PDF United States Army Tm 5 315 20 April 1971
united_states_army_tm_5-315 - 20_april_1971 united_states_army_tm_5-315 - 20_april_1971
User Manual: PDF T E X T F I L E S
Open the PDF directly: View PDF 
.
Page Count: 260
| Download | |
| Open PDF In Browser | View PDF |
TM 5-315
TECHNICAL MANUAL
FIREFIGHTING AND RESCUE PROCEDURES
IN THEATERS OF OPERATIONS
HEADQUARTERS,
DEPARTMENT
OF
THE
ARMY
APRIL 1971
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the organizations listed below for
permitting us to use their copyrighted material in this manual,
American National Red Cross
Figures 4-81, 4-84, and 4-87.
Fire Service Exten&m Department, University of Maryland
Data on breathing apparatus, including figures 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7,
2-8,2-9,2-10,2-11,2-12, and 2-13 ; data on carbon dioxide and combustible
metal agents, including figures 2-60 and 2-6’7 ; data on couplings, including
figures 2-19, 2-20, 2-21, 2-23, 2-24, 2-25, 2-26, 2-27, 2-28, 2-29, 2-30,
2-31, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-40, 2-41, 2-42,
2-43, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, and 2-49; data on hose loads, including
figures 4-2, 4-3; 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, 4-i4,
4-16, 4-17, and 4-18; the following figures on rope: 2-53, 2-54, 2-55,
and 4-26.
National Fire Protection Association
Reproduced by permission from the Fire Protective Handbook, 13th
Edition, Copyright National Fire Protective Association, Boston, Massachusetts. Data from the following:
Basic De&it&u and P!roperties -ignition and combustion, flammable or
explosive limits, flammable (explosive range, flash point, and fire point).
PrincipZes of Fire-ignition and combustion.
Heat Energ Sources-chemical heat energy, heat of combustion, spontaneous heating, heat of decomposition, heat of solution, electrical heat
energy, resistance heating, induction heating, dielectric heating, heating
from arcing, static electricity heating, heat generated by lightning,
mechanical heat energy, friction heat, heat of compression, nuclear heat
energy.
Reuben E. Donnelley Corporation
Reproduced by permission from The Fire Chief’s Handbook, Third Edition,
1967, New York, The Reuben H. Donnelley Corporation. Data on the
chemistry and physics of combustion, simple fire triangle, tetrahedron
of fire, modernizing the fire triangle, and figure 3-2.
.
This tinual contains copyright wzaterial
*TM 5-315
-
HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
W A S H I N G T O N, D.C., 20 Apd 1971
T ECHNICAL M ANUAL
No. 5-315
FIREFIGHTING AND RESCUE PROCEDURES
IN THEATERS OF OPERATIONS
C HAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
I. General ___---_-----___--_-----__--------__---___---____---------Section
II. Organization __-__-__-___---___---__-__-_----_-_---_---_-__-__-____
III. Facilities --_-----_----__---___---_----_----__-------_-_--_______-IV. DA forms, reports, and records _--___---__---__-_-___--___-------__
V. Communications --__-----_---___--____--__-_-___-_-__---_--------__
l-l-l-2
1-2-14
141-6
1-6-1-7
1-7-1-12
2-1-2-3
2-3, 2-4
2-8-2-27
%28-2-34
C HAPTER 2.
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Section I.
II.
III.
IV.
Clothing ______________________--_____-_----_-______-------------Fire apparatus _________________-______-_------__-___------------Tools, appliances, and knots __-__-_____-_--_--___---_-___----------Fire extinguishers __________-----_--_------___-_-____-_----------
%l-2-3
2-4, 2-5
2-6-2-16
2-17-2-28
C HAPTER 3 .
CHARACTERISTICS, CHEMISTR,Y, AND PHYSICS OF FIRE ----
3-1-3-6
4.
Section I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
3-1-3-5
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES OF FIREFIGHTING
Fire control _________________-_--_______--_---------______-------Fire department hydraulics -------__--_------__-__-____--_--------Hose, ladder, and pumper drills __--_____-_--_-----_____--__--------Action on arrival, sizeup, and forcible entry ---___-__-___--_---------Ventilation and salvage ____--_--_______--_--_--_------____-__----Rescue operations _______________-_____--------____-_----__-_______
First aid -_____------------------__-__--_--_------_--------_____-Control, extinguishment, and overhaul ______-____--____-------_______
Investigation and return to service ___________-__-____--__----_--___-
4-14-3
4-44-17
4-18-4-36
4-374-39
4-46-446
4-47-4-53
4-544-68
4-69-4-72
4-73479
4-14-2
4-248
4-f!-4-39
4-39447
4-474-65
4-554-60
4-66-4-74
4-744-76
4-77-4-81
5-1-54
5-5-5-17
5-18-5-26
5-1-5-2
5-2-5-14
5-14-5-78
C HAPTER 5.
AIRCRAFT FIREFIGHTING AND CRASH RESCUE
Section I.
II.
III.
Introduction ___----_----_--------__-_________________-_--_-------Aircraft fire hazards ____----__--__-____________________-__-------Emergency procedures ------_----------------__------__---__.---__.-_
C HAPTER 6.
NUCLEAR WEAPON FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURE
Section I.
II.
III.
IV.
Introduction ______-__-___--------_________________________________
Responsibilities and safety factors -_________________________________
General firefighting guidelines _____-_--_--____________-______------_
Fires involving nuclear weapons ---_________________________________
6-1-6-1
6-3-6-13
6-14-6-16
6-17-6-23
6-1
6-1-6-3
646-5
6-5-6-8
C HAPTER 7.
MDXELLANEOUS FIRES -__-_-_________________________________
7-1-7-11
7-1-7-11
8.
FIRE PREVENTION ______-__---___________________ _ _ _ _ _ _
8-1-8-19
8-1-8-8
A~~xr~mx A.
B.
u
l-l-l-4
1-5-1-7
1-8-1-14
1-15-1-17
1-18-1-24
R E F E R E N C E S -_-___-__--____-__-_-_________-_____-__________---_____--_______----_____- A-l
ARMY AIRCRAFT DESIGNATIONS AND FUELS _--_-____--------_____-___-______-----__
B-l
I N D E X _______________---_____-_------ _____----_-----______-_________--_________________-_______----__ Index-l
l
This manual supersados TM 5-315, 18 August 1965.
i
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Section I, GENERAL
l-l. Purpose and Scope
a. This manual is a guide and basic reference
for firefighting teams and other personnel engaged in fire prevention, firefighting, and rescue
procedures at military establishments in theaters
of operations. It covers the policies and procedures, equipment, characteristics and chemistry
of fire, tactics and techniques of firefighting, first
aid, rescue, and fire prevention. It is concerned
primarily with structural, aircraft, petroleum and
unclear weapon fires, but also discusses explosive,
motor-vehicle, and natural cover fires.
b. The material contained herein is applicable
to both nuclear and nonnuclear warfare
1-2. Changes
Users of this manual are encouraged to submit
recommended changes or commets to improve the
manual. Comments should be keyed to the specific
page, paragraph, and line of the text in which the
change is recommended. Reasons should be provided for each comment to insure understanding
and complete evaluation. Comments should be forwarded directly to Office Chief of Engineers,
ATTN : ENlGMC-FF, Washington, D.C., 20314.
1-3. What the Fire Protection Specialist
Must Know
Progress in fire protection within the Army has
increased greatly in the last few years. This progress was brought about by the development of
new techniques and more efficient equipment. But
offsetting this progress, to some extent at least, is
th turnover of military personnel. This turnover
is a serious drawback to efficiency, but broad
training programs, which include the study of
chemistry, physics, mathematics, and building
construction, now make the firefighter’s training a
continuing process.
a. Chem&t?+y. The creation and spread of fire is
a chemical reaction involving flammable vapors.
Since this reaction can occur under many conditions and circumstances, the fireflghter must know
the characteristics of fuels and other materials.
He gains knowledge through an understanding of
the chemistry of fire.
b. Physics. Physics involves the principles of
mechanics, electricity, heat, light, and sound. The
firefighter needs mechanical knowledge to enable
him to operate the fire trucks and associated
equipment, and to maintain them so they will always be ready for use. Electricity is a common
source of fire. In addition, there is a danger of
electrocution, especially in the presence of water,
and water is the common extinguishing agent.
Heat is a major consideration in the spread of fire
and in the physical limitations of personnel. Light
is necessary to combat fires at night or in inclosed
or smoke-filled compartments. Sound (the basis of
alarm systems) is the foundation of fast and
efficient response to emergencies.
c. Mathemutics. The firefighter must know the
mathematical formulas used to determine the
proper volume and force of extinguishing agents
needed. His knowledge of fire department hydraulics enables the engineer, or pump operator,
to arrive at the correct nozzle pressure. An error
here may cause injuries, extensive water damage,
or unnecessary fire losses. Too much water pressure at the nozzle has been known to throw firemen from ladders or out of windows. Wild hose
lines can seriously injure or kill people who are
struck by the heavy nozzle or hose couplings.
d. Construction. A basic knowledge of building
construction is essential for proper forcible entry,
rescue, ventilation, or extinguishment, Buildings
that look identical on the outside may collapse or
burn with great variations of time because of differences in internal design and type of construction. Men who make fire inspections should
become familiar with the construction of each
building so that in case of fire they will know the
approximate length of time the building is safe to
l-l
TM 5-315
enter and the time at which it must be evacuated
before it collapses.
1-4. Policies and Procedwes
It is important that a member of a fire protection
unit be familiar with t,he most common policies
and procedures of the fire protection organization
of the Army, and the forms used. The policies and
forms are described in detail in many Armypublications. It is the purpose of this chapter to
acuuaint the firefighter with those general principies which are imiortant in the proper performante of his duties.
Section Il. ORGANtZATlON
1-5 Fire Protection
Firefighting science is divided into three phases:
fire prevention, rescue, and fire fighting.
a. Fire Prevention. This phase establishes
standards and practice,s for the prevention of
aaccidental fires. These standards and practices are
controlled by frequent surveys and inspections.
Responsibi,lity for inspections and f,or recommending corrective action is placed in the fire protection organization.
b. Rescue and Firefighting. On arriving at a
fire, firefighters must determine the exa’ct location
of the fire and then act to racue people, protect
exposures, confine the fire, and then extinguish it.
While rescue is not needed at most fires, it must
be the first concern. The firefighters must stop the
spreading of the fire (protect exposures or confine) to other buildings or parts of the building on
fire before they can apply themselves to theextinguishment of the fire. Ventitution (removal of
smoke, heat, and gases) is a part of the 3aZvage
effort which may be required at any time during
the firefighting operation. After the fire has been
extinguished, a final search is made for glowing
,spark and embers. This search and the extingui,shment of the rekindling potential are known
as overhaul.
1-6. Firefighting Units
,The firefighting units provide fire prevention service and protective measures in addition to extinguishing fires. They also train auxiliary firefighters, maintain firefighting equipment, and advise
higher commanders of fire defense plans. The firefighting units consist of four types ofteam,s. They
may be attached or assigned as required to fixed
strength units or may be organized into service
units (TOE 54lOG). These service units are designed to provide different-size organizations with
firefighting team’s, depending on the tactiScal and
logistical considerations involved. Command and
administrative control are normally provided by
tine firefighting headquarters team.
1-2
a. Team FA, Firepghting Headquurter8.
(1) Capabdity. Capable of planning for over-
all area fire prevention and firefighting program
and for controlling assigned or attached fireflghting teams.
(2) Bad3 of auocation. Normally one per
three to five firefighting teams (FB and FD) and
one water truck team (FC) .
(3) Strength. Aggregate-4, as fo,llows :
NlbWbb&W
Grade
1
2
1
LT
E6(NCO)
MOS
9414
6lM40
‘7OAlO
(4) Mobdity. lOO*;ercent mobile.
(,5) Major items of equipment.
W capons
Individual weapons only.
Vehicles
Trailer, cargo, $4 T -________-_---_-_-_-_ 1
Truck,cargo, % T ____________-_-_______ 1
Truck, utility, % T __-_____________-____ 1
Other equipment
Blanket, fire, wool, w/grommets and
rope handle ____-__-_-_____-_______---_ 2
Extinguisher, fire, carbon dioxide, 16 lb
(6.76 kilograms) ____-____-_ ------- ---- 2
Extinguisher, fire, dry chemical, 20 lb
(9.072 kilograms) ___---___-__--__ --__ 2
Extinguisher, fire, foam, 2% gal (9.46
l i t e r s ) ___-__-____--__---_-_______-__- 2
Firefighting equipment set, repair of
extinguishers and fire hose -___--__-_-_ 1
Light, warning, vehicular, red, w/blinker
device -__-----_-_---__--_--_______-___ 2
Repair and refill kit, carbon dioxide fire
extinguisher --____-_-______-__-_------ 1
Siren, electric motor operated _--_--_ ---- 2
Telephone set, TA-312/PT ----_______-_-_ 1
(6) Method of operation. Team leader serves
as the fire marshal of the installation or area of
responsibility. Team members conduct fire. prevention inspections and train volunteer personnel
in firefighting operations. In addition to planning
for overall fire defense and commandingfirefighting teams, this team maintains and refills Ere extinguishers and makes minor repairs to fire hose.
TM 5-315
b. Team FB, Fire Truck.
(1) CapabiZity. Capable of providing fire pro-
tection, administering timely and adequate first
aid, and implementing a fire prevention program
for areas housing 5,000 to 10,000 troops, or a
warehouse and open storage area of 100,900
square feet (9290 square meters).
(2) Basis of allocation. One per installation
housing 5,000 to 10,000 troops, or containing
100,000 square feet (9,290 square meters) of
warehouse and open storage.
(3) Strength. Aggr,egate-6, as follows :
Number
1
1
3
1
E-5TCC)
E 4 (NCO)
E-4
E-3
d. Team FD, Brush Fire Truck.
(1) CapabiZity. Capable of furnishing protec-
tion against gras#s or brush fires within its assigned area of responsibility when augmented
with personnel and additional handtools. Can also
be used to a limited degree to combat structural
fires.
(2) Basis of aZZocation. One per installation
housing 5,000 to 10,000 troops, or contiining
100,000 square feet (9290 !square meters) of
warehouse and open storage.
(3) Strength. Aggregate-2, as follows :
MOS
Number
5lM40
5lM40
5lM20
5lM20
E-57?&0)
E-3
1
1
MobiZity. 100 percent mobile.
(‘5) Major items of equipment.
( 4)a
(4) Mobility. 100 percent mobile.
(5) Major items of equipment.
Weapon8
Weapons
Individual weapons only.
Individual weapons only.
Vehicles
Vehicles
truck
Firefighting
equipment
set,
mounted, structural type, overseas,
class 530B or 530C ---_-----___-___--__ 1
Othe?* equipment
Blanket, fire, wool, w/grommets and
rope handle _--_--_--__---------_--_-- 2
(6) Method of operation. Team members provide fire protection for the team’s assigned installation or area by cond&ing fire prevention
inspections and by fighting fires. See TM 5-225
for radiological decontamination.
c. Team FC, Water Truck.
(1) CapabiZity. {Capable o f t r a n s p o r t i n g
water for firefighting purpose,s when not enough
water is available near the fire.
(2) Basis of aZZocation. One or more per firefighting headquarters (Team FA) as required.
(31 Strength. Aggregate-2, as follows :
c+nl&
Nwubm
1
1
E-4
E-3
MOS
‘51M40
6lM20
mos
6lM20
6lM20
(4) Mobility. 100 percent mobile.
(51 Major items of equipment.
Weapons
Individual weapons only.
Vehicles
Truck, tank, water, 2%T -__-___-__ ------
1
Other equipment
No other major items.
(61 Method of operation. Team trarrsports
water for firefighting when sufficient water is not
available. Team members may be used as firefighters.
truck
Firefighting
equipment
set,
mounted, brush type, overseas, class
530 B or 530 C_-------__________------ 1
Other equipment
No other major items.
(6) Method of operation. Team members
train personnel of the supported unit in brush
firefighting and supervise them when so engaged.
Additional handtools (axes, mattocks, brush
,hooks) must be provided by the supported unit.
1-7. Responsibilities
AR 611-201 lists the duties, skills, and knowledges of the firefighter. Listed below are the primary responsibilities of the fire protection personnel.
a. Fire Chief. The fire chief, under the direction
of the fire marshal, supervises the fire protection
organization, including management of fire suppression and rescue operations, training and prefire planning programs, and maintenance of fire
equipment, systems, and devices ; he also monitors
the fire prevention program. He insures that:
(1) Fire vehicles and personnel are in a state
of immediate readiness and availability.
(‘2) Training and fire prevention programs
are carriced out.
(3) Resources are efficiently utilized.
(4) Duty assignments, equipment maintenan,ce, and operational procedures are accomplished.
b. Assistant or Deputy Fire Chief. He assists
TM 5-515
the fire chief in carrying out his duties and assumes them in his absence.
c. Station Chief. Under the direction of the fire
chief, a designated person acts as the station
chief. Since no position is au.thorized for his duty,
the person assigned will also perform duty as
crew chief. He supervises all chiefs assigned to
his station. He will(1) Implement the policies and regulations of
the base fire protection organization and higher
headquarters.
(82) Respond with his crews to alarms and
emergency calls and insure ad,equacy of fire suppression and rescue operations.
(3) When first to arrive at the scene of an
emergency, as.sume command until the arrival of
a senior fire authority.
(4) Supervise and assist in training and instructing the crew members and conducting regular drills to maintain efficiency of flrefighting and
rescue operations.
d. Crew Chief. He will-
(,I) Supervise operator in,spection and maintenance of fire vehicles and insure the upkeep and
protection of all fire organization property.
(,2) Insure the safe arrival of his vehicles,
with its full compl,ement of equipment and personnel, at the scene of an emergency.
(3) Respond with his crew and equipment to
alarms, fires, common emergencies, vehicle res,cue
emergencies, and routine calls, including reciprocal movements as directed.
(4) Wlhen first to arrive, assume command
until relieved by senior fire authority.
(5) Perform the station chief’s duti,es, delegated to him or dictated by emergency conditions.
e. Firefighters. Each firefighter normally is assigned a specific duty related to equipment operation or firefighting and rescue. All personnel, ho:wever, will be cross-trained and capable of flexible
action in a fire situation and rescue emergency.
Firefighter,s will(1) Keep apparatus, equipment, tools, and
uniforms clean and serviceable,
Section Ill.
1-8. Introduction
Firefighters often spend 24 hours or more on duty
at an assigned locality in order to assure rapid
1-4
(2) Respond with the assigned unit to all
alarms and emergency calls.
(3) Extinguish fires and take necessary precautions to prevent their being rekindled.
(4) Be careful to avoid unnecessary damage
to or 10,s~ of department property, or injury to
himself or other personnel.
(5) Watch for and protect at the scene of a
fire all clues or evidence indicating the fire’s
cause.
(6) Participate in the fire prevention program.
f. Training of Fire Truck Operators. Drivers of
emergency type vehicles must attain the following
minimum test scores :
(1) Emergency judgment test-108.
