurable dimensions of

behavior

According to Johnston and Pennypacker

(1993), behavior has 3 fundamental dimen-

sional quantities (properties) that can be meas-

ured:

Repeatability – Refers to the fact that a behav-

ior can occur repeatedly through time (i.e., be-

havior can be counted) (e.g., count, frequency,

rate)

Temporal extent – Refers to the fact that

every instance of behavior occurs during

some amount of time (i.e., when behavior oc-

curs it can be measured in time.) (e.g., dura-

tion)

Temporal locus – Refers to the fact that every

instance of behavior occurs at a certain point

in time with respect to other events. (i.e., oc-

currences of behavior can be measured at

points in time.) (e.g., latency, interresponse

time) (As cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007, p. 26)

Assessment:

• Ask Supervisee to measure their

own duration related to a task (eg.

give them a timer and crossword

puzzle to complete)

• Ask Supervisee to measure and cal-

culate the rate of someone tapping

their pen (or another discrete behav-

ior) during a 10 minute meeting

• Ask Supervisee to observe a conver-

sation between colleagues and meas-

ure latency regarding question ask-

ing-answering. Have Supervisee use

a timer/stop watch to record latency

• Ask Supervisee to record their own

latency during a supervision meeting

when asked to define a task list item,

vs. a concept

• Ask Supervisee to measure interre-

sponse time (IRT) by observing

someone eating a meal for 5

minutes; have Supervisee record

time between swallowing one bit of

food and next bite and report the av-

erage IRT.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis.

Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2011).

Strategies and tactics of behavioral re-

search. Routledge. Chicago

Thomason‐Sassi, J. L., Iwata, B. A., Neidert,

P. L., & Roscoe, E. M. (2011). Response

latency as an index of response strength

during functional analyses of problem

behavior. Journal of applied behavior analy-

sis, 44(1), 51-67.

Worsdell, A. S., Iwata, B. A., & Wallace, M. D.

(2002). Duration‐based measures of

preference for vocational tasks. Journal of

applied behavior analysis, 35(3), 287-290.

Related Lessons:

A-01: Measure frequency

A-02: Measure duration

A-03: Measure duration

A-04: Measure latency

A-05: Measure interresponse time

A-09: Evaluate accuracy and reliability of

measurement procedures

D-21: Differential reinforcement

244 TrainABA Supervision Curriculum: BCBA Reference Manual

FK-48 State the advantages and disad-

vantages of using continuous meas-

urement procedures (e.g., partial.

and whole-interval recording, mo-

mentary time sampling)

Whole-interval recording

• Advantages

o Useful for measuring continu-

ous behaviors or behaviors that

occur at such a high rate

o These data yield information

about the duration of each oc-

currence of the target behavior,

because an occurrence is only

scored if the behavior occurs

for the entire observation inter-

val (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007).

• Disadvantages

o Tends to underestimate the

overall percentage of the obser-

vation period that the behavior

occurred for. The longer the

observation intervals, the

greater the underestimation ef-

fect will be (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Partial-interval recording

• Advantages

o This type of data collection is simi-

larly useful for measuring continu-

ous behaviors or behaviors that oc-

cur at high rates.

o Multiple behaviors can be measured

concurrently because the observer is

only required to record a behavior as

having occurred if it occurs for any

part of the interval. This makes it

easier to record more than one be-

havior at the same time

o If partial-interval recording is uti-

lized with short observation inter-

vals to measure discrete responses,

which occur for short periods of

time, it can give an approximate es-

timate of the minimum amount of

responses during the observation

period (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007).

• Disadvantages

o These data cannot yield information

about the duration of each occur-

rence of a target behavior. This is be-

cause an occurrence is recorded

even if the behavior only occurred

for part of the observation interval

o Partial-interval recording tends to

overestimate the total duration that a

target behavior occurred; if the be-

havior has only occurred for a por-

tion of the interval it still gets rec-

orded as an occurrence, leading to

overestimation. It may also tend to

underestimate the rate of a target be-

havior, if the response occurs several

times in the interval (Cooper, Heron,

& Heward, 2007).