(2) Road test-go.
(3) Individuals not achieving the above minimum qualifications will have their SF Form 46
and Driver Qualification Record DA Form 348
stamped “Limited License.”
(4) Refresher training will be provided annually to assure familiarity with emergency operational requirements for the type of vehicle
being operated. Specific attention will be given to
the understanding of 1,egal limitations required by
the installation and by local laws.
(6) Any operator of an emergency vehicle
who i,s involved in an accident will have hi,s permit suspended, pending completion of remedial
driver training.
(6) Any operator of an emergency vehicle
who i,s involved in an accident and is convicted of
any moving violation will have his permit revoked.
(7) Should a requirement exist for the driver
to be retrained and tested for driving other than
emergency vehicles, the driver’s permit will be
stamped “Army Limited-Not Valid for Emergency Vehicle.”
(8) .A proper entry’ will be made on the
Driver Qualification Record (DA Form 348) to
assure that the above information and qualifications or limitations are known and available to the
motor officer in case of reassignment of the driver
or loss of a permit.
_
FACILITIES
response to fire alarms. They should be housed in
suitable living facilities, when available, including
those necessary for comfortable working, sleep-
_
TM 54315
-
ing, eating, recreation, training, and study. Inadequate facilities can greatly lessen the efficiency of
a ,fire protection organization. When not on duty,
firefighters are on call (in case of grave emergenties).
1-9. Structural Stations
A structural fire station must be strategically located in the area it is expected to protect.
a. Usually it is centrally located so tha,t each
portion of the area will have as much protection
as possible without ,slighting any other portion.
However, when one portion 1 “high risk” in comparison with the rest of the area, the station’s
location will naturally favor the ,high risk portion.
b. Reasons for considering an area as a “highrisk” include the speed of ignition of the flammable materials located there, the propagation possibilities, and the potential amount of loss if fire
occurs. Those portions of an area containing hospitals\ technical buildings, barracks, headquarters
buildings, or other buildings in which life and
property loss potential is ‘greatest are necessarily
classified as critical from the standpoint of fire
hazard.
-
l-l 0. Crash Stations
The location of the aircraft fire rescue station is
limited to the vicinity of the airfield, but its location even within that limitation is of utmost importance. An aircraft ,fire rescue station must be
centrally located. At the same time it must be so
positioned that there will be an open view of all
aircraft activity-including the flying field, runways, ramp, parking areas, taxi strips, and dispersal areas-from the crash station.
l-l 1. Sleeping Quarters
-
Sleeping or bunking facilities should enable crewmen of both aircraft &fire rescue and structural
organizations to reach the apparatus floor quickly
and safely. When the alarm sounds during sleeping hours, a firefighter is expected to awaken,
throw back his blanket, spin around and insert
both feet into his tboots, stoop and pull up his
pants, run toward the apparatus floor while placing his suspenders over his shoulders, and finally
mount the truck, ready for action-all in about 15
seconds. He can do this only if the quarters are so
designed that the distance from the sleeping
quarters to the apparatus is as short as possible,
passageways are wide and clear, and the area is
completely free from obstructions which might
cause delay or injury.
l-l 2. Dining Facilities
Dining facilities included in the quarters must be
looked upon as a necessity rather than as a comfort or a luxury, because those periods of absence
from the fire station for eating greatly reduce the
strength of the organization, ,even if only a few
persons are absent for a short time.
1-13. Heating and Sanitation
Each structural and crash #station should be properly ‘heated and ventilated.
a. The comfort of personnel will insure that the
men willingly and efficiently ,perform their inside
duties, which include keeping the equipment in
excellent condition. Training and study periods
are even required of seasoned firefighters to advance or refresh their technical knowl,edge. Personal comfort i,s a necessity to the man who is
trying to absorb such knowledge, and proper
building temperature is necessary for personal
comfort.
b. Shower and latrine facilities are essential to
the health, comfort, and cleanliness of all fire protection personnel. These facilities should be placed
reasonably clase to the apparatus floor. After returning from a fire, the men are frequently wet,
cold, and dirty, and a shower helps to prepare
them rapidly for another possible emergency.
While showering, the men should keep boots and
pants close by so that in case of alarm they can
put them on immediately.
l-l 4. Training Facilities
For the important purpose of practical training,
which serves as a proving medium for theories
presented in classrooms, a training ground or
area should be provided for fire protection crews.
a. The training ground should be located, if possible, in a position from which response to any
part of the area may be made in a minimum of
time. Training areas must have a supply of water
ample to replenish the supply on the vehicles.
Trainers and simulated structures ,should be provided to enable actual fire ignition, control, and
extinguishment according to the standing operating procedures.
b. Neither the entire aircraft fire rescue crew
nor the entire structural crew will be out of service at any one time while attending t,he training
1-5
TM 5-315
ground. Reasonably ample protection must be immediately available at all times.
c. A reading or study room is a great asset
toward maintaining a progressive study or training ‘schedule. A 16-millimeter projector should be
available from the signal library for showing
training films. A set of technical manuals and orders should be furnished along with any other
helpful publications. The study room must be well
li,ghted, comfortable, and inviting, so as to encourage individual study.
d. A storeroom and repair ‘shop, or a combination of the two, should adjoin the fire station so
that crew members studying apparatus there, or
working there, will not be far from their duty
stations.
Section IV. DA FORMS, REPORTS AND RECORDS
l-l 5. Introduction
Fire protection and firefighting operations require
reports and records, These are used for determining the effectiveness of firefighting and rescue operations; for appraising fire prevention regulations, programs, and training; and for evaluating
fire protection engineering, equipment, and devices. The statistical data enable the organization
to analyze and evaluate its own conditions and
affect it changes to improve its efhciency. Reports
are required for any fire incident ,which involves
death or disabling injury to personnel or damage
to or destruction of any building, structure,
grounds, utility plant or ‘system, installed or
moveable equipment, aircraft, missile, vehicle,
material, supplies, and personal property. Also,
technical investigations are necessary for fire incidents to analyze cause.s, contributing factors,
and Sects; and to determine the effectiveness of
the measures taken or required to be taken to
meet other such emergencies. Records are required for fire protection equipment systems or
devices that may be peculiar to an installation.
Routine should be made of inspection and hazards.
l-l 6. Forms
Listed below are forms to be used for inspection’s
and test of firefighting equipment.
a. DA Form 253, Fire Extinguisher Record
Tag? DA Form 253 is attached to each installed
extinguisher for recording the monthly inspection
and recharging.
b. DA Form 5-1 (Fire Department Individual
Run Report). This form is designated to give information on responses made by individual fire
units. The form listxs information on suclh matters
as time of alarm reception and response, type of
apparatus dispatched, location and nature of the
emergency (or other type response), equipment
used, and hose line operation.
1-6
c. DA Form 5-2 (Fire Report). This form is
designed to furnish information about fire incidents which affect life or real property. It is used
to(1) Identify the incident and related operations.
(2) Provide close estimates of monetary loss
and the damage or destruction of property, material, and equipment.
(3) Indicate the loss of life and the extent
and nature of physical injury owing to fire.
(4) Indicate the extent and nature of contingent loss and its effect on the installation mission.
(5) Determine the cause and contributing
factors.
(6) Evaluate and improve fire protection organization, per,sonnel, equipment, training, and
procedures.
(7) Determine action to be taken to prevent
similar occurrences.
d. DA Form 5-78 (Fire Hose Record). This
form records the inspection, test, and maintenance of all fire hoses, the type of coupling, and
provides a remarks section.
e. DA Form 5-118 (Annuul Dry Pipe Valve
Inspection and Tripping Test). This form is provided to record tripping, cleaning, and resetting
of dry-pipe and deluge valves with their accessories.
f. DA Form 5-119 (Automatic Sprinkler and
Bandpipe Equipment, Inspection and Test). This
form is used for inspection and tests by maintenance personnel. It is completed as the inspection
or test is made for operation of sprinklers, valves,
and fire pumps.
g. DA Form 240.4 (Equipment, Inspection and
Maintenance Worksheet). The equipment inspection and maintenance worksheet is used by all
personnel performing inspections, preventive
maintenance services, diagnostic checkouts, and
TM
-
equipment serviceability criteria checks. It provides a standard procedure for temporarily recording equipment deficiencies.
l-l 7. Records and Reports
Records at the installation level will be prepared
by qualified fire prevention personnel and will be
approved by the operating agency commander or
authorized representative. The forms are to be
prepared as authorized in AR 310-1, as applicable, and used to record technical details of operations and tests for the following reports (For additional information, see TM 38-760).
a. Automatic Sprinkler Water-Flow and Low
Air Pressure, Automatic and Manual Fire Alarm
System Report. Complete and permanent records
will be kept of the operation of fire alarm systems
and of inspections, tests, and services performed.
In addition to inspection and test record forms,
impairment tags will be provided for use when
devices are found inoperable and not immediately
repairable.
b. Fire Hazard Inspection Report. This is used
for either the fire inspection notice or fire hazard
inspection report. T’he procedure to be used can be
determined locally. The main reason for using the
fire in.spection notice is to streamline action and
reduce the time required to complete fire inspection requirements. The establishment of good will
and cooperation between the fire organization and
the activities occupying the structures will reveal
that the majority of fire hazard’s can be resolved
with this procedure. For situations where tlhe fire
inspection notice does not prove ,satisfactory, or is
not adequate, the fire hazard inspection report
will be used. Regardless of the procedure followed
all fire hazards or deficiencies discovered during
any inspection which cannot be or are n,ot corrected during the inspection will be recorded. To
insure that all hazards recorded on this form are
corrected quickly, followup by the fire inspector is
necessary. The time allowed to correct the ha+
5-315
ards, which can vary from 1 to 72 hours, dlepending on the potential dangers involved, will be
listed on the form.
c. The Training Timetable. ‘The training timetable is a simple chart to assist the supervisor in
identifying, planning, and scheduling the training
needed by his employees. It is a means of recording the operations each employee can perform, the
operations in which each employee needs to be
trained, and the date when this training should be
started. The chart may vary in form and size,
depending on the purpose, the size of the work
force, and even the complexity of the work itself.
It may also be called a training ,schedule or work
chart and its essential features may be incorporated in an operations guide, work distribution
chart, or control chart. However, when once prepared, it gives an overall picture of the specific
training to be done in that unit. If the training
timetable is corr,ectly u,sed, it serves the following
purposes :
(1) Aids in identifying, planning, and scheduling training.
(2) Checks on the extent to which training is
carried out as planned.
(3) Aids in determining whether there will
be a trained staff as needed to accomplish the
mission.
(4) Aids in assigning workers,
d. Log. Each fire protection organization will
maintain a daily log containing information on
duty personnel assignments, vehicle movements
and mechanical status, response to fire inciJ.ients,
emergencies, false alarms, alarmas received, alarm
transmis,sions over automatic manual, sprinkler
systems, special exercises, names of visitors, injuries to personnel, etc. This log may be typed or
prepared by hand on 8 x lOl,&inch (20.3 by 26.7centimeter) bond paper and maintained in a
bound notebook. It will be reviewed and approved
by the senior ofIlcer in charge at the close of each
work shift.
Section V. COMMUNICATIONS
-
l-l 8. Introduction
l-l 9. Telephone Systems
The fire protection facilities of an installation
must include an adequate communications system.
This system consists of telephone systems, automatic, manual, and waterflow alarm systems,
two-way radios, and visual and aerial signals.
‘Facilities for reporting fires on posts, canxps, and
stations have, at most locations, been standardized.
a. Fires may be reported through the installation telephone system or through a special system
1-7
of outside fire reporting telephones installed in
boxes, and connected directly to the alarm board
at the main fire station.
b. External fire-reporting telephones are housed
in metal boxes mounted on poles or external walls
of buildings, and are placed so that one of them
can be reached rapidly and easily from any possible post location. These boxes are painted’red and
usually have a red target light mounted over them
so they will be visible at night.
c. To report a fire over the fire reporting telephone, a person must open the box, lift the telephone receiver, and give the information to the
alarm ,board operator.
d. In outdoor storage areas where post telephones or fire reporting telephones are widely
scattered, signs should be posted throughout the
area to show where these ,fire reporting fa,cilities
are locat,ed.
1-20. Automatic, Manual, and Waterflow
Alarm Systems
In the following systems, alarms are transmitted
by electrical impulses and recorded on a tape in
the central fire station alarm room.
a. Automiatic Fire, Detection and Aktrm SVterns. These systems are installed wher’e it is not
feasible to install automatic sprinkler systems.
Dormitory type combustible buildings with individual sleeping rooms should have automati,c fire
detection systems.
(1) These automatic fire detection and alarm
systems incorporate some device sen,sitive to heat,
fire, and smoke. These devices cause an electrically operated transmitter to send a coded signal
to the fire station alarm system.
(2) Heat-sensitive devi,ces used in fire detection systems may be either fixed-temperature or
rate-of-rise thermostats. Fixed-temperature thermostats will actuate the transmitter when a predetermined degree of temperatur#e is created by
unusual circumstances. Rate-of-rise thermostats
will actuate the transmitter when a fire or other
source of heat causes the temperature to rise at a
rate faster than normal. The rate-of-rise devices
must be used with fixed-temperature devices.
b. Manual Alamo Systems. Manual alarm systems are usually installed in areas not provided
with sprinkler or automatic fire detection systems.
Watchman service is often provided in these
areas. Manual alarm boxes are located strategically throughout an area and are usually operated
1-8
by opening the box and pulling a lever. (Due to
the different types of boxes, the operation will
vary.) Only a local alarm is normally provided.
Under certain conditions a coded signal may be
sent to the fire station alarm system.
-
c. Waterjlow Alarm Systems. Waterflow alarm
systems are those that transmit a coded signal to
the fire station alarm system when a ruptured
sprinkler head causes water ato flow through the
pipes of a sprinkler system. Loss of air pressure
in a dry-pipe system will cause a local alarm and
may also transmit coded signals to the ,fire station
alarm system.
1-21. Fire Department Radios
The provision of two-way radios for structural
fire apparatus is not a substitute for a fire alarm
system because such radios usually are not availble to post personnel for reporting fires.
a. Radios installed on structural apparatus are
used successfully for issuing detailed and specific
orders to fire crews while they are enroute to the
scen’e of an emergency and at any other time
when the apparatus is away from the station.
b. Radios are u,sually installed in the smaller,
faster vehicles, since these trucks are normally
the first to arrive. Upon arrival, auxiliary equipment or additional emergency assistance can be
ordered by radio without delay.
c. The frequency of radio equipment on the
crash rescue apparatus should be the same frequency as the airfield radio tower.
d. Portable radios for firefighters are advantageous. They permit firefighters (to engage in various activities and be available for fire call.
1-22. Radio Terms and Procedures
Several standardized radio terms and procedures
must b,e understood and used by fire crews.
a. Tern.
(1) “Roger” means “received your message.”
(,2) “Wilco” means “received your message
and (where applicable) will comply.”
(3) ‘Say again,” “I say again,” and “That is
correct” are selfexplanatory. To correct something said, the work “Wrong” is used, followed by
the correction.
(4) “Wait,” if used by itself, means “I must
pause for a few selconds” and requests the other
,station to stand by (refrain from transmitting)
for a period not to exceed 30 seconds.
-
TM
-
(5) If the pause is to be longer (up to 1
minute), the expression “Wait out” is used.
(6) To request an even longer standby period, the expression “Wait - Out,” is sued in
which the blank is replaced #by a numeral indicating the number of minutes the other station is
requested to stand by.
NOTE
Standby periods usually are requested by
an operator who ,has to perform a duty
that takes his attention away from the
transmitter/receiver-or who has to
handle communications of higher priority or greater urgency. When requested
to stand by, a station normally is expected to remain in this status until advised or invited to resume transmission.
b. Numbers. To transmit numbers, the following standard pronunciation should be used :
NUWWd
0
1
2
3
4
6
6
1
3
9
stmken aa
-__-_____--_-____--____-_-__________zero
---___-__-_____-______________------wun
--_---___-----_-__--___----_---_____too
-----__.__----____---___----_---____-thu-ree
-__-____--____--_---__-_-___--___-__fo-wer
___---___----___-_____----_-----___-fi-yiv
--_____--__-__------____--__-__._-.---six
_________-______----__-_________--_-seven
---___-_-----____-_____--___--_-___-ate
----__-------_------_----___________niner
c. Letters. When it is necessary’to identify a
letter of the alphabet or to spell a word, the new
standard phonetic alphabet should be used :
Lett6Y
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
I
M
N
0
P
Q
‘-
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
A%A
BRAVO
CHARLIE
DELTA
ECHO
FOXTROT
GOLF
HOTEL
INDIA
JULIET
KILO
LIMA
MIKE
NOVEMBER
OSCAR
PAPA
QUEBEC
ROMEO
SIERRA
TANGO
UNIFORM
VICTOR
WHISKY
XRAY
YANKEE
ZULU
Pmnu7u&don
(Al fah)
(Brah voh)
(Char lee)
(Dell tab)
(Eck oh)
(Foks trot)
(Golf)
(Ho tell)
(In dee ah)
(Jew lee ett)
(Key loh)
(Lee mah)
(Mike)
(No vem ber)
(Oss cab)
(Pah pah)
(Kwi beck)
(Row me oh)
(See air ah)
(Tang go )
(You nee form)
(Vik tah)
(Wiss key)
(Ecks ray)
(Yang kee)
(Zoo loo)
5-315
Words not understood will be spelled phonetically.
For example, phonetic transmission of “Type
0-5” would be made as follows: “I spell: tangoYankee-papa-echo, zero-fi-yiv.”
d. Calling Procedure. To establish communication with other units make the initial call(1) Once communication is established, begin
each message with the truck’s identification and
conclude with the proper closing remark. All messages will end in “over” or “out,” whichever is
appropriate. “Over” means “my transmission is
ended ; I expect a response.” “Out” means “this
conversation is ended, and no response is expected.” “Over” and “out” are never used together to end a transmission.
(2) Crews should keep radio equipment clean
and protected from the weather. Particular care
must be given to the condition of the battery,
which must be tested frequently and charged
when necessary.
1-23. Hand Signals
Randard throughout the services are the visual
signal,s between the senior man in charge and the
pump operator at structural fires. These signals
may be given by hand during the day or by flashlight or lantern during the night. They cover most
of the orders usually transmitted from the senior
man to the pump operator. The pump operator
must be constantly on the alert for signals and
must acknowledge all signals by repeating them.
Standard signals are easily understood since, in
most cases, they suggest the action desired. Signals should be deli,berate, for careless signals may
be misunderstood. If necessary, additional signals
may be developed to fill special needs. However,
they should be distinctly different from standard
signal,s and should be understood by all concerned.