Momentary time sampling

• Advantages

o The observer does not have to at-

tend continuously to the measure-

ment, given recording of behavior

only takes place at the end of the in-

terval (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

2007).

o May yield less error than interval re-

cording, particularly as interval

length increases (Gardenier, Mac-

Donald, & Green, 2004).

• Disadvantages

o Is not useful for measuring low-fre-

quency behaviors that occur for

short periods (Cooper, Heron, &

Heward, 2007).

Annotated 4th Edition Task List 245

Assessment:

• Ask your Supervisee to state the

advantages and disadvantages

of each type of measurement

procedure.

• Ask your Supervisee to use one

of the continuous measurement

procedures and evaluate its ef-

fectiveness at representing the

behavior being studied.

Relevant Literature:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.

(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Daboul-Meany, M. G., Roscoe, E. M., Bour-

ret, J. C., Ahearn, W. H. (2007). A com-

parison of momentary time sampling and

partial-interval recording for evaluating

functional relations. Journal of Applied Be-

havior Analysis, 40 (3), 501-514.

Gardenier, N. C., MacDonald, R., & Green,

G. (2004). Comparison of direct observa-

tional methods for measuring stereotypic

behavior in children with autism spectrum

disorders. Research in Developmental Disabili-

ties, 25(2), 99-118.

Gunter, P. L., Venn, M. L., Patrick, J., Miller,

K. A. & Kelly, L. (2003). Efficacy of using

momentary time samples to determine on-

task behavior of students with emo-

tional/behavioral disorders. Education and

Treatment of Children, 26, 400-412.

Powell, J., Martindale, A., & KuIp, S. (1975).

An evaluation of time-sample measures of

behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analy-

sis, 8, 463-469.

Suen, H. K., Ary, D., & Covalt, W. (1991). Re-

appraisal of momentary time sampling and

partial-interval recording. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis, 24, 803-804.

Related Lessons:

A-09: Evaluate the accuracy and reliability of

measurement procedures

A-12: Design and implement continuous

measurement procedures (e.g., event record-

ing)

H-01: Select a measurement system to obtain

representative data given the dimensions of

the behavior and the logistics of observing

and recording

H-02: Select a schedule of observation and re-

cording periods

I-01: Define the behavior in observable and

measurable terms

FK-47: Identify the measurable dimensions of

behavior (e.g., rate, duration, latency, interre-

sponse time)

FK-48: State the advantages and disad-

vantages of using continuous measurement

procedures and discontinuous measurement

procedures (e.g., partial- and whole-interval

recording, momentary time sampling)

247

SECTION THREE

Submitting the Application and

Beyond

249

Chapter 5

Upon Completion of Supervision Hours

The technical guide is now complete. If the guide was effective, you should now have enough

knowledge and system tools to do the following:

• Identify and reference the rules for providing supervised experience hours

• Identify and calculate the proper hours for supervising independent fieldwork in ap-

plied settings

• Assess supervisees as practitioners

• Assess supervisee’s Foundational Knowledge of ABA

• Structure Group Meetings using the Agenda for Group Meetings

• Use the Fourth Edition Task List™ with your group

• Apply the Fourth Edition Task List™ to improve, expand, and maintain each super-

visee’s repertoire

• Balance individual and group supervision to improve and maintain the supervisee’s

behavior analytic repertoire

• Identify homework assignments

• Choose from a variety of possible presentation delivery modes for supervisees (i.e.,

calendar, assigned vs. requested topics)

• Connect with Trainaba.com for videos that can be played at group supervision for

Weekly Behavior Analytic Lessons

• Incorporate Behavioral Skills Training into group supervision

We invite you to take an experimental approach to supervising experience hours. Please share

your experience with this protocol with ben@trainaba.com. The data received from profession-

als will shape future versions of this document.

Thank you for using this book. If you like it, please tell a colleague or carry the discussion

forward on LinkedIn. If you see a blind spot or something is unclear, please email ben@train-

aba.com so we can fix the problem for everybody using the system.

Train ABA’s goal is to develop a solid program for supervision through hard work and many

trials with feedback. Eventually, we hope to deliver a practical supervision approach that serves

the behavior analyst community. We hope you join us in making that dream a reality.

251

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