The standard hand signals are kharge line, shut
off water in line, cease operations, increase pressure, and decrease pressure.
a. Charge Line. During the day this signal is
given by raising both arms vertically from the
shoulders, palms to the front, and holding them
stationary until ,the signal is acknowledged, as
shown in A, figure l-l. At night it is given by
holding a flashlight or lantern in one hand and
raising the arm vertically above the head. The
beam is directed toward the pump )operator and
the light swung horizontally above the head, as
shown in B, figure l-l.
b. Shut 08 Water in Line. This signal is for a
temporary shutdown to allow for line repairs or
1-9
A- DAY
A- DAY
I
B- NIGHT
B- NIGHT
Figure l-l. Charge line.
1-10
Figure 1-2.
Shut off water in line.
TM 5-31s
changes. On receiving it, the operator closes the
discharge valve, but continues to pump and holds
himself ready to open the valve at the proper sig-
nal. During the day the signal to shut off the
water is given by extending both arms downward
at an angle of 45’, crossing them in front of the
body, and swinging them back and forth, as
shown in A, figure 1-2. At night, it is given by
extending one arm downward at an angle of 45’,
directing the beam of the flashlight or lantern
toward the pump operator, and swinging THRE
.zz!!i!?
ADE D
CAP
CASKET
3 LEAD STOPPER
7
INNER
CHAMBER
Figure 2-55. Foam extinguisher.
the foam to flow over the surface of the fire area
as a smothering blanket.
c. The monthly inspection of the foam extinguisher includes carefully examining the nozzle
for stoppage, since the contents of the extinguisher frequently plug the nozzle; inspecting the
hose and tank for deterioration; and checking for
the proper amount of fluid by weight or internal
observation. On the semiannual inspection, pe,rform the monthly services and also check the
inner chamber for corrosion by removing the cap.
Replace the inner or outer chamber, if required.
Check the inner chamber stopper fo,r freedom of
movement and lo’ok for gasket breaks or deep
grooves worn by the filler collar. Replace the gasket in the cap, if necessary. Examine the filler
collar for dents and for the presence of foreign
matter. The annual inspection includes all of the
preceding services plus the discharging and recharging of all foam extinguishers. See TM 5-687
for further details.
d. To recharge the 2lh-gallon (9.46~liter) foam
extinguisher make sure that the two solutions are
in accordance with the instructions printed on the
chemical containers. Usually the chemicals are in
two containers marked “A” and “B”. The solutions should be prepared in separate containers.
In the absence of such instructions, dissolve the
contents of package “A” in exactly 2% pints
(1.064 liters) of hot water and pour it into the
inner chamber. Dissolve the contents of package
“B” in exactly lye gallons (6.624 liters) of lukewarm water and pour this so’lution into the outer
chamber. Do not use hot water with the contents
of package “B” because it deteriorates with heat.
Place the stopper in the inner chamber and assemble the extinguisher.
e., The foam extinguisher should be hydrostatically tested every 5 years.
f. The foam extinguisher has been discontinued
as Army issue equipment. The ones in use will be
phased out in time.
2-24. Bromotrifboromethane Extinguisher
(Vaporizing liquids)
The CF3Br extinguisher, figure 2-56, co,mmonly
known as FREON 1301, contains a liquefied compressed gas which offers unusual advantages as a
safe and efficient fire extinguishing agent particularly against Class B (flammable liquid) and
Class C (electrical) fires. The liquid has a boiling
point of -72’F. (-56.8’ C.), and a freezing
point of -2’70’ F. (-167.78’ CL).
be weighed semi.annually on an accurate scale to
determine leakage. The cylinder assembly must be
replaced if it has lost more weight than ils permitted by the instructions on the extinguisher nameplate. Recharging is necessary if the weight is
found to be 10 percent deficient. The date of recharging should be stenciled on the cylinder.
e. Where extinguishers of this type are used,
charged cylinder assemblies should be kept on
hand so the extinguisher may be promptly recharged after use.
f. These extinguishers should not be located
where the ambient temperature will exceed 160’
F. (66’ C.).
2-25. Dry Chemical Extinguishers
Figure 2-56. CF3Br extinguisher.
a. CF3Br is not toxic in its natural state. Decom,position occurs at fire temperatures and the
products of decomposition are toxic. These products are injurious if they exceed 10 percent of the
air volume. Normally, extinguishment can be
accomplished with less than 5 percent per volume
of air. It should be used with caution in confined
spaces. CF3Br decomposes partly when subjected
to heat and flame, which causes a decrease in its
toxicity limits. CF3Br is noncorrosive on metals
and alloys, and is considered a clean agent.
Dry chemical portable fire extinguishers vary
from 2$$ pounds to 150 pounds (1.1’34 kilograms
to 68 kilograms). The dry chemical compound
used consists principally of bicarbonate of soda or
potassium bicarbonate or ammonia phosphate
which has been treated to make it waterproof and
free flowing. The extinguishing action of this
agent is to smother the fire.
a. Dry chemical extinguishers are of two basic
types. One type is pressurized with 150 psi (10.5
kilograms per square centimeter) of dry nitrogen
or dry air, and the other has a cartridge with CO2
under pressure. When the cartridge of the second
type is punctured, CO2 pressure expels the agent
(fig. 2-57).
b. To operate the pressurized dry chemical extinguisher, break the seahng wire, remove the
locking pin, depress the operating handle, and
direct the agent at or close to the base of the fire.
To operate the cartridge dry chemical extin-
13. The only CF3Br extinguisher in the Army
inventory is of the 2ah-pound (1.25-kilogram)
size, which has the same extinguishing ability as
the £ (2.27-kilogram) CO2 unit.
c. Because of the low vapor pressure of CF3Br
at ambient temperatures, the extinguisher is pressurized to 400 psi (28 kilograms per square centimeter) with nitrogen. This pressure is sufficient
to permit use of the extinguisher at -65’ F.
(-54’ C.) without further modification.
d. The CF3Br extinguisher must be kept fully
charged at all times. Reweighing is the only
method of determining whether or not the extinguisher is fully charged. The extinguisher should
2-32
Figure 2-57. Dry chewzicd extinguisher.
TM 5-215
guisher, break the sealing wire, remove the locking pin, depress the cartridge-puncturing handle,
and direct the agent at or close to the base of the
fire.
c. When performing a monthly inspection,
check the sealing wire and seal, the dry nitrogen
pressure gage for the correct pressure of 160 psi
(10.6 kilograms per square centimeter) (pressurized type), and the hose and nozzle for foreign
objects. The semiannual and annual inspections
compare with the monthly inspections, with the
one exception that the cartridge of t,he nonpressurized extinguisher must be weighed during the
annual inspection. If the weight of the cartridge
contents (as stamped on the cylinder) is 10 percent or more below the prescribed weight, thecartrdige should be replaced. See TM 6-637 for further details.
d. The dry chemical extinguisher should be hydrostatically tested every 5 years.
2-26. Combustible Metal Agents
Two extinguishing agents are listed for use on
Class D (combustible metal) fires. They are available in drums or barrels and put on the fire with a
scoop or shovel. A cover of at least l/z inch (1.27
centimeters) of extinguishing agent is applied to
the burning agents. The two agents are:
a. G-l Powder. This is screened graphitized
foundry coke with various phosphates added. It
includes particles of various sizes to aid in packing. The material acts as a heat conductor to
lower temperature of the burning metal and
forms a coating to smother the fire by excluding
air. It also produces a gas to aid in smothering. It
may be used on magnesium and magnesium alloy
fires.
preceding paragraph. It is dispensed with a 30pound (13.6-kilogram) capacity extinguisher (fig.
248). This amount of rated D agent is effective
on about 6 pounds (2.7 kilograms) of burning
metal, depending on the type and form of the
metal. Only cartridge-operated units are available.
The dry powder extingGsher is operated by removing the hose which is around the puncturing
mechanism, then depressing the plunger which
punctures the cartridge. The compressed gas in
the cartridge is released into the shell, thus pressurizing it. The gas pressure expels the dry powder from the shell when a nozzle shutoff is opened.
This pressurizes the shell. The extinguisher is carried by its handle with one hand and the nozzle
and shutoff valves are operated with the other
hand. The shutoff valve is squeezed to open it and
released to stop the flow of the agent. The normal
operation is to open the nozzle partially to obtain
a soft flow of the agent. The burning metal is
covered with at least one r/z (1.27 centimeters) of
the Met-L-X sodium chloride. If glowng spots appear, they should be recoated. The application of
this agent forms a crust over the burning metal
which excludes the air and thus smothers the fire.
The effective range of the extinguisher is from 3
to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 meters).
b. The dry powder extinguisher should be recharged after each use. First, the gas pressure is
released by turning the extinguisher upside down
and opening the shutoff valve. This will not release the agent remaining in the extinguisher.
Next, the extinguisher is disassembled according
to the manufacturer’s instructions and cleaned
b. Met-L-X Powder. This has a sodium chloride
base with additives to give water repellancy and
good flow characteristics. An additive fuses at
high temperatures to aid in forming an airtight
coating. This material forms a coating to exclude
air, which smothers the fire. It also conducts some
heat away from the burning metal. It may be used
on magnesium, sodium, potassium, and sodium-potassium alloy (NaK) fires.
2-27. Dry Power Extinguishers for
Combustible Metal Fires
a. Dry powder extinguishers also use the Met-
L-X sodium chloride dry powder described in the
Figure 2-58. Exterior and cutaway viewa
of a &y powder ext+lguiaher.
2-33
TM 5-315
with a brush or compresised air. Then the shell is
filled with the proper amount of dry powder. In
reassembling, check the gasket, insert a new cartridge, seal the extinguisher, and tag it.
extinguisher to operate in temperatures higher
than in those permitted by CO* gas, as well as in
temperatures lower than in those permitted by
CO* gas.
c. The monthly inspection includes checking the
nozzle, the hose, the shell for defects, and the seal
to assure that it has not been broken. The annual
inspection requires a thorough check of all component parts and the weighing of the cartridge on
an accurate scale calibrated in fractions of an
ounce (or grams). The cartridge is replaced if it
has lost $$ ounce (14 grams) or m,ore. A hydrostatic test must be performed on the extinguisher
shell and the hose every 5 years.
b. The prescribed chemical for lowering the
freezing point of water in water-type extinguishers is calcium chloride. The quantity of calcium
chloride required to prevent freezing will vary
from 3 pounds per gallon (0.362 kilogram per
liter) of water to protect against a temperature of
2’ F. (-16.9’ C.), to a max,imum of 6 pounds per
gallon (0.6 kilogram per liter) of water to protect
against a temperature of -53’ F. (-47’ C.)
(TM 5-687). Local directives should be consulted
fo,r specific amounts at each temperature level.
l3efore winterization, extinguishers which require
the use of calcium chloride solutions should have
the interior of the water tank painted w,ith two
coats of asphaltum base paint to retard corrosive
action. Dry calcium chloride should not be placed
directly into the appliance to be winterized. The
chemical should be mixed with water in a separate container to prevent caking at the bottom of
the tank. A s ounce of so&urn bichromate added
to each gallon (1.87 grains per liter) of water will
act as a rust inhibitor. Do not antifreeze pressurized water extinguishers with calcium chloride.
Use specially prepared solution.
d. Do not confuse tthe dry powder extinguisher
with the dry chemical type extinguisher.
2-28. Winterization of Extinguishers
The protection of fire extinguishers krom freezing
is extremely i,mportant and should be thoroughly
understood by all fire protection personnel.
a. Carbon dioxide extinguishers which must be
operated in temperatures below 0” F. (17.8’ C.)
must be winterized. This winterization is essential
because when the temperature falls below 0’ F.
(17.8’ C.), the pressure of the extinguisher also
falls below 285 pounds per square inch (20 kilograms per (square centimeter), which is the minimum amount of pressure needed for proper operation. The winterization of CO* extinguishers requires the addition of 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of pressure per square inch (14 kilograms
per square centimeter), which is done by adding
dry nitrogen to the COZ. Local directives should
be consulted as to the amount of dry nitrogen to be
added. The addition of dry nitrogen requires a
decrease in the amount of CO2 in the cylinder.
The dry nitrogen provides additional pressure for
expelling CO2 at low temperature. Since the decrease of the CO* will not allow the addition of
dry nitrogen pressure to rupture the cylinder
gravity disk until the temperature reaches 160’ F.
(71’ C.), the injection of dry nitrogen allows the
c. Since soda-acid and foam extinguishers depend on a chemical reaction to expel the extinguishing agent, winterizing chemicals are not
used. Therefore, soda-acid and foam extinguishers
are normally located only in heated structures.
d Pressurized dry chemical extinguishers do not
require winterization. Cartridge type dry chemical extinguishers are winterized by replacing the
CO2 filled cartridge with one filled with dry nitrogen.
NOTE
,See TB 5 +200-200-10 for hand portable
fire extinguishers approved for Army
users.
TM 5-315
CHAPTER 3
CHARACTERISTICS, CHEMISTRY, AND PHYSICS OF FIRE
3-1. Introduction
The number of fires caused by uncontrollable natural reactions is minimal in relation to those
caused by the carelessness of man and his apathy
in acquiring and using the information available
on the characteristics, chemistry, and physics of
fire. The knowledge of the principles of fire also
helps the firefighter in extinguishing those fires
that he fail,s to prevent.
3-2. The Nature of Fire
‘-
-
Previously, the process of chemical oxidation and
combustion and that of halting combustion was
shown with the familiar fire triangle (fig. 3-1).
This two-dimenional triangle aided in explaining
the combustion process. Thus, when all the sides
of the fire triangle were intact and in proper state
and proportion, burning took place. When any one
of the sides (factors) was removed, burning was
stopped. Before the introduction of the modern
knowledge on chemical fire extinguishment, there
were only three methods of extinguishing a fire,
alined closely with each leg of the fire triangle.
Cooling the fire removed the “heat leg”; excluding
the oxygen from the fire removed the “oxygen
leg” ; and separating the fuel from the fire removed the “fuel leg”. When chemical extinguishing agents were introduced and successfully used
for fire extinguishment, additional information
was required to explain the action of the chemical. This new information added another dimension to the diagram. The new diagram is known
as the tetru/zedron of fire (fig. 3-2). It has four
triangular surfaces that make up a solid pyramidal form which has depth. Each of the triangular
surfaces shows an element necessary to continue
combustion. It shows that combustion (,fire) is a
continuous chemical reaction which changes constantly because of external conditions. Chemical
extinguishment agents (pota,ssium and sodium bicarbonate type dry chemicals or vaporizing liquid
agents) inhibit the chain reaction of a fire by
interfering with or cutting off the conditions nec-
Figure 3-1.
FUEL
- meDllclI40 AogIdr,
The fire triangle.
TEMPERATURE
UNINHIBITED CHAIN
REACTIONS
(Courtesy Walter M. Haesaler, The
Figure 3-2. The te?ahedron of fire.
essary,for combustion. Thus, all the three parts of
the fire triangle may be present, but the chain
reactions are prevented (inhibited) by a chemical
extinguishment agent (or agents) which puts out
the flame.
3-3. Basic Definitions and Properties of Fire
a. Ignition Temperature. The ignition temperature of a substance (solid, liquid, or gaseous) is
the minimum temperature to which the substance
exposed to air must be heated in order to ini.tiate
or cause self-sustained combustion. Ignition temperatures of the same substance vary according to
the percentage composition of the vapor or gas3-1
TM 5-315
ai,r mixture, shape, and size, of space where the
ignition occurs, rate and duration of heat, kind
and temperature of the ignition source, oxygen
concentration, and o’ther effects of materials that
may be present. Therefore, given ignition temperatures should be looked upon as approximations.
b. Vapors. Vapors in the process of combustion
are the gaseous substance given off by the material that is burning. In burning wood, heat causes
the resinous substance in the wood to vaporize.
The vapors combine with the oxygen of the air,
and the flame from the kindling ignites the combustible vapor-oxygen gas. The he,at from the fire
heats the wood, which in turn liberates more vapors and thus sustains the fire until the wood is
consumed.
c. Vapor Density. Vapor density is the term
used to explain the weight of vapors. When speaking of the weight of the,se vapors, they are usually
compared to air, which has a vapor density of 1,
Therefore, if a substance has a vapor density of
1.5, it is lr$ times as heavy as air. If it has a
vapor density of .5, it weighs only r/z as m,uch as
air. Figure 3-3 shows how the density of gasoline
vapors can be demonstrated with a small trough,
a candle, and a gasoline-soaked rag. A lighted
candle (the ignition source) is placed at the lower
end of the trough, and the gasoline-soaked rag
placed at the upper end. Gasoline vapors are heavier than air and will flow down through the
trough to the lighted candle, where they will ignite, and flash back to the rag at the top of the
trough, This illustration shows the need for the
“No smoking within 100 feet” signs displ,ayed
around gasoline storage areas.
d. Flammable or Explosive Limits. In the case
Figure 8-8 Vapor den&y.
of gases or vapors which form flammmable mixtures with air (or oxygen), there is a minimum
concentration of vapor in air below which flame
doe,s not occur when the vapor-air mixture comes
in contact with a source of ignition; thus, it is too
“lean” to ignite. Most flammable vapors and gases
also have a maximum proportion of vapor or gas
in air above which flame does not occur (too
“rich” to ignite). A few materials, like ethylene
oxide, decompose and burn with no oxygen present.
e. Flammable (Explosive) Range. The range of
combustible vapor or gas-air mixtures between
the upper and lower flammable limits i,s known as
the “flammable range” (or “explosive range”).
For example, the lower limit of flammability of
acrylonitrile at ordinary ambient temperatures is
approximately 3 percent vapor in air by volume.
The upper limit of flammability is about 1’7 percent. Thus, all concentrations of acrylonitrile
vapor in air falling between 3 and 1’7 percent are
in the flammable or explosive range.
f. Flash Point and Fire Point. The flash point of
a liquid is the lowest temperature of the liquid at
which it gives o’ff vapor sufficient to cause a
flammable mixture with the air near the surface
of the liquid or within the vessel used. Some solids, such as camphor and naphthalene, change
from solid to a vapor at ordinary room temperature and therefore have flash points while still in
the solid state. The fire point (the lowest temperature at which a substance continues to burn in
air) is usually a few degrees above the flash point.
34. Principles of Fire
a. Ignition and Combustion. Fire or combustion
may be described as rapid oxidation with the
action (evolution) of heat and light. Oxidation of
a material takes place continuously as long as it is
exposed to an oxidizing agent, which may be air.
At ambient temperatures, oxidation is usually so
slow that the proce,ss is not noticeable to human
senses. Examples of such slow oxidation are the
rusting of iron and the yellowing of paper. As
temperatures rise above the ambient, the rate of
oxidation becomes more rapi,d and generates heat.
When the ignition temperature is reached, flame
appears, thus ignition has taken place. Combustion is the continuous burning that follows after
ignition.
b. Fire. Actual burning (fire) is a much more
complicated chemical reaction than is commonly
explained by the “fire triangle” (fig. 3-1) or the
TM 5-315
more recent “tetrahedron of fire” fig. (3-2). AS
the temperatures rise above the ambient, pyrolysis takes place. Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat. It
proceeds through the following stages :
(1) Decomposition of combustible material
slowly gives off gases, including water vapor. The
combustible gases are not ignitible during the
early stages of pyrolysis.
(2) Gas evolution continues with some of the
gas becoming ignitible. As the temperature increases the gas evolution,also increases.
(3) At the ignition temperature the evolved
gases are too rich, at first, in carbon dioxide and
water vapor to sustain flame very long. However,
the heat of the flame starts a secondary pryolysis
reaction process and flaming combustion occurs
entirely in the gaseous distillate vapor phase. Gas
evolution may be so fast that it blankets the fuel
surface and excludes air. This prevents the char
from burning, retards the penetration of heat,
and delays the igniti,on temperatures in penetrating deeper into the combu,stible material. As temperatures increase, the char begins to glow, air
flows in to support combustion, and the fuel itself
burns as well as its decomposition gases. If the
released heat is concentrated and sufficient to sustain oxidation, and more heat is generated than
lost through conduction, convection, or radiation,
a positive heat balance exists. If, however, most
or all of the heat generated is lost, there is a
negative heat balance and the fire goes out as a
match flame in a wind. At the same time, a condition known as feedback may exist. Feedback is
generated heat that prepares adjacent combustible material for burning by raising it to ignition
temperatures. If the feedback is not adequate, the
fire goes out. In addition to heat generation during pyrolysis, the concentration of the oxidizing
agent is another factor that determines whether
or not ignition and combustion can occur. There
appears to be a minimal oxidizing agent concentration for almost all materials below which combustion will not take place. Exceptions to the latter are some combustible solids, such as cellulose
nitrate, that contain oxygen in the constituent
molecules. This oxygen can be released by heat
even if there is no air supply. Thus, pyroly,sis
reaction may take place without the presence of
air. An example is charcoal in coking ovens which
continues to oxidize and produce heat with a minimal amount of air.
c. Summary of the Principles of Fire. The principles of fire may be summarized as follows :
(1) There must be an oxidizing agent, combustible material, and a source of ignition for
combustion to take place.
(2) Combustible material must be heated to
its ignition temperature before it will burn.
(3) Combustion will continue until(a) The combustible material is removed
or consumed.
(b) The oxidation agent concentration is
lowered below that essential.
(c) The combustible material is cooled
below its ignition temperature.
3-5. Heat Energy Sources
Since fire prevention and extinguishment are dependent on the control of heat energy, it is essential that firefighters know the common ways in
which heat can be produced. The following discusses briefly the heat energy sources.
a. Chemical Heat Energy. This source of heat is
the result of oxidation, and is of primary concern
to fire protection engineers. The following are the
different ways heat is produced thorugh the chemical process :
(1) Combustion. Heat of combusti,on is the
quantity of heat released during the oxidation of
a substance (fuel). This is the heat normally utilized by industry and for domestic use, and is
measured in terms of British thermal units
(BTU). The heat intensity of oxidation (complete
or partial) of almost all compounds of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen depends on the oxygen wnsumed. Thus, the heat produced by combustion is
limited by the air supply.
(2) Spontaneous heat. Practically all organic
substances which are capable of combining with
oxygen will oxidize at some critical temperature
with evolution of heat if exposed to the atmosphere. The rate of oxidation at normal temperatures is usually slow and the heat which is released is transferred to its surroundings. This
keeps the temperature down and prevents ignition. This is not true of all combustible materials.
The oxidation of some material generates heat
more rapidly than it can dissipate, which results
in spontaneous combustion. Enough air must be
available to permit oxidation, yet not so much
that the heat is carried away by convection as
rapidly as it is formed. Oily rags might heat spontaneously in a wastebasket, but would not do so if
these rags were hung on a line where air movement is sufficient to remove the heat. Again, a
tightly packed bale of rags is not as likely to
cause spontaneous combustion as a loose bale. Because of the many possible combinations of air
supply and insulation, no positive predicti,on can
be made as to when material will heat spontaneously. Fire safety engineers should not only be
aware of the possibility of spontaneous combustion and fires caused by oily rags, paper, coal
piles, and foam rubber, but also be aware that
oxidation of agricultural products can produce
fires by spontaneous combustion. Grains in large
piles or bins and piles of grass (hay) will oxidize
to a point of ignition when saturated with a certain amount of moisture. Fires from this source
may not be as prevalent on farms as in urban
areas where the agricultural products are stored.
(3) Decomposition. Heat of decomposition is
the heat released by the decomposition of compounds such as cellulose nitrate and many commercial and military explosives.
(4) Solution. Heat of solution i,s the heat produced when a substance is dissolved in a liquid.
Most materials release heat when dissolved.
Chem,icals, such as concentrated sulfuric acid,
produce enough heat when dissolved to be dangerous. The chemicals that react in water and release
heat are not combustible, but liberate sufficient
heat to ignite combustible material nearby.
b. Electrical Heat Energy. Electrical heat energy produces heat when an electric current flows
through a conductor or when a spark jumps an
airgap.
(1) Resistance. An electric wire or other conductor of electricity offers resistance and thus
produces heat. The heat from these causes the
oxidation and ignition of nearby combustibles and
fire results. Fires of this type are quite common
in all areas using electricity as a source of heat
and energy.
(2) Induction. When an altern,ating current
is passed through a wire and induces a current in
another wire parallel to it, a form of heat called
induction heating is produced if the current-carrying capacity of the second wire is inadequate.
Inducted heat is produced by the resistance to the
flow of electricity and by molecular friction. An
example of the latter is the heat produced in a
mi,crowave oven.
(3) DieZectric. Dielectric heating is that produced when the insulating materials are imperfect
and, therefore, allow a leakage of current. This
heats the insulating material which may eventually ignite the nearby combustible material.
(4) Arcing. Heat from arcing occurs when
an electric circuit which carries a current is in-
terrupted and the current leaps the gap. The ternperatures of arcs are very high and may ignite
combustible and flammable material in the area.
(5) Stc&. Static electricity (friction eleetricity) is an electrical charge that accumulates
on the surfaces of two materials that have been
brought together and then separated. One surface
becomes charged positively and the other negatively. If the two objects are not bonded or
grounded, they may accumulate sufficient electricity to discharge a spark. ‘The spark produces little
heat, but it will ignite flammable vapors, gas, and
clouds of combustible dust.
(6) Lightning. Lightning is the discharge of
electrical charge on one cloud to an opposite
charge on another cloud or on the ground. Lightning develops very high temperatures in any material of high resistance which may be in its path.
c. Mechanical Heat Energy. Mechanical heat energy, especially friction heat, is responsible for a
significant number of fires annually. A few are
caused by heat energy released by compression.
(‘1) Friction heat. Friction heat is the result
of resistance to motion when two solids are
rubbed together. The intensity of heat depends
upon the amount of mechanical energy tranaformed to heat and on the rate at which the heat
is generated.
(2) Heat of compress&% This is the heat
released when a gas is compressed. A useful purpose of ignition by compression is the diesel engine which needs no spark plugs for ignition. A
fire may be caused by directing a jet of compressed air into a pipe. The air is converted to
heat which ignites an oil film on the inside surface
of the pipe fittings.
d. Nuclear Heat Energy. Nuclear heat energy is
released from the nuc1eu.s of the atom. The nucleus is held together by a great force which can
be released by bombardment of the nucleus with
particles of energy. The bombardment (fission
and fusion) releases the energy in the form of
tremendous heat and pressure, and also nuclear
radiations. In nuclear fission, energy is released
by splitting the nucleus. In nuclear fusion, energy
is released by the fusion of two nuclei. Nuclear
weapons firefighting procedures are discussed in
chapter 6.
3-6. Classes of Fire
Fires are divided into four main classes: class A,
class B, class C, and class D fires. These classes
TM 5-315
are based on the combustion characteristics of the
ignited material. In most cases, installation fires
are combinations of at least two and sometimes all
of these classes.
a. Clam A Fires. Class A fires are fires in ordinary combustible materials such as bedding, mattresses, dunnage, books, cloth, canvas, wood, and
paper. Class A fires must be dealt with by cooling
the fire below its ignition temperature. All class A
fires leave embers which are likely to rekindle if
air comes in contact with them. Therefore, a class
A fire must not be considered extinguished until
the entire mass has been cooled thoroughly.
Smothering is not effective for class A fires because it does not lower the temperature of the
burning embers below the surface of the fire.
b. Cl,ass B Fires. Class B fires are those which
occur in flammable substances such as gasoline,
jet fuels, kerosene, oils, paint, turpentine, grease,
tar, and other combustible substances which do
not leave embers or ashes. Class B fires can be
extingusihed by providing a barrier between the
burning substance and the air or oxygen necessary for its comb,ustion. Chemical foam and mechanical foam produce such barriers, and are
k n o w n a s “permanent” smothering agents.
Carbon dioxide is also a smothering agent, but its
effect is only temporary and the application must
be renewed if there is any danger of reignition.
c. CZass C Fires. Class C fires are fires in live
electrical materials. They present an extra hazard
to the firefighter, because of the danger of electrical shock. A nonconducting extinguishing agent is
essential for fighting class C fires. An additional
consideration in fighting class C fires is the fact
that it may be quite important to avoid damaging
the electrical equipment in the process of extinguishing the fire. Electrical instruments and contacts will be contaminated by any extinguishing
agents except gases, The first step in extinguishing a class C fire is to secure the source of power
to the circuit or equipment on fire. The preferred
agent in fighting class C fires is carbon dioxide or
monobromotrifluoromethane, since they give protection against electrical shock and are not likely
to injure the equipment. Water fog, although not
preferred, may be used; under ordinary conditions it does not transm,it electricity to the firefighter (as would a solid stream of water), but it
may damage the energized electrical equipment.
d. Cluss L Fires. Class D fires are those in
combustible metals, such as titanium, zirconium,
sadium, potassium, etc. The greatest hazard exists
when these metals are in the molten state or in
finely divided forms of dust, trimmings, or shavings. Ordinary extinguishing agents are ineffective on these metal fires, and they are best controlled by covering with special dry powdered or
granular materials which excl’ude oxygen and
which will not react or combine adversely with
metal.
3-5
TM 5-315
CHAPTER 4
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES OF FIREFIGHTING
Section I. FIRE CONTROL
4-1. Introduction
Fire control is detlned as “retarding or reducing
the rate of burning.” Extinguishment, on the
other hand, is the complete elimination of the fire.
Retarding or reducing the rate of burning would
seem to be just a step in the process of extinguishment. But it can be an immediate objective
in itself, for a successfully controlled fire makes it
possible to resuce personnel before completely extinguishing the fire. When a building is completely engulfed in flames, the heat makes rescue
impossible until it has been reduced by control. In
structural firefighting, control is very important
especially when rescue of personnel may be necessary or when there is a danger of the fire spreading. Because water is the principal extinguishing
agent, the supply limitation is not usually a problem. Instead, water pressure and the volume in
gallons per minute are generally the m,ost important factors in this phase of fire protection. Another method of control frequently used in structural firefighting is called covering exposures.
This means that when one structure is burning,
other structures, especially those downwind, are
protected to keep radiation and convection heat
from causing these buildings to start burning. To
prevent this kind of spreading, streams of water
are applied to these exposed buildings. In this
sense, then, control means the prevention of
spreading rather than the reduction of fire in a
particular area.
4-2. Fire Control Methods
Three methods are used in the control of fire :
a. Cooling or reducing the temperature below
the ignition point.
b. Smothering or reducing the oxygen content
within the fire area below the burnable limits. The
atmosphere must contain at least 15 percent oxygen in order for a fire to burn.
c. Removing fuel from the vicinity of the fire,
by valve or switch action, by the application of
heavy streams of water, by firebreaks in the case
of natural-cover fires, or by manual removal.
4-3. Extinguishment of the Different
Classes of Fire
a. Class A fires require primarily water or an
agent containing water so that the deep-seated
embers in wood, cloth, and other class A materials
may be reached by the cooling agent.
b. Class B fires may be extinguished with
monobromotrifluodioxide
carbon
(CO?),
romethane (CF3Br), foam (mechanical and chemical), dry chemical (bicarbonate of soda), POtassium bicarbonate (Purple K), and ammonium
phosphate), methyl bromide, mineral soil, waterfog, aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) (trade
name “light water”) or any other system of covering that excludes oxygen. AFFF extinguishes
the fire and prevents flashback. Dry chemical extingui!shes the fire immediately by conditioning
the atmosphere, but does not cool the combustibles.
c. Class C fires are extinguished by (in order of
preference) monobromotrifluoromethane, carbon
dioxide, and dry chemical. When selecting an extinguishing agent for class C fires, consideration
msut be given to the electrical conductivity of the
extinguishing agents. None of the substances
listed above is a conductor of electricity. It is advisable to
use ,monobromotrifluor,omethane
(CF3Br) or carbon dixoide ( C02) on class C fires
whenever possible. CF3Br and C02) leave no residue and will not damage electrical equipment.
NOTE
One more type of fire to be aware of is
the compressed gas fire. ‘Technically this
type of fire is rated as class B, and
4-1
TM !L315
agents listed for class B fires are used to
extinguish it. The safest and best way of
controlling this fire is to remove the f,uel
supply. This prevents the accumulation
of explosive vapors that would occur if
the fire were extinguished and the fuel
were allowed to continue to flow. Fires
involving pressurized flammable gases,
especially those heavier than air, such as
liquefied (petroleum gases, should not be
co-mpletely extinguished unless the flow
of gas can be immediately stopped.
Section Il. FIRE DEPARTMENT HYDRAULICS
4-4. Introduction
Hydraulics is that branch of science which deals
with the mechanical properties of water or other
liquids and with the application of these properties in engineering. Firelfighters, especially pump
operators, m,ust understand and be able to apply
those principles of hydraulics which are essential
to firefighting. Inadequate training or lack of experience in fire hydraulicts can be extremely costly
in lives and materiel.
4-5. Properties of Water
Water, the most common liquid, is also the most
effective, in its various form,s, for firefighting. To
use it most effectively, however, one shouldkn0.w
about its physical properties.
a. For all practic,al purposes, water is not compressible. It requires 30,000 pounds (13,608 kilograms) of pressure per square inch (6.45 square
centimeters) to reduce its volume 1 percent. If
water has a mineral content (such as salt) or is
subjected to different temperatures, its characteristics will differ.
b. Water consists of two parts of hydrogen and
one part of oxygen-a fact represented by the
common chemical formula HZO. One cubic foot
(0.6283 cubic meter) of water weighs 62.6 pounds
(28!% kilograms). There are 231 cubic inches
(3786.09 cubic centimeters) in 1 gallon (3.785 liters) of water and 1,728 cubic inches (28,312
cubic centimeters) in 1 cubic foot (0.0283 cubic
meter) of water. One cubic foot (0.0283 cubic centimeter) of water contains 7.481 gallons (28.3156
liters). One gallon (3.785 1iter.s) of water weighs
8.35 pounds (3.7876 kilograms). Thse figures are
important and should be remembered.
4-6. Volume
It is often necessary to determine the volume of
cylindrical and rectangular containers in order to
know the weights and capacities of installed or
reserve tanks and consequently how long theywill1
4-2
be of use. To compute volume, first find the area
of a surface. For a square or rectangle, this is
done by multiplying the length by the width
(A = 1~). For a circle, the area is found by
multiplying the diameter squared by 0.7864 (i.e.,
A = Dzx 0.7854) or by multiplying the radius
squared by 3.1416 (i.e., A = R2 X 3.1416, commonly written A = nR2, where the Greek letter
7r (pi) means 3.1416). In hydraulics, the preferred formula is the first one: A = D2 )( 0.7854.
When going on from problems dealing with the
areas of rectangles and circles to those involving
the volumes of cylindrical and rectangular tanks,
consider a third dimension, that of height, represented by the ,symbol h. The formula for the volume of a rectangular tank is V = lwh, meaning
that the volume is found by multiplying the length
by the width by the height. For example: ‘How
many cubic feet are there in a tank 5 feet (1.52~6
meters) by 4 feet (1.22 meters) by 10 feet (3.06
meters) Substituting in the formulaV = lwh
=5X4XlO
= 200 cubic feet
NOTE
When computing volume, all dimensions
must be in the same unit of measurement. For example, if the diameter of a
cylindrical container is given in inches
and the height is given in feet, the
height must be converted to inches.
Tile tank contains 200 cubic feet (5.67 cubic meters), and it then becomes a simple pr.oblem. to
find its contents in gallons (or liters). There are
7.481 gallons in 1 cubic foot (1000 liters in 1 cubic
meter), so 7.481 multiplied by 200 equals L496.2
gallons (1000 multiplied by 5.67 equals 5670 liters), the number of gallons in a 200-cubic-foot
tank. For problems involving volumes of cylindrical ‘tanks, use the formula V = D2 x 0.7864 X h.
For example: How many cubic feet-are contained
in a tank 12 feet (3.66 ‘meters) high and 5 feet
(L&J5 meters) in diameter?
TM 5-315
v=
E
Z
D.2 x 0 . 7 8 6 4 x h
5 x 5 x 0.7864 x 12
235.62 cubic feet
To find the number of gallons, multiply 235.62 by
7.481 to get approximately 1,763 gallons (6673
liters).
4-7. Weight
a. Firefighters must know how to find the
weight of a given quantity of water. For example,
vehicles with a capacity of 1,000 gallons (3785
liters) actually have 8350 pounds (3785 kilograms) of extinguishing agent aboard (8.35 multiplied by l,OOO), or more than 4 tons (3.628
metric tons) of water. Such knowledge would be
necessary in making a decision about detouring or
crc,ssing a bridge of limited capacity.
-
b. It is also necessary to be able to determine
the weight of a charged hose line, especially when
only a limited number of personnel are available
to move such a line. The futility of filling a 21&
inch (6.35centimeter) hose with water before
trying to move it to the point of operation is revealed after figuring the weight of water in a
50-foot (600 inches ; 1524 centimeters) section.
This is done by means of the formulaD* x 0.7854 X h
V =
x 8.35
231
Dz x 0.7854 x h x I)
(Metric System : V =
1000
in which h is the length of the hose in inches, D i,s
the diameter of the hose in inches, 231 is the
number of cubic inches in a gallon (1000 is the
number of cubic centimeters in 1 liter), and 8.35
is the weight in pounds of a gallon (1 kilogram is
the weight of 1 liter).
The V = 6 . 2 5 x .7854 x 6 0 0 x 8.35 equals
231
approximately 106 pounds (42.8 kilograms) plus
the weight of the hose, which is 65 pounds (29.5
kilograms) per section, a total of approximately
171 pounds (78 kilograms).
-
c. To pull four 50-foot (l&meter) sections of
2$&inch (6.35-centimeter) hose, totaling something over one-quarter of a ton of hose and water
combined, up a ladder, becomes a formidable task.
These calculations also show that 1,000 feet (305
meters) of 2l,&inch (6.35-centimeter) hose, which
is the length often carried on structural pumpers,
weighs almost 2 tons (1.8 metric tons) when
filled.
4-0. Pressure
Water pressure is proportional to the depth of the
water, which, in hydraulics, is stated in pounds
(or kilograms) per square inch (6.45 square centimeter,s) . A column of water 1 foot (0.30)5 meter)
high exerts a pressure of 0.434 pound (0.197 kilo- .
gram) per square inch (6.45 square centimeters).
Two columns of water, each 1 foot (.305 meter)
high, one on top of the other, would exert 0.868
pound (0.3937 kilogram) per square inch (6.45
square centimeters) of pressure at the base. In
other words, if a column of water 1 square inch in
base area and 1 foot high weighs 0.434 pound, the
effective pressure in pounds per square inch at
any point in a column of water is equal to 0.434
multiplied by the height of the column above that
point in terms of feet ; this is expressed asP = 0.434H
in which H is the head in feet. Static pressure is
the pressure exerted by water at rest. The static
pressure may be determined readily, if the head is
known by the formula SP = 0.434H. Back pressure or gravity pressure indicates the pressure in
pounds per square inch (psi) exerted by a head of
water against a pump lifting it to an elevated
point, The solution is found by the same methodBP = 0.434H
4-9. Rate of Discharge
The rate of discharge is the quantity of water
coming from an opening during a given period of
time. It is calculated in gallons per minute (gpm).
a. When the rate of discharge is computed, two
items must be considered: the diameter of the
opening (nozzle) and the pressure of the flow.
The rate of discharge is found by multiplying the
diameter squared by the square root of the pressure times the constant 29.7 ; this is expressed
asgpm discharge = 29.7 x D2 X fl
For example, using this formula and table 4-1, if
the diameter is 2 inches (5.08 centimeter) and the
pressure is 36 psi, then :
Discharge = 29.7 X Dz X d??
= 29.7 x 22 x @6
= 29.7 x 4 x 6
= 712.8 gpm (2697.7 liters per minute)
b. An open hose butt (no nozzle) or an average
hydrant outlet is only about 90 percent as efficient
as a nozzle tip in terms of water volume dis4-3
TM 5-315
Table h-l.
n
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1.
1.414
1.732
2.
2.236
2.449
2.646
2.828
3.
3.162
3.316
3.464
3.605
3.741
3.873
4.
4.123
4.242
4.368
4.472
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Square Roots of Ahmbers 1 to 100
n
4.582
4.690
4.795
4.899
5.
6.099
6.196
5.291
5.385
5.417
5.667
5.656
5.744
5.831
5.916
6.
6.082
6.164
6.245
6.324
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
60
51
52
53
64
55
66
57
58
59
60
charge. So, for calculating open-butt or hydrant
discharges in gallons per minute, the formula just
applied to nozzle discharge must be multiplied by
0.9. This gives :
Discharge = $%j?? x 02 +?? x 0.9
Applying this to a hydrant in the above example
gives ‘713 gpm x .9, or 64.52 gpm (1428.16 liters
per minute). For all practical purpo:ses, 712.8 and
641.52 would be rounded off to 713 (2698 liters)
and 642 (1423 liters).
4-10. Drafting
When fire hydrants are not available to supply
water for firefighting purpojses, it may be possible
to obtain water by drafting from a static or semistatic source, such as a pond, lake, or river.
CL This is done by dropping one end of a hard
suction hose into the body of water and connecting the other end to the intake side of the pump.
The pump is started and a partial vacuum is created within the hard suction hose by a primer,
When positive displacement pumps are used, no
primer is needed. Atmospheric pressure exerted
on the body of water forces the water up through
the hard suction hose into the pump. The pump
discharges the water, under pressure, through the
discharge outlet.
IL Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7
pounds (6.668 kilograms) per square inch (6.45
square centimeters). Water creates a gravity or
4-4
n
I
6.403
6.480
6.567
6.633
6.708
6.782
6.855
6.928
7.
7.071
7.141
7.211
7.280
7.348
7.416
7.483
7.549
7.615
7.681
7.746
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
7.810
7.874
7.937
8.
8.062
8.124
8.185
8.246
8.306
8.366
8.426
8.485
8.544
8.602
8.660
8.717
8.775
8.831
8.888
8.944
81
82
83
84
86
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
9.
9.056
9.110
9.165
2.219
9.273
9.327
9.380
9.434
9.486
9.639
9.691
9.643
9.696
9.746
9.798
9.848
9.899
9.949
10.
head pressure of 0.434 pound (0.1969 kilogram)
per square inch (6.45 square centimeters). One
pound per square inch has a head of 1 + 0.434 or
2.304 feet (0.703 meter). Therefore, atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 psi can raise water to a height of
14.7 x 2.304 or 33.9 feet (10.34 meters) at sea
.level. However, it must be understood that this
figure is theoretical and can be true only where a
perfect vacuum can be created. Fire pumps, regardless of condition, cannot create a perfect
vacuum. A fire pump in good condition should be
able to raise water about 75 percent of the theoretical height, or about 25 feet (7.6 meters) at sea
level. Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude
increa.ses at the rate of about 0.5 psi per 1,000
feet (305 meters). At 5,000 feet (1525 meters)
altitude, the atmospheric pressure is about 12.2
psi; therefore, water can be raised about 21 feet
(6.04 meters) at this altitude.
c. When pumping from draft, be careful to assure that all gaskets are in good condition and
seated properly in place. All connections must be
tight. An adequate screen should be connected to
the hard suction hose to prevent debris in the
water from being pulled into the pump.
4-11. Application of Water
Water is the most practical extinguishing agent
for ordinary structural fires.
a. It absorbs heat rapidly and with greater
capacity than most other agents used for fire ex-
TM 5-315
-
-,
tinguishment. A great amount of heat is required
to raise cold water to the boiling point; much
more heat is required to change the water to
steam. However, only a small fraction of the theoretical maximum cooling effect is used if the
water is applied in a solid stream.
b. To be effective, water must reach the base of
a fire. A stream or spray directed into the smoke
does little ,more than cool the atmosphere, unless
it eventually falls upon the burning material. For
large Class A fires, a sub,stantial stream is necessary to penetrate the smoke, flame, and fuel. The
most efficient fire stream is one which is forceful
and large enough to do the job efficiently without
excessive water damage. Solid fire streams project
water over a considerable area and extinguish
other,wise inaccessible fires. The production of
this fire stream is the primary concern of the
senior man, but is also the responsibility of other
crewmen from the nozzle-men to the pump operator.
c. Some fires, even structural ones, can be extinguished more efficiently with a spray or fog
stream, which requires greater pressure to be
effective. Fog streams do not have the range of a
straight ‘stream, but the heat absorption is
greater. Water damage is usually less when fog is
used because much of the liquid is dissipated as
steam. In a hot, smoky, interior fire, firefighters
are usually more efficient and comfortable with a
fog ,stream in front of them.
d. An efficient firefighter must be able to determine the extinguishment requirements of a fire
and know the means available for meeting those
requirements.
*
e. Extinguishment is u,sually simple if the fire is
reached in the early stage, when it can be extinguished with a booster line or portable extinguisher.
f. If a fire is not discovered in the early .&age of
burning, extinguishment is usually difficult because the fire stream must not only produce the
amount of water required for extinguishment but
must also carry through space to the point of use.
Valume can often be supplied with small streams,
but even these streams must have shape and velocity to carry them efficiently to the base of the
fire.
g. If a fire is not discovered or controlled until
the entire building is burning, it can be extinguished only by the use of large quantities of
water. Even then, the fire stream must be con-
trolled so as to supply the greatest amount of
water from a safe distance and yet reach the fire
at the point of burning. This stage of the fire
required heavy master streams.
h. The fast-burning temporary frame structures, which have large areas unbroken by partitions, found on many military installations allow
fire to spread rapidly. The use of 1%~inch (3.81
centimeters) hose streams on most installations
depends upon sound judgment resulting from the
experience of the senior firefighter. The l$&inch
(3.81-centimeter) hoses should not be used from
pumpers unless ample 2iJe-inch (6.36-centimeter)
hose is available for support. If in doubt that a
lqz-inch (3.81-centimeter) line is capable of extinguishment, use a 2$+inch (6.36-centimeter)
line. Large streams from monitor nozzles and deluge sets may be used when equipment and adequate water supply are available and when the
magnitude of the fire demands it.
4-12. Friction loss
Friction is the resistance to motion between two
surfaces in contact.
a. The term “friction loss” in fire department
hydraulics means the loss of energy or pressure
caused by friction. The friction conditions with
whi,ch fire protection personnel are most concerned consist of water r,ubbing against the inside
lining of the hose. This causes a turbulence of the
water, which in turn sets up another friction, that
of water rubbing against water.
‘5. The rubber linings of the hose appear perfectly smooth to the naked eye. But m,icroscopic
observation of hose linings shows a series of irregularities whi,ch increase in size as water pressure is exerted on the interior of the hose. These
irregularities impede the speed of the water as it
travels through the hose under pressure, causing
friction loss, which, in turn, decreases the amount
of flow pressure at the nozzle. The friction loss is
always less than the amount of pressure available
at the source, whether a pu’mper or a hydrant,
c. When dealing with friction loss in hydraulics,
the law of pressure may be expressed as follows
-the water pressure at the source min,us the
pressure lost on the way equals the pressure at
the nozzle. The pressure acquired in the beginning
is the engine pressure. The pressure lost on the
way is the friction loss. The pressure which is left
is the nozzle pressure. The conclusion is that engine pressure minus friction loss equals nozzle
4-13. ideal Requirements
the hose is doubled, the friction loss is only 1/32 as
smuch as that in the smaller line. If the diameter ia
halved, the loss is 32 times greater than the larger
line. Thus, friction loss in ll$inch (3.8-centimeter) hose is 13% times as great as in 2$‘&inch
(6.35-centimeter) hose, other conditions remaining the same.
NOW the nozzle pressure necessary to make a good
fire-extinguishing stream can be determined.
4-15. Siamesing
pressure (NP = EP - FL), or, to put it another
way, nozzle pressure plus friction loss equals engine pressure (EP = NP + FL). These formulas
are strictly rule of thumb ; they are not the technical formulas.
a. A good stream for structural firefighting is
one which has enough pressure to reach the fire in
a solid mass. This means that it must have ample
range and must not break into large fog particles
or water drops before reaching its desired range.
This ideal structural fire-exting,uishing stream
must be capable of discharging 9/10 of its volume
in a l&inch (3%centimeter) circle at a distance of
60 to 100 feet (16 to 30~5 meters), depending
upon the size and extent of the fire. Experiments
have revealed that 40 to 60 pounds (18 to 27 kilograms) of nozzle pressure will do this. The mean
or average nozzle pressure would then be 60
pounds per square inch (22.7 kilograms per 6.46
square centismeters) ; this is the accepted pressure.
b. Since the desired nozzle pressure is known,
the amount of friction loss in any given hose layout must be computed and added to the 50 pounds
of nozzle pressure; the sum of these two figures
would be equal to the desired engine pressure.
Friction loss varies in proportion to the square of
the degree of increase in the flow of water. Thus,
when the flow of water through a hose is doubled,
the friction loss increases four times. For example, if 200 gallons (757 liters) of water per minute are flowing through a hose with a friction
loss of 20 pounds (9 kilograms), an increase to
400 gallons (1514 liters) per minute wo,uld bring
the friction loss to 80 pounds (36 kilograms).
4-14. Factors Affecting Friction loss
Friction loss also varies directly with the length
of the line.
a. ,This means that the total friction loss will
vary with each hose layout. For example, if there
are 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of friction loss in
100 feet (30.6 meters) of 2$&inch (6.35 centimeter) hose using a l-inch (254-centimeter) nozzle,
then there would be 20 pounds (9 kilograms) ,of
friction loss in 200 feet (61 meters) of the same
hose using the same nozzle.
b. Friction loss increases very rapidly with decrease in the size of the hose. If the diameter of
When two hoses r.un parallel into a single hose to
whi,ch one nozzle is attached, they are said to be
siamesed.
a. This frequently done to prevent excessive
loss and thereby increase nozzle pressure. Friction loss in two 2vz-inch (6.36-centimeter) siamesed lines of the same length is only 28 percent
as great as in a single line of 2l/s-inch (6.3,5-centimeter) ; 26 percent may be used for rapid calculation.
b. For example, if there are 10 pounds (4.6 kilograms) of friction loss in 100 feet (30.5 meters)
of 2l/s-inch (6.35~centimeter) hose, there would be
13% times 10 (4.5 kilograms) or 135 pounds (61
kilograms) loss in the same length of lyz-inch
(3.81-centimeter) hose, other conditions remaining the same. In two lengths of 2J,,z-inch (6.36centimeter) hose siamesed in parallel lines, there
would be l/h of 10 (4.5 kilograms), or 2l/s pounds
(,1.134 kilograms) loss in discharging the same
amount of water. This shows the value of a siamese connection, especially in the use of heavy
streams where a large quantity of water is needed
with greater pressure.
4-16. Effect of Nozzle Size and Pressure
CL For all ordinary structural fires that have not
advanced to the point of becoming an exterior
conflagration, a l-inch (2:54-centimeter) nozzle
tip is used to keep water damage at a minimum
while still having ample volume and pressure to
extinguish the fire quickly and efficiently. A llhinch (3.2- centimeter) tip will discharge ll/z times
as much water as a l-inch (2.64-centimeter) tip,
and a 2-inch (¢imeter) tip will discharge 4
times as much water as a l-inch (254-centimeter)
tip at the same nzozle pressure. The larger tips
are used for large, advanced fires which require
greater range and volume.
b. A l-inch (2.54-centimeter) tip with 60
pounds (22.7 kilograms) of nozzle pressure will
discharge slightly more than 200 gallons (767
liters) per minute with about 10 pounds (4.6 kilo-
TM !i-315
grams) of friction loss for every 100 feet (30.5
kilometers) of 2r/&inch (6.35-centimeter) hose. So
there will be a lo-pound (4.5 ki’lograms) pressure
loss for each 100 feet (30.5 meters) of hose in use.
Adding this friction loss to the desired nozzle
pressure gives the engine pressure necessary to
supply the nozzle pressure.
c. For emmvpZe, in a l,OOO-foot (305meter) layout of 2$$-inch (6.35-centimeter) hose, using a
l-inch (2.54-centimeter) nozzle and desiring 50
pounds (22.7 kilograms) of nozzle pressure, the
needed engine pressure is easily determined. Since
there are ten lOO-foot (30.5-meter) sections in
1,000 feet (305 meters), with 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of pressure loss per 100 feet (30.5 meters) of hose, multiply the 10 sections by 10
pounds (4.5 kilograms) to get the pounds of friction (100) and add to it the 50 pounds (22.7 kilograms) of nozzle pressure required. This equals
150 pounds (68 kilograms) of engine pressure.
d. If the nozzle size is increased to llh inches
(2.858 centimeters), maintaining 50 pounds (22.7
kilograms) of nozzle pressure, the flow of water
increases to 265 gallons (1003 liters) per minute,
with 18 pounds (8.165 kilograms) of friction loss
for every 100 feet (30.5 meters) of 2vz-inch
(6.35-centimeter) hose. If the nozzle diameter is
increased to lib inches (3.175 centimeters), the
flow increases to 325 gallons (1230 liters) per minute, and the friction loss increases to 25 pounds
(11.34 kilograms) for every 100 feet (30.5 meters) of 2$!&inch (6.‘35-centimeter) hose.
e. Friction loss for the five common nozzle sizes
at 50 pounds (22.7 kilograms) of pressure is calculated in table 4-2. Every pump operator should
memorize this table so that he can tell at once how
much engine pressure is required for any type of
layout that uses 2ih-inch (6.35-centimeter) hose.
f. When hose is laid or advanced to a level
above the discharge outlet of the pump, the water
in the hose exerts a pressure against the pump,
Table &.% Friction Loss of Nozzles at 50 Pow&
of Pr.essure
Nozzle size
in inch8
q!&
----_____-------------
78
---------
1
1%
1%
--_______--------_-___
----____-----------------____--------------
Approximate friction loss
in pounds per 100 feet
of 2?44nch hose
4
8
10
18
25
known as back pressure. This back pressure is
determined by multiplying the height above the
pump discharge outlet, in feet (0.305 meter), by
0.434, which is the pressure in pounds per square
inch (6.45 square centimeters) created by 1 foot
(0.305 meter) of water. In the army, each story of
a building is considered as 12 feet (3.66 meters),
so the back pressure for each story would be 12 )(
434 = 5.208 pounds (2.36 kilograms per 6.45
square centimeters), or approximately 5 psi
(0.366 kilogram per square centimeter). For en
cmpZe, if the hose is advanced to the third story,
which is two stories above the first, 2 x 5 or 10 psi
must be added to the pump pressure to compensate for the back pressure. The nozzle size that
should be used is determined by the total length of
a hose layo,ut. In a short layout (up to 600 feet
(183 meters) a lx-inch (3.175-centimeter) tip
may be used. In a medium layout, 600 to 900 feet
(183 to 274.5 meters), a lys-inch (2.86-centimeter) tip is used. A long layout, 900 feet or over
(274.5 meters), ordinarily requires the use of the
l-inch (2.54-centimeter) tip. The tip size, however, may be changed at the discretion of the senior firefighter.
g. To illustrate all the preceding points, set up a
situation involving 700 feet (273.5 meters) of
2i/z-inch (6.35-centimeter) hose. This is a medium
layout, cahing for tha use of a 1 ?/‘-inch (2.86-centimeter) nozzle. From table L2 it is known that
the friction loss factor of hose and nozzle is 18
pounds (8.2 kilograms) per 100 feet (30.5 meters).
Seven multiplied by 13 equals 126 pounds (57 kilogram,s) of friction loss; to this add the 50
pounds (22.7 kilograms) of nozzle pre,ssure required ; the result is a required engine pressure of
176 pounds (80 kilograms). If the hose is taken
up to the fourth floor, three floors above the first,
multiply 3 by 5 (pounds) to get 15 pounds (6.8
kilograms) of back pressure. Then add this 15 to
176 to get 191 pounds (87 kilogram,s) as the total
engine pressure required. For all practical purposes the answer 191 would be rounded off to 190,
or the nearest figure divisible by 5.
h. One of the most important factors that determine success or failure in combating structural
fires is the effectiveness of the fire stream. A weak
stream generally will not reach the objective. Too
much pressure will cause a stream to break up
and lose its effectiveness. It has been determined
that 50 psi (22.7 kilograms per 6.45 square centimeters) nozzle pressure will, in most cases, result
in a good effective stream. If the chief or crew
4-7
TM ii-315
chief in charge decides that less or more pressure
is needed, he will order or signal the pump operator to decrease or increase the pressure. The
pump operator should, however, set the initial
nozzle pressure at 50 psi.
Z. The pump operator of a structural pumper
must be thoroughly familiar with all the equipment on the truck. He must know how many
lengths of hose there are in each layer in the hose
bed. When hose has been laid from the truck, the
operator should be able to determine blow much
hose was used in the lay by glancing at the hose
remaining in the hose bed. (Only an approximate
estimate is necessary.) The pump operator can, by
glancing at the nozzle tips remaining on the truck,
determine what size nozzle tip is to be used.
Knowing the amount of hose laid and the size of
the nozzle tip, the pump operator determines what
pressure must be maintained at the pump to produce 50 psi at the nozzle by referring to the pump
operator’.s guide plate (fig. 4-1).
4-17. Pump Operator’s Guide Plate
Most structural pumpers employed by the army
are equipped with a pump operator’s guide plate
installed on the left side of the pumper directly
over or near the pump operator’s controls.
a. This plate (fig. 4-1) lists the pump pressures
required to maintain a desired nlozzle pressure for
different size nozzle tips and hose lengths and is
used merely as a guide by pump operators.
b. To read the guide plate, a pump operator
must understand what is meant by “changeover
valve” and what occurs within the pump when the
valve is placed in either of two positions.
c. He must understand that the only pumps
equipped with a changeover valve are multiplestage pumps. The Class 530B or 63OC pumper,
-
Figure 4-1.
Pump operator’s guide plute.
used by the army, have a single stage pump, however a two-stage pump is planned for the future.
The two stage pump has two sets of impellers
which operate from a single shaft. When the valve
is placed in the “parallel” or “volume” position,
the water entering the pump on the intake side is
divided and delivered to both sets of impellers
simultaneously. Then, as the impellers force the
water out of each impeller housing, the two masses of water joins together before emerging from
the discharge outlet. When the valve is placed in
the “series” or “pressure” position, the water entering the intake side is delivered to one impeller,
which forces the water through an outlet (orifice)
to the other impeller which in turn forces it out at
increased pressure through the discharge outlet,
d. The heavy zigzag line running down across
the guide plate shows pressures required. This
line divides the chart in half and is not to be
considered when operating a single-stage pump.
However, when operating a two-stage pump with
a changeover valve and when pumping at a pressure listed to the left of the heavy line, be sure
that the changeover valve i,s in the volume or parallel position. If pumping at a pressure listed to
the right to the heavy line, see that the changeover valve is in the pressure or series position.
Note that the pressures given in the chart are
actual pressures, and that .the pressure gages on
various pumpers will vary in calibration. They
may be calibrated in 2, 5, 10, or 50 psi. The policy
is to set the pump pressure to the nearest calibration of the gage on that specific truck.
-
Section Ill. HOSE, iADDER, AND PUMPER DRILLS
4-18. Introduction
Hose,, ladder, and pumper drills performed under
simulated fire conditions train firefighting personnel for an actual emergency.
a. The drills must be varied so that all the fireprotection equipment on the firefighting vehicle is
used. These drills must be constantly practiced
until the proficiency of both individual and crew
in all the duties to be performed reaches a high
level. After a high degree of skill is achieved,
refresher drills must be carried out to retain it.
b. In the firefighting drills, each crewman has a
series of assignments which must be quickly carried out in a precise manner and at the proper
time. These assignments involve laying out the
hose, putting the pump into operatilon, and erecting ladders on buildings. Since hesitancy on the
part of a crewman could cau.se serious delay, and,
in turn, serious fire damage and loss of life, these
hose, ladder, and pumper operations must be understood and practiced until each man can execute
them wfihout a moment’s hesitation.
-
TM 5-315
1
c.. It is difficult to specify a fixed procedure for
drills, because of such variables as the aptitude of
the crewmen, the frequency and intensity of
training periods, and the conditions peculiar to
each fire emergency and to each individual installation. Some general standards can be set up,
however, although assignments will vary with
each emergency.
4-19. Special Purpose Rolls and Folds
When hose is used in a very lar,ge or high building, it is normally operated from a building standpipe system. This is a system of piping with outlets on each floor. A pumping engine should pump
into this system to assure enough pressure for
effective streams. As mentioned under the section
on unlined fabric hose, the fire department advances its own hose from building standpipes.
Where standpipe systems exist, hose should be
carried that can be taken through door,s, on elevators, and up stairways quickly. This hose sh’ould
be compactly rolled or folded in such a way that it
can be placed in service very quickly. Certain
methods of rolling and folding hose are well
suited for this use. Hose carried in these rolls and
folds is also useful for extending lines or replacing burst lengths of hose. Often a carrying pack is
employed which also contains wrenches, adapters
to non-fire service threads on standpipes, and
other tools.
a. The Donut Roll. The donut roll forms a
compact roll with both couplings accessible. The
hose will pay out quickly and easily, even with
both couplings coupled, and does not kink. To
form a donut roll lay the hose out flat (fig. 4-2),
and pull the male coupling back so the hose is
doubled back on itself, with the male coupling
about 3 to 4 feet (approximately a meter) from
the female. Stand at the folded end, and face the
fol’ded end with one foot on each side of the hose.
Leave enough space in the fold to place one hand
through the roll for carrying. Roll the doubled
hose (fig. 4-2), keeping the top and bottom portions alined with your feet as you back up. When
the roll is completed the male coupling should be a
foot (0!,3 meter) or so behind the female coupling,
protected by the hose behind the female coupling.
This protects threads from damage, or the nozzle
if one is carried preconnected. If the roll is not
exactly alined it can be flattened by laying it on
the floor and stepping on it. If a second man is
available to help in forming the donut roll, he can
keep the hose alined and take up slack in the top
portion by pulling on the hose behind the male
coupling. The first man would then face the coupling end to make the roll.
b. The Double Donut Roll. The double donut roll
can be made up with two lengths of hose, and can
also be used for a sin,gle length where carrying
space makes a smaller but wider roll desirable. Tlo
roll a double donut with two lengths of hose (fig.
4-3), couple them together and lay the lengths
flat, next to each other. Fold the loop that results
at the coupled ,couplings back onto the hjose. Lea.ving enough room for a hand hold, roll the hose
toward the uncoupled couplings.
c. Self Locking Start for Donut or Double
Donut Roll. The self locking start for donut rolls
(fig. 4-3) will hold the roll in place when it is
handled, and provides a han,dle for carrying. To
form this feature the end fold or loop is brought
out about 18 inches (r/s meter) on each side of the
flat hose before the roll is started, folding it in
once toward the couplings and laying it flat on the
hose. When the roll is completed the loop left exposed on one si,de is passed through the other loop
(fig. 4-4). By pulling Ion the hose that passes
through the roll the second or locking loop is
tightened. The roll can be carried by the first loop.
To put the roll in service the loops are first disengaged.
d. The Flat Single Length Fold. A single length
of hose can be folded clompactly by laying the
length flat (fig. 4-5), then bringing the couplings
together on top of the hose and engaging them a
few turns to insure they remain coupled. Fold the
hose in from each end to within about a foot (0.3
meter) of the couplings, then fold one side over
the other. Couplings are protected from damage.
The hose can be carried easily and put in service
quickly.
e. The Stcmdpipe Pack. If a canvas, plastic, or
leather bag is available, the hose can be accordion
folded into it with couplings accessible. When the
hose is coupled to the standpipe or the line to be
extended, the line pays out from the bag (‘fig.
4-6). This bag can also serve to carry a spanner
wrench and adapters for use if stan,dpipes have
non-fire service threads. A nozzle is usually carried
connected to the line and often a gated wye is
connected to the standpipe end of the hose. Hose
appliances made of lightweight materials and
hose of lightweight constructijon should be used
for this purpose if available.
4-9
TM 5-315
4-20. Hose loads
a. Use of Standard Methods. Hose carried on
fire apparatus is loaded so that it can be put to
use quiokly and easily at the scene of a fire. It
must pay out from the hose bed smoothly, without
kinking. Standard methods of loading hose beds
are used to assure that(1) Hose will pay out easily, without binding.
(2) Layers of hose will not settle into the
FORMING THE DONUT ROLL.
COMPLETED DONUT ROLL.
layers beneath, and become tangled.
(3) Hose will not be subjected to any more
sharp bending than is necessary.
b. Determining Which Stano!urd Load to Use.
Several factors determine which of the standard
loads should be used in a particular situation. The
most important of these are(1) The size and shape of the hose bed.
(2) The amount of hose to be loaded.
FORMING THE DONUT ROLL WITH TWO MEN,
DONUT
ROLL
Figure @A The donut ~011.
4-10
PARTLY
CO M P L E T E D.
-
TM s-al5
-
(3) The purpose for which the hose will normally be used.
(4) The water system or location of drafting
sources in the area.
4-21. Apparatus Hose Beds
a. Divided Bed. Most hose carried on apparatus
is loaded in a bed which is open to the rear of the
apparatus. To increase efficiency, beds are normally divided into two or miore compartments
(fig. 4-7), either by built-in partitions or by placing boards (baffle boards) in the bed as hose is
loaded. Separate compartments are provided for
2%-inch (6.35centimeter) and lx-inch (3.81centimeter) hose (fig. 4-8). The term divided Zoad
is used to describe a load in which the larger size
hose, Z?Jz-inch (6.36-centimeter), 3-inch (7.62-centimeter) or larger, is divided so that two or more
lines can be laid with a single movement of the
apparatus. This is an advantage when the quantity of water to be moved is too great for a single
line.
BEGINING THE DOUBLE DONUT ROLL.
FORMING THE SELF LOCKING START FOR A DONUT ROLL.
COMPLETED DOUBLE DONUT ROLL.
Figure 4-3.
The double donut roll.
COMPLETED DONUT ROLL WITH SELF LOCKING LOOPS.
Figwe
4-4. Self locking donut roll.
4-11
BEGINNING THE SINGLE LENGTH FOLD.
SECOND STEP IN FORMING A SINGLE LENGTH FOLD.
COMPLETED SINGLE LENGTH FOLD.
Figure .&5.
The single length fold.
b. Cross Body or Transverse Hose Beok. These
beds are provided on some apparatus for attack
lines, which can be taken off to either side. They
are usually located behind the cab and can be
reached quickly by men riding in or behind the
cab. The lines are usually connected to a swivel
fitting in the middle of the bed, which connects to
piping from the pump. This allows the line to be
taken from the side of the apparatus directly toward the fire, if there is room for both the engine
and a ladder truck in front of the building on fire.
Disadvantages of cross body hose beds include interference with the pump operator’s use of the
pump panel, and the short length of the bed,
which is less than the width of the apparatus.
Hose loaded in such beds has more sharp bends
than where a longer bed is used.
4-22. Functions of Hose lines
The functilon-or purpose for which normally
used-of a hose line determines how it is loaded
and what type of hose is used. Lines that are
4-12
Figwe 4-6.
The standpipe pack.
normally used for supplying water to pumping
engines, building sprinkler systems, or nozzles
and master stream devices at major fires must be
large enough to move large volumes of water
efficiently. They should be capable of being laid by
movement of the apparatus. Preconnected 1$4inch (3.81-centimeter) or 2r/z-inch (6.3%centimeter) attack lines, with nozzles attached and connected to piping from the pump, are designed to
be put in operation quickly with the apparatus
placed near the involved building. They are
stretched by hand.
_
4-23. Standard laads
The methods used by fire departments for loading
hose on main hose beds of a fire truck are the
accordion load, the flat load, and the horseshoe
load. These loads can be packed tight enough by
hand to keep the layers from settling into each
other as apparatus travels over the road. Tools
such as bars and spanners should never be used to
pack hose. This could result in damaging the hose,
and in loads too tight to pay out easily. When
loading hose it is important to locate couplings so
they will pay out without turning in the bed.
Turning couplings can wedge in the bed and may
also fly up and injure men on the back step. To
locate couplings properly, it is sometimes necessary to use a short fold when loading the bed.
This is called a dutchman. The method for forming a dutchman is described under each of the
standard loads. In beginning a load the coupling
that is loaded first-and will be the last off-is
placed at the rear corner of the bed so it can be
seen when the load is completed. When a divided bed is used it is possible to connect the top cou-
END VIEW
YOP VIEW
Figure .&8. Divided bed.
A,DlVlDED MAIN BED
B,BEDS FOR PRECONNECTED HOSE
C,CROSS 6ODY OR TRANSVERSE REDS
Figure 4-7. Hose beds.
pling in one bed with the bott,om coupling in the
next, so that a single long line can be laid without
stopping. If the hose is not crossconnected, the
visible coupling will show at a glance that the
hose is not preconnected. In describing the various loads, the front of the hose bed is the end
towar#d the apparatus cab, and the back or rear
the end at the back step.
-
a. The Accordion Load. The accordion load consists of folding the hose back and forth lengthwise
in the bed accordion fashi,on, with the hose on
edge. The main advantage of this load is the ease
with which shoulder loads can be formed for han,d
stretching lines. Its principal disadvantage is that
it places many sharp bends in the hose.
(11) To form an accordion load, place the first
coupling in the rear of the bed, next to the partition or baffle board that will separate the two
parts of the main hose load (fig. 4-9). Take the
hose to the front of the bed, standing on edge, fold
MO’, and bring it to the rear alongside the first
fold. Again fold 180 degrees and repeat the proc-
ess. As each end fold is formed, stagger alternate
fol,ds with the first all the way to the end of the
bed, and the next 2 or 3 inches (5 to 8 centimeters) short of the end. This keeps folds from
coming directly opposite each other, which would
make the ends fill up faster than the middle of the
bed and would also make the folds sharper.
(2) To change the position of a coupling with
a dutchman, take a short fold in the hose (fig.
4-10). This assures that the coupling will not turn
in the truck bed when paying out.
(3) When a layer is complete, the last 180’
fol,d at the rear of the hose bed is made in the
opposite direction of the other folds (fig. 4-11).
This prevents kinking when the hose is laid. The
hose is then tucked between the two previous
folds and taken to the front of the bed, rising
gradually to the top of the first layer at the front
of the bed. It is then either brought straight back,
beginning the next layer, or carried across the
front of the bed to begin the second layer on the
same side as the first.
b. The Flat Load. The flat load consists of folding the hose back and forth lengthwise in the bed,
with the hose flattened (fig. 4-12). It pays out
very easily and produces a straighter lay than the
accordion load. However, it is more difficult to
form shoulder loads for hand stretching from the
flat load than from the accordion loa,d. l3oth loads
have many sharp bends in the hose.
(1) To form a flat load, place the first coupling in the rear corner of the bed next to the
partition or baffle board that separates the two
parts of the main hose load (fig. &12). Lay the
4-13
TM 5-315
hose to the front of the bed, fold it 180 degrees,
and bring it to the rear at a slight diagonal to
place the second fold next to the first coupling.
Fold 180 degrees and repeat the process. Keep the
end folds even.
(2) To change the position of a coupling,
make a short fold (dutchman) as with the accor-
Figure 4-10. Forming a clutchmun.
BEGINNING THE ACCORDION LOAD
FORMING THE ACCORDION LOAD NOTE STAGGERED
Figure 4-9. The accordion &ad.
FOLDS.
dion load, except that the fold will be doubled
back ,on itself rather than placed next to itself
(fig. 4-12).
(3) When the first layer is complete, begin
the second by laying the hose diagonally in the
opposite direction (fig. 4-1’2). The layers are
formed in the same manner as the first layer,
except that in alternate layers the en,d folds at
each end are staggered by 2 or 3 inches (5 to 8
centimeters) so that the bends will be less sharp
and the ends will not fill up faster than the middle
of the bed.
c. The Horseshoe Loud. The horseshoe load consists of hose loaded around the sides and front of
the be,d so that its shape roughly resemlbles that of
a horseshoe. It has the advantage of less sharp
bends in the hose, but does not lend itself readily
to forming shoulder loads for hand stretching.
(1) To form the horseshoe load, place the
first coupling next to the partition or baffle board
that separates the two parts of the main hose load
(fig. 4-13). Lay the hose to the front of the bed
with the hose lying on edge, fold the hose 90 deAgrees, an,d lay it across the front of the bed to the
opposite side. Make a 90’ fold and lay the hose to
the rear of the bed. Then fold it 180 degrees amI
repeat the process. Stagger the 180 degree folds
at the rear of the bed as shown in figure 4-13.
(2) Coupling positions can be changed by use
of a short fold (dutchman) as tith the accordion
-
-
pay out easily. The method adopted is governed by
the local conditions and the preferences of the fire
chief.
-
a. The Donut Finish. The donut roll, described
in paragraph 4-19a, can be used to finish a hose
load (fig. 4-16). It provides 50 feet (15 meters) of
hose to facilitate hoooking up to a hydrant or
advancing attack lines. When a load is finished
with a donut roll a second length of hose is
usually placed (flaked) loosely back and forth
across the top of the load so the donut can be
carried off easily.
b. Cross Fold or Riprap Finish. This finish
consists of loading the last length or two in a
loose accordion fashion across the hose bed on top
of the load (fig. 4-1’7). It will pay out- freely, and
a bundle can be grasped under the arm when stepping off to catch a hydrant.
Figure A-1 1. Two methods of starting
second layer of accordion load.
load or by taking an extra fold across the front of
the bed (fig. 4-14).
(3) A new layer is started by bringing the
hose to the rear of the bed (fig. 4-15), across the
end of half of the layer, and then gradually rising
as it is bein.g brought to the front of the bed. An
alternate method (fig. 4-15) may be used in which
the last fold of the layer toward the front of the
bed is brought up, laid flat, and placed diagonally
to a front corner. Then the hose is folded to bring
it up on edge and laid in the same way as the
layer laid previously.
4-24. Hose load Finishes
Hose load finishes have two primary purposes-to
provide hose line at the fire area with a minimum
amount of effort ‘and for convenience in hooking
up to a hydrant. The finishes must provide a
loosely loaded hose that will pull off the truck and
c. ShSd Load Finish. The skid load is used to
finish a load for working attack lines when the
reverse lay is em,ployed. About 16 feet (4.5 meters) of hose is loaded starting at the front of the
bed with a cross fold (fig. 4-18). The hose is then
turned flat and br,ought to the rear of the bed
about 1’2 to 18 inches (30.6 to 46 centimeters)
from the side of the bed. It is allowed to hang
over the rear edge of the load about a foot (30.6
centimeters) MO’, and taken back on itself to the
front of the bed. Here it is folded to run at a right
angle to a point the same distance from the opposite end of the load, folded again, and brought to
the rear and back to form a second skid (fig.
4-18). At the front of the bed the hose is brought
up on edge and loaded in a cross fold on the two
skids (fig. 4-18). The ends of the cross fold are
kept 3 to 6 inches (7.6 to 15 centimeters) from
the sides of the hose bed so the l’oad will not dislodge when laying out. A nozzle can be attached
and placed on top of the cross folds (fig.4-18). A
2$$-inch (6.35-centimeter) b y ll,&nch (3.81centimeter) reducing wye can be coupled to the
2$$-inch (6.35-centimeter) hose and a line of lsinch (3.81 centimeter) hose, or two lines folded together, used to complete the skid load. Care must
be taken that all couplings and appliances used in
the skid load rest on the skids or on top of the
cross fold position.
4-25. Inspection and Maintenance
All hose and fittings should be inspected monthly,
and after each use they should be washed and
inspected again.
4-15
BEGINNING THE FLAT LOAD
FORMING THE FLAT LOAD
THE SECOND LAYER NOTE THAT FOLDS ARE STAGGERED
FROM THOSE IN FIRST LAYER
BY FOLDING THE HOSE BACK ON ITSELF
Figure
4-16
4-12.
The flat load.
TM 5-315
-
a. When inspecting hose, go over the jacket
thoroughly for breaks or worn spots. Look closely
where the hose enters the coupling to see if there
is any sign of the coupling coming loose. Look
inside the coupling for damaged or slipping expansion rings. Inspect the swivel of the female
couplings for damage.
b. Any damage to hose should be reported immediately to the crew chief in charge and recorded on the hose record card. The threads of
couplings should be cleaned thoroughly with a
wire brush and a small amount of powdered
graphite or mild soap solution should be applied
to them.
4-26. Hose layouts and Carries
The preceding paragraphs covere,d the various
methods of loading hose on a firetruck. Additional
preparation is that of hose layouts and advancement to fires. Time is not so important when loading hose, but the process requires the utmost skill
and cooperation because it is an important factor
in hose layouts. There are only two hose layouts
used in the Army: the straight lay and the reverse lay (which is the standard Army hose lay),
a. Stmight Lay. The straight lay (fig. 4-19) is
made as follows: On the approach to a fire the
truck stops at a hydrant chosen by the crew chief.
The hydrant should be as near the fire as possible
without endangering the truck or driver, should
the fire spread. The plugman stags off with enough
line, and while he takes a turn around the hydrant
with the hose, the truck proceeds to the fire. The
I- I
BEGINNING THE HORSESHOE LOAD.
FORMING THE HORSESHOE LOAD.
IkOTE S T A G G E R E D F O L D S .
Figure 4-13. The horseshoe load.
Figure 4-14. Two methods of forming a dutchman
with the horseshoe load.
STARTING A SECOND LAYER OF THE HORSESHOE LOAD.
Figure 4-16.
Donut roll fir&h for hose load.
NOTE
It is a good practice for the driver, if
possible, to stop the truck about 75 to 100
feet (23 to 30.5 meters) beyond the nearest point to the fire. This will give the
hoseman that much additional working
line.
ALTERNATE METHOD OF STARTING A SECOND LAYER.
Figure &15.
Second 1ayeT of horseshoe load.
plugman removes the 2rjs-inch (6.35centimeter)
cap nearest the fire, connects the hose, removes
the loop that is around the hydrant, opens the
hydrant with his hydrant wrench, and proceeds to
the fire, straightening out kinks or bends in the
hose on the way. When the truck arrives at the
fire, a hose clamp is applied to the hose, and
enough working line (determined by the crew
chief) i’s removed from the truck by a hoseman,
who grasps one or more folds and walks backward
till the loop or loops are clear of the truck. Then
he goes back to the truck and repeats the procedure. He lays each loop nearer the fire. When
enough hose has been removed, he disconnects the
nearest coupling, puts the loose end back in the
truck bed, and connects the nozzle to the hose. He
then removes the hose clamp from the hose. He
can then advance to the fire.
The straight lay, particularly if a long 2$&inch
(6.35~centimeter) supply hose line is used, car
supply only lr/s-inch (3.81-centimeter) hose line:
and the pumper can be used only to a fraction of
itls capacity. The str.aight lay should be used with
caution and only for a lr/s-inch (3.81-centimeter)
hose stream fire without possibility of developm e n t i n t o a 2r/&inch (6.35~centimeter) h o s e
stream fire. The straight lay may b’e used under
certain circumstances if a second pumper is positioned at the hydrant.
Figure 4-17.
Cross fold finish for hose load.
TM 5-315
-
BEGINNING THE SKID LOAD FINISH.
FORMING THE CROSS FOLD PORTION
OF THE SKID LOAD FINISH.
COMPLETED SKID LOAD FINISH FOR HOSE LOAD.
FORMING THE SECOND SKID.
Figure .b-18. Skid load fintih,
4-19
TM 5-315
SUPPLY
SOURCE
I
Figure 4-19.5’traight l a y .
b. Reverse Lay. When using the reverse lay, the
hosemen lay hose from the fire to the hydrant (fig.
4-20).
(1) The pumper can be used to capacity and
2$&inch (6.35centimeter) hand lines used only
hhen the pumper is positioned at the hydrant and
taking suction through a 4y&inch (11.43-centimeter) hose.
(2) To make the reverse lay, the following
procedures should be used. The truck should stop
75 to 100 feet (23 to 30.5 meters) short of the
nearest point to the fire. (This will give additional
working line.) The hosemen remove the working
line by pulling a “skid” or other hose load. When
the working line is removed, the nozzlemen start
advancing the line to the fire. While the nozzlemen
are occupied, the crew chief, driver, and plugman
remove other equipment that may be needed, such
as ladders (extension and roof), forcible-entry
tools, portable lights, and pike pole. This equipment should be placed off the road and on the fire
side of the truck. The crew chi,ef kneels on the
hose line to anchor it as it pays out, and then
proceeds to the fire to aid and supervise the nozzlemen.
NOTE
This procedure is flexible. The crew chief
may have one of the hosemen anchor the
hoseline while he proceeds to the fire.
The driver and plugman remount the truck, the
plugman riding on the side to avoid injury from
hose and couplings as the load is paying out. Making sure that a crew member is anchoring the
hose, the driver drives the truck to the hydrant.
He then puts the pump in gear, dismounts, disconnects the hose at a coupling (making sure there is
enough hose to reach the pump), returns the loose
end of the hose to the hose bed, carries the end of
the hose that leads to the fire around to the pump
on the side opposite the hydrant, and connects the
hose to the discharge outlet of the pump. He may,
if necessary, assist the driver in connecting the
suction hose to the hydrant. The hydrant valve is
then opened. The plugman proceeds to the fire,
checking the hose line for leaking couplings and
kinks, and reports to th.e crew chief. The driver
remains at the pump controls at all times while
the pum,p is being used.
.-
c. General Principles of Layout. Any crew making a layout during drill or actual emergency
must understand the principles of fire hydraulics
in order to compute such things as friction loss.
Hose layouts, such as Siamese operations, may be
carried out during drill periods, depending upon
the potential firefighting demands of the individual base. In areas where the possibility of extensive fires exists, it may be well to concentrate on
drills containing layouts where large water volumes and pressures may be required. It may be
advisable under these conditions to establish a
SUPPLY
SOURCE
Figure
4-20
4-20.
Reverse lay.
preassigned procedure for each piece of apparatus
where the fire hazard exists. The pieces of apparatus which would normally be first in, or first to
arrive at the scene of a potential fire, should be
given priority.
d. Advancing the Lines. The most commonly
used method of advancing the line is as follows :
(1) The nozzleman faces away from the fire,
puts the hose over his left shoulder with the nozzle hanging downward at his back, and turns to
the left facing the fire; the hose will extend across
his chest and in under his right arm (fig. 4-21).
He then advances to the fire.
(2) Personnel to the rear of the nozzleman
carry the hose by means of the shoulder carry and
the underarm carry (figs. 4-22 and 4-23). When
using the shoulder carry, the carriers must place
the hose on the same shoulder as the nozzleman
uses. The underarm carry is particularly good for
advancing lines at street level. Underarm loads
may be picked up easily and quickly.
e. Advancing Hose up a Ladder. A 2r/z-inch
(6.35-centimeter) hose should always be advanced
up (a ladder with a dry line if possible.
(1) A hose full of water is difficult to move or
maneuver. If the line is already charged, time and
effort are saved if the line is first broken and
drained before any extensive advancement is attempted.
Figure 4-21.
Carrying a hose forward.
Figure 4-22. Shoulder carry.
(2) In advancing an empty line up a ladder,
the men climb about 10 to 12 feet (3 to 3.7 meters), with the hose on their shoulders and 20 to’
25 feet (6 to 7.6 meters) between them (fig.
4-24). As the operation progresses ,additional hose
must be fed or passed to the men on the ladder to
prevent the line from becoming fouled. When
enough hose for adequate maneuvering has
reached the desired height, the hose line should be
anchored with a rope hose tool, ch!ain, or strap to
a fire well, a window sill or the ladder itself. The
anchor should be made directly below the coupling
to remove the strain of the hose and water weight
from the lineman.
f. Advancing Hose Up A Stairay. Hose is difficult to drag even in an open, unobstructed area,
and it is very difficult to maneuver around obstructions, such as those offered by a stairway.
Time and energy may be saved if the hose is carried. The underarm carry is superior for stairway
work under most conditions (fig. 4-25). If the
hose has been properly removed from the apparatus, a man can quickly grasp an armful, since it
lies in an orderly position. Again, advancing the
hose is much faster and easier if the line is kept
dry until the fire is approached; this can be done
by keeping the hose clamp in place until the
proper time for its release.
4-21
TM 5-215
Figure &28. Underarm. carry.
g. Advanczhg Hose With a Handline. It frequently becomes necessary to take a hose line to
an upper window or over a roof parapet with a
handline. The line should be dropped from above
by someone who has already carried the coiled
handline to the desired level. Hose lines should be
hoisted dry whenever possible, even if this requires dr,aining a line. It is usually faster to a0
this than to attempt to hoist a tcharged line. In
hoisting the line, it is aoublea back so that the
nozzle is about 4 feet (1.22 meters) from the end
(‘fig. 4-26). A clove hitch is tied around the nozzle
and hose, securing the nozzle a few inches behind the tip, with the standing end of the rope
on the opposite side of the doubled hose from the
nozzle (1). Next a half hitch is taken around the
hose about a foot from the end (2). As the hose is
hoisted, the st’anding end of the rope is kept between the building and the hose if possible, to
prevent unnecessary damage to the hose. A man
on the ground guiding the hose can assist in maintaining this position.
4-27. Replacing a Section of Hose
A hose line does not normally burst when equipment is properly handled, maintained, and inspected. Nevertheless, it happens, and any fire organization will suffer serious consequences if
4-22
drills and precautions against burst lines are not
undertaken. If a hose bursts, either the ruptured
section of hose must be replaced, or a sh,ort line
must be extended; either procedure requires shutting down the line by kinking it (fig. 4-27) or by
using a hose clamp. The hose clamp is normally
used if it is immediately available; if not, the line
m,ay be kinked behind the coupling to save the
time required to go back to the hydrant. The replacement section is brought t,o the point where it
is to be inserted, care being taken that the couplings are not dragged, dropped, or damaged in
moving and that the male and female coupling are
placed to make proper connection. Manpower permitting, the ruptured section should be removed
while the replacement section is being carried
from the apparatus. To save time, both connections should be made simuItaneously.
4-28. lengthening a Hose
Every precaution must be taken to ,provide
enough hose for whatever maneuvering may be
required to reach any portion of the structure
involved in fire or any nearby structures which
may be ignited by the original fire. Frequently,
l$$-inch (3.81 centimeter) lines are fed by a 2l,,&
inch (6.35-centimeter line for confined spaces
and f’or overhaul purposes. This requires that the
----
-
TM 5-215
larger line be advanced when necessary and demands surplus or additional lines. When a line
must be lengthened, two men remove two lengths
(or 100 feet (30.6 meters) of hose) from the
truck, and, using the shoulder carry, proceed to
the end of the line (fig. G28). When the second
man is about 26 feet (7.6 meters) beyond the end
DRY LINE
Figure 4-26.
Hoisting hose with a handline.
Figure 4-27.
Kinking a hose line to atop fiw.
-
Figure 4-24.
Advancing a houe up a ludder.
of the line to be lengthened, he drops the hose,
lays the coupling on the ground, and goes back to
make the connection. The line is coupled while the
first man continues on, paying off hose from his
shoulder. After completion of the connection,
water is readmitted into the hose when the signal
is given.
4-29. Controlling a Charged line
Figure 4-25.
Advancing a ho8e up a stairway.
Working on a ladder sets up unstable conditiona
especially when a charged hose line is being handled. To prevent accidents and conserve efforts,
TM 5-315
the hose may be anchored to the ladder with either a hose rope, a hose strap, or a hose chain
(fig. 4-29).
est distance necessary to permit proper movement
of the strea,m. Securing the hose in this way stops
the nozzle reaction or kickback.
As previously stated, it is difficult for one
man to hold a nozzle of normal size which is discharging water from a 2$inch (6.35-centimeters)
line. This feat becomes even more difficult on a
ladder. Therefore, when water is being discharged
from a nozzle while the nozzleman is standing on
a ladder, the hose should be secured to the ladder
a few feet b’ehind the nozzle, or within the small-
b.. Frequently, when a nozzle is operated from
ground level, not enough manpower is available,
or too much nozzle pressure causes the nozzle to
set up too much reaction to allow its safe holding.
This situation may be remedied to a reasonable
extent by shutting off the nozzle, looping the hose,
and tying it to the forward end of the loop just
far enough behind the nozzle to allowmaneuvera-
a.
Figure &Z8. Lengthening a hose.
4-24
-
TM 5-215
b. Shoulder loads are formed by the first man,
who starts with the nozzle or free end of the hose
and places several layers or loops of hose over his
shoulder in front and back ; but they must not
extend so far as to interfere with his mobility.
The next man will leave about 10 feet (3 meters)
between the man in front of him and the point
where he starts forming shoulder loads. This operation continues until all available manpower is
utilized (fig> 4-31).
c. When a single 50-foot (15-meter) section of
hose is to be carried, a man places the main body
of the hose on his shoulder and holds it with one
hand (fig. 4-32). He uses his other to hold both
couplings to prevent them from being dragged on
the ground or damaged in some other way.
Figure k.29.
Securing hose to ladder with hose etmp.
d. If a small addition.al length of hose is needed
to reach the fire or to allow the hose to move to
another area, a loop may be formed in the line
and rolled toward the nozzle. This operation removes much of the zigzag slack from the line and
lengthens it somewhat, thus increasing nozzle
-mobility and stream range efficiency-both from
the standpoint of decreasing friction loss and increasing the range.
4-3 1. ladders
A ladder is made of wood, rope, or metal, and is
as definitely a part of fire service equipment as
the hose, nozzles, or tools.
Figure
4-30.
Securing hose against back preeewe.
bility of the nozzle (fig. 4-30). Tying the hose in
this manner increases friction loss somewhat and
gives the hose a greater tendency to straighten
itself. After securing it, however, one man should
be capable of directing the stream. When movement of the hose is necessary, tying the hose in
this manner is not recommended.
4-30. Moving Hose lines
Hose lines when dry or uncharged must frequently be moved from one loc,ation to another.
-
a. When any great quantity of hose, such as
several length.s, must be carried from one location
to another, it normally requires the coordinated
effort of several men to move the hose with any
degree of speed and order.
a. A firefighter must know how to carry, raise,
and chmb the different types of ladders issued by
the Army. He should practice these procedures
until the operations become as nearly automatic
as is humanly possible.
?j. The principal parts of a ladder are the sides,
called beawzs, and the crossbars, called rungs. Ladder rungs are of the same design, regardless of
the type of ladder. They consist of a round bar of
specimfied size and strength.
c. Trussed ladders are designed as they are to
make them stronger and lighter (fig. 4-33). A
solid-beam ladder made of good material may
meet the strength specifications, but it is much
heavier than an equally strong trussed ladder, so
the truss type is perferable. Trussed ladders are
constructed with two beams on each side of the
ladder. Some are made with one of the beams
larger than the other be.am on the same side of the
ladder; others are made with all beams of equal
size. With the former, the rungs are set in the
4-25
-
Figure .&.91.
Hoving a hose line using shoulder loads.
larger beaIm, which is called the rung beam; the
other beam is called the truss beam. Where the
beams ,are of equal size, the rungs are set into
blocks which are, in turn, set between the two
beams.
d. The beams of wooden ladders are made of
either Douglas fir or airplane spruce. The rungs
of a wooden ladder are made of second growth
hickory or ash. Many ladders are now being made
of aluminum and are much lighter in weight.
_
4-32. Kinds of ladders
Ladders currently being used by the Army are
straight ladders, extension ladders, folding ladders, roof ladders, and Bangor ladders.
a. Straight Laddem. Straight ladders are sometimes called wall ladders and range in length from
10 to 40 feet (3 to 12 meters). In the Army these
ladders are constructed on the exterior walls of
buildings. They are used as auxiliary ladders only.
Figure &%‘.
4-26
Carrying a single folded section of hose.
b. Extension Laddem. As the n,ame implies,
these ladders consist of two or more sections. The
base section is called the bed ladder, and the other
sections are the fly ladders. The fly ladder slides
through guides on the upper end of the bed ladder
and is equipped on the lower end with pawls, or
dogs, that hook over the rungs of the bed ladder
when extended to the desired height. The fly ladders are raised by a halyard that is fastened to the
lower rung and operates through ,a pulley on the
user end of the bed ladder. Extension ladders
are made in lengths from 14 feet (4 meters),
.-
called the “baby” extension, to aerial ladders of
160 feet (48 meters). However, extension ladders
used most commonly by the Army are the 20,
24, and 36-foot (6, ‘7, and U-meter) extensions,
and the 40 and 60-foot (12 and 15-meter) Bangors.
Figure &SS. Trussed hiders.
c. Booi LadAlert?. Roof ladders issued by the
Army have hooks mounted on a movable socket,
which permits them to fold inward when not in
use. Roof ladders range in length from 10 to 20
feet (3 to 6 meters), They may be of either the
solid-beam or truss type. By placing the hooks of
the ladders over roof peaks, sills, walls, or the
coping of any opening, a fireman can climb the
ladder with safety even though its butt may not
rest on a foundation.
d. Bangor Ladders. A Bangor ladder is an extension ladder 40 feet (12 meters) tall or taller
(fig. ‘4-34). Each side has a pole attached to it
with a swivel. These poles are called tormentors.
They have a spike in each free end, and aid in
lifting and steadying the ladder while it is being
raised.
e. Folding Ladders. A folding ladder is made up
of two or more sections which are hinged for folding. A mechanism locks the hinges when the ladder is extended for use.
4-33. ladder Carrying
a. One-Man Carry. Often a shortage or’ man-
power makes it necessary for one man to carry
and operate ladders. One well-trained man can do
this, leaving the other men to perform the many
other tasks necessary during an emergency. The
roof ladder can be carried by removing it from
the apparatus and passing either arm through the
ladder at the middle of its length. The hooks
should be carried forward and lowered (fig.
4-36). Extension ladders under 25 feet (7.6 meters) in length can be carried by positioning the
shoulder at the center of the ladder with the heel
forward, as shown in figure 4-36. This method
allows the ladder to be set and raised in one continuous operation.
Figure 4-84. Bangor h&&r.
to 36 feet long (8 to 11 meters) require a minimum of two men, one near each end. After they
have removed the ladder from the apparatus, each
man passes one arm through the ladder and
grasps the second rung forward (fi. 4-37). Both
men must be on the same side of the ladder. The
heel should be carried forward. When carrying a
ladder in a crowded area, the lead man will use
4-27
-
Figure 4-86.
Onemum can-g.
carry, except that two additional men are placed
in the middle on opposite sides of the ladder (fig.
4738).
NOTE
-
Ladder drills tie in very closely with
hose operations, because ladders are frequently needed for maneuvering the hose
to an effective fire-extinguishment position. In addition, ladders are needed for
rescue, ventilation, and salvage work,
and for other fire fighting duties.
4-34.LadderRaising
Figure &St?.
One-man esteneion ladder carry.
his outside hand to prevent injury to persons in
the line of travel.
c. Four-Mm Cuwy. Four men remove the ladder from the apparatus and place it on the ground
with the fly of the ladder up, The men take positions, two near each end on opposite sides of the
ladder. They face the top of the ladder, reach
down, and grasp a rung with the hand nearer to
it. They raise the ladder on their shoulders and
carry it, as shown in figure 4-38.
d. Six-man Carry. This carry is used for the
Bangor ladders and is the same as the four-man
4-28
As in ladder carrying, ladder raising is an operation requiring practice and cooperation. Before a
ladder can be raised, it must be determined how
far the heel of the ladder should be placed from
the building. There are two methods to determine
this. One is to divide the length of the ladder by6
and add 2. For example, if a 35-foot (U-meter)
ladder, fully extended, is to be used, the distance
would be (35 + 5) + 2 = 9 feet (2.7 meters).
The other method is simpler and more commonly
used. The distance is determined by dividing the
length of the ladder by 4. Thus, if a 35-foot (llmeter) ladder is to be used, divide 36 (11) by 4
and the result is approximately 9 feet (2.7 meters) (fig. M9).
a. One-Man Raise.
There are two methods by
-
Figure .&38.
4-30
Four and six-man ladder carriea.
-
Figure 4-40. One-man ladder raise.
Figure 4-89. Proper ladder angle.
ies the ladder while the man on the outside raises
the fly to the desired height and locks the pawls
(fig. 4-42).
(7) The ladder is then lowered to the building by both men.
(8) To lower the ladder, reverse the operations.
c. Four-Man Raise for Bangor Ladders. Although six men should be used to raise Bangor
ladders, shortage of manpower frequently makes
it necessary to use the four-man raise. The procedure is as follows :
(1) The four men remove the ladder from the
apparatus and carry it to the desired point. Then
ground it at right angles to the building with the
heels close to the building. The four men then take
their positions as shown in figure 4-43.
(2) Nos. 1 and 2 release the tormentors and
pass them overhead to Nos. 3 and 4 ; then they
return to a position just below the tormentor
swivels.
(3) Facing the top of the ladder, Nos. 1 and 2
grasp a common rung and raise the ladder overhead ; then they swing around in under the ladder
and raise it to the vertical position by walking
toward the foot. The pole men assist as soon as
the ladder is raised above the beam men’s heads.
(4) Nos. 1 and 2 grasp a convenient rung,
and with their other hands on the beam, lift and
carry the heel to the proper distance from the
building.
(5) Nos. 1 and 2 each place a foot on the
rung, and Nos. 3 and 4 pull the ladder to the
vertical position with the tormentors. Nos. 1 and
2 then raise the ladders and lock the pawls.
4431
3
IU
IEJ
JCJ
-
Figure .441.
-
Placing of one-man raised lao!der.
Figure
(6) The ladder is then held in place by Nos. 1
and 2 while Nos. 3 and 4 lower the ladder to the
building with the tormentors. The tormentors are
then locked in place.
d. Six-Man
Raise for Bangor Ladders. Six men
should be used to raise Bangor ladders whenever
possible. The procedure is as follows :
(1) The men remove the ladder from the apparatus and carry it to the desired location.
(2) The men ground the ladder with the fly
4-32
4-42.
Two-man hdder rake.
ladders on top, then they take their positions as in
figure 4-44.
(3) Nos. 1 and 2 release the tormentors by
pulling the keys, raise the ends, and pass them to
Nos. 3 and 4, who, in turn, pass them to Nos. 5
and 6, the tormentor men. With the spur of the
tormentors between the first and second fingers of
the hand nearest the spur when standing outside
the tormentors, the other hand grasps the tormen-
-
TM 5-315
WINDOW
Figure &&I’.
Four-man Bangor ladder rake.
tor at arms’ length. These men should be about 5
feet (1.5 meters) apart.
(4) Nos. 1 and 2 stand on the heel plates and
reach over and grasp a convenient rung as the
ladder is raised.
(5) Nos. 13 and 4, facing the top of the ladder,
reach down and grasp a common rung, raise the
ladder overhead, swing under the ladder, and
raise it using every other rung. Nos. 5 and 6 take
the weight from Nos. 3 and 4 with their tormentors as soon as possible, pushing the ladder to the
vertical position.
(6) When the ladder is vertical, No. 5 will
swing to the inside of his tormentor pole and
carry it around to a position at right angles to the
other tormentor (fig. 4-45). This steadies the ladder and allows it to be set plumb.
(7) Nos. 3 and 4 heel the ladder while Nos. 5
and 6 lower the ladder to the building with the
tormentor poles. The tormentors are then set
under the ladder to prevent sidesway.
(8) To lower the Bangor ladder, reverse the
operations.
4-35. ladder Climbing
-
i.
a. Ladder climbing is involved in the duties of
rescue, ventilation, and extinguishment, including
the moving of hose, ladders, and other cumber-
Figure ,$-.44.
Six-man Bangor ladder rahe.
some but necessary equipment. Since all these duties must be carried out swiftly under the strain
of a fire emergency, ladder climbing becomes a
highly important skill. To acquire ease in ladder
climbing and its related uses, the average man
needs much practice.
b. In climbing a ladder, one hand is always on
one of the rungs, unless an article of equipment is
being carried up or down the ladder. If something
is carried in one hand, it should be slid along the
beam, if possible, to give the climber at least a
limited hold at all times.
4-33
TM 5-315
II
WINDOW
II
on which the other foot is placed, while tall men
usually are more at ease when they lock one foot
around the beam.
-
t. For safety, especially whe,n there is oonsiderable weight and activity on a ladder, it should be
anchored to the building with a rope hose tool,
hose chain, or strap. This anchor prevents the
ladder from slip.ping or turning over when the
lolad is shifted; it also eli,minates much of the vibration caused by activity on the ladder. When
necessary, the slack must be taken from the rope
by twisting it or taking an extra turn around the
ladder rung.
6
Figure &&T. PO&ion of tormentor men-Bangor ludder.
c. An unnatural coordination exists in proper
ladder climbing, for while one foot or the other
must be placed on every rung, one hand or the
other moves only once for each two rungs ascended by the feet.
d. The feet should be placed in the center of
eamh rung to prevent the ladder from wobbling.
Flor speed and smoothness, the body should be
carried in a nearly upright position with the arms
moving outward almost in an arch as the hands
are changed from rung to rung. The ball of the
foot should be placed on each rung to get complete
advantage of the leverage afforded by the angle.
When poor weather provi,des little traction between the boot and rung, the arch in the center of
the boot should be placed on the rung as a safety
measure. Using the ball of the foot for climbing
permits more speed and smoothness and takes less
effort. Climbing should be steady and smooth, and
no attempt made to run either up or down a laddler. The upper part of the body shoul,d move so
evenly that it appears to be standing on an escalator.
e. Locking in on a ladder means simply placing
the leg between two rungs and bringing the foot
back out between the next lower rungs and locking the foot either around the rung or around the
beam (fig. 4-46). This leg lock enables the man on
tlhe ladder to work with both hands free to handle
h.ose, ladders, and tools. Men should anchor themselves to a ladder with a rope hose tool or a safety
belt only when one positio,n must be kept for a
long time. Short men are more comfortable when
they lock one foot around the rung above the one
4l-34
4-36. Pumping Operations
It is difficult to establish a definite, rigid procedure for the operati,on of firefrghting pumps because fire services employ many types of pumps.
Eiach type of pump normally is manufactured by
many corporations, and each corporation, in turn,
locates the pump valves and levers in various
places on the apparatus. Although comparable
valves and levers may serve almost identi,cal purposes, they often differ considerably in appearance. Consequently, it is practical to give here
only the operational sequence, eliminating details
of description and location of the valves, levers,
and gages.
a. Pking the Booster Line in Operation. All
Army pumpers have booster tanks which contain
a minimum of 150 gallons (568 liters) of water.
The speed and eflieiency with which a booster line
can be placed in o:peration largely determines the
amount of damage by smoke, fire, and water that
can be prevented. The proper use of the booster
line is frequently responsible for the extinguishment of fires at an early stage.
(1) To place the booster line into operation,
first remove the line from the pumper and assign
one crewman to man the nozzle. Since the hose
usually is 1 inch (2.54 centimeters) or less in diameter, one man can operate the nozzle efficiently
with the limi,ted amount of pressure generated
and volume discharged. Next, start the pum:per
engine, if not already running, and allow it to
idle. Then place the pump in gear.
(,2) Open the pump intake valve leading from
the tank to the pump and allow the pump to fill
with water. Then open the :pump discharge valve
leading from the booster line. With the engine
still idling, allow the booster line to fill with water
to the nozzle. Accelerate the engine until the gage
-
_
TM 5415
-
-
Figure .Ht?.
-
Looking in on a lad&v.
on the control panel shows the pump pressure t o
be 100 psi, then open the nozzle. When it becomes
desirable to shut down the pump, retard the throttle, close the pump discharge valve and the inlet
valve, take the pump out of pump gear, and place
it back in road gear. If it becomes necessary to
close all discharge valves during pumping operations, the pump should be taken out of “pump”
position and placed in “road” position. This will
prevent the water in the pump from “boiling.”
The relief valve will take care of the pressure and
heat for a short time, but net for extended periods.
b. Taking Water from the Hydrant. The pri-
mary rule to follow when taking water from a
hydrant is as follows: A fire hydrant should be
opened slowly to prevent pressure surges, and
completely to prevent undue wear. To take water
from a hydrant with ,a pumper (which may be
necessary because of the great size of the fire or
insufficient hydrant pressure), the pumper must
be located strategically in relation to the hydrant.
This will permit the suction hose to be connect&l
conveniently and without kinking (fig. 4-47). The
cap on the 4l/z-inch (11.43-centimeter) “steamer”
connection of the hydrant should be removed and
also the suction hose connected to the plug and the
intake on the pump (which also requires the re-
4-3s
-
-
Figwe 4-47. Pumping f+ok hydra&.
moval of a cap). The process is continued as follows :
(1) Break the hose at the proper coupling
and conneclt it to one of the discharge outlets from
the pump. After the pumper discharge valves and
churn valves are checked and found closed, open
the hydrant valve. Start the pump engine, if not
already running, and let it idle while the pump is
put into gear. Open the discharge valve on the
pump and accelerate the engine until the gage
indicates the desired pressure.
(2) The desired pressure is determined by
-
TM 5-315
taking into consideration the size, type, and
length of the hose, the nozzle size, and the vertical
distance from the pumper level to the point at
which the nozzle is elevated, according to the
principles of hydraulics presented in se&ion II of
chapter 4. The pump operator should be capable
of arriving at the desired pump pressure within
seconds after the layout is made ,and observed.
(3) When pumping from a substandard
water system, pumpers of comparatively large
capacity may collapse their intake lines if the flow
into the system is less than the discharge capacity
of the pump. In this event, the pump operator
must watch the intake gage as well as the pressure gage, and regardless of the pressure maintained, should regulate the throttle so that the
intake pressure does not fall below 6 psi. This
precaution is taken to prevent a collapse of the
soft suction hose (intake line) which would cuti off
the pumper’s water supply campletely. If the hydrants are of such limited capacity, small nozzle
tips and fewer hose lines should enable continued
operations. If the hydrant suction is weak the
hard suction hose should be used. The suction
pressure should not be permitted to drop below 10
psi. This will permit a 5 psi error in the gage
ac,curacy without the d.anger of collapsing a water
main.
c. Pumping frowz Druft. When pumping from
draft, whether the source is a tank, a pond, a lake,
or a moving stream, the intake side of the pumper
should be located as close to the water body as is
feasible (fig. 4-48).
Figure 448. Pumping from draft.
4-37
(1) The location should have a solid foundation and be capable of bearing the weight of the
truck and withstanding the vibration created by
the engine and the pump. The pump lift, or the
height from the water surface to the pumper,
should not exceed 12 feet (3.66 meters) unless
absolutely necessary. Shorter lifts ,are capable of
producing greater overall volume and pressure efficiency. The emergency brake of the pumper
must be set, the gearhift lever placed in neutral
position, and the throttle opened only slightly to
maintain a good idling speed. Check blocks are
placed at the wheels if the vehicle is on an incline.
(2) Regarding the suction connections, the
gaskets of the hc& suction connections must be in
place before connections are made. The suction
strainer is attached to the end of the suction ,hose.
A rope is secured to the suction strainer to facilitte handling, and tied into position. The strainer
beneath the water surface is submerged to a
depth of 18 inches to 4 feet (0.46 to 1.22 meters),
depending upon the depth of the water source and
the capacity of the pumps. Where the depth of the
water permits, the strainer should be at least 12
inches (0.305 meter) above the bottom.
(3) If the water is too shallow to allow the
suction line and strainer to be suspended in it and
if the bottom of the water source contains sand
and debris, the strainer must be protected to prevent debris from entering the pump. Lumber sheeting, sheet metal, boxes, the blade of a shovel, or
any other flat container or object may be placed
underneath and around the suction strainer to
keep it clear. The strainer should be tied into posi{tion with a rope to prevent it from drawing air. If
it is impractical to use rope, a large board or some
other heavy material is placed over the suction
strainer to keep it submerged. All openings are
closed including drains and booster connections on
the suction side of the pump. The necessary hose
couplings are attached to the discharge outlets.
When priming a centrifugal pump, the first requirement is that all discharge valves be closed
and intakes, except the one being used, be tightly
capped. The primer should then be started and the
valve between the primer and the pump opened.
When the pump is primed (filled with water) the
pump should be engaged, the primer stopped, and
the disch,arge valve(s) opened very slowly to prevent loss of the prime. Once the pumper is discharging water, the pressure desired as well as
the number of lines needed can be maintained by
coordinating the inake and discharge pressures
4-38
with slow and deliberate adjustments of the throttle.
(4) Centrifugal pumps may be equipped wit3
either a relief valve or a pressure-regulator valve.
A relief valve is set at the predetermined pressure ; then when a line is shut off at the nozzle, the
backpressure at the pump opens a bypass valve
which reroutes the water from the discharge to
the intake side of the pump, thus preventing a
water hammer. A pressureYregul!ator valve is set
at a pressure determined by existing conditions.
These conditions are governed by the number of
lines being used, their lengths, and the size of the
nozzle tips. When a line is shut off at the nozzle,
t h e b a c k p r e s s u r e t h u s ,created at the pump
actuates a.governor that reduces the engine speed
and the pump pressure.
(5) When the pump is in operation the engine temperature must be watched constantly so
as to maintain an efficient engine temperature of
160’ to 180” F. (71’ to 82’ C). The temperature
can be controlled by the cooling-water-supply
valve. This valve is manipulated as often as necessary to maintain the desired engine temperature.
However, the vaive should never be suddenly
opened or closed, for this practice heats or chills
the engine too rapidly. The excess pressure
taming from the fire pump is likely to damage the
radiator or cooling system if the cooling valve is
opened too far or too fast.
(6) Water is pumped from the boaster tank
on the fire truck or trailer in much the same manner as it is from a hydr:ant. Since the water in the
tank is above the level of the pump opening, the
valve in the connection between the tank and the
pump will permit water to flow from the tank to
the pump by gravity, eliminating the necessity of
priming. Because af this connection, care must be
exercised to have the valve in this line clased
when pumping from a hydrant or other gravity
source of supply under pressure, since the excess
pressure on the suction side of the pump will be
introduced into the tank and will result in overflowing, causing leaks in the tank and other damage.
(7) As previously stated, it is not possible to
set forth specific operating procedures for all
pumps, but the foregoing will serve as a guide for
the basic principles of operation. Almost all valves
and levers on the pump are descriptively labeled.
When they are not or when the nomenclature is
not completely understandable, the pump operator
- -
TM 5-315
may, if he understands the purpose and principles
of the operation, follow out each lever and each
line leiading away from the valve to its source and
thus determine its specific purpose.
Section IV.
ACTION ON ARRIVAL, SIZEUP, AND FORCl8lE E N T R Y
a. The following six conditions must always be
talken into consideration :
(1) Life hazard involved or the rescue work
required, if any.
(2) Exposure hazards from both the interior
and exterior viewpoint.
(3) Type of building construction (consider
the possibilities of collapse).
(4) Content hazards to both the occupants
and the firemen.
(5) The accessibility of the fire.
(6) The type and amount of fire equipment
required.
landing, inclosed smoke towers, or horizontal exits
into adjacent wings or buildings are likely to provide safe exits. Fires in buildings used for public
assembly, such as theaters, dancehalls, clubs,
schools, and hospitals, and for sleeping quarters
offer the greatest life hazard.
c. The roofs and walls of adjacent buildings
may be endangered by heat radiation or by an
infiltration of heated smoke and gase,s from the
iniltial fire, which may suddenly ignite or explode.
Frequently the building or buildings exposed are
more important to save than the burning building
from the standpoint of life hazard, content value,
or current need. Where the fire is well advanced,
the first streams of water should be used to protect such exposed buildings. The direction of the
wind, slope of the ground, distance between the
buildings, extent to which the fire has spread and
other considerations must be carefully appraised
before action is taken.
d. Internal exposures from floor to floor via elevator shafts, open stairways, light walls, etc.,
must also be considered. When the fire is located
in the basement or lower floor, prompt action in
getting hose streams into operation at points
where fire is apt to spread is an important means
of making an effective fire stop.
e. The type of building consltruction is a factor
which determines the time that fire will require to
cause the collapse of a structure. This is important in determining whether a building can be
safely laddered, and it will also determine
whether men should be sent inside the building.
Heavy timber construction will hold up under
higher temperatures and f,or a longer time than
unprotected steel. Reinforced concrete will withstand more weight of water than ordinary brickjoisted buildings.
b. Whether persons occupy a burning building
should be known before firefighting operations
begin. Also, how many sleep there at night (if the
fire occurs at night), and the facilities for exit
and their condition, capacity, and usability. For
example, open stair wells and fire escapes may be
blocked by heat and flame, and elevators may be
inoperative; if the roof over the elevator or its
shaft is involved in fire, the elevator should not be
used. On the other hand, stairways cut off at each
f. Content hazards to the occupants and firefighters consist of explosive stock, toxic fumes,
chemicals, acid carboys, compressed;gas cylinders,
high-voltage wires, etc., which, when subjected to
heat or hose streams, may jeopardize the safety of
personnel. All of these hazards must be considered
before ordering specific procedures for fire extinguishment. Knowledge gained during previous
building inspections is of real value at such a
time.
4-37. Introduction
After responding to as few as a dozen fire emergencies the firefighter will be convinced of the
great variation in fire conditions and the variation in procedure required to put out each fire.
The first action of the firefighting crew immediately upon arrival at the fire is probably the
greatest single factor in determining the success
or failure of the operation. Enroute to the fire and
upon arrival, crewmen must quickly analyze the
part that each will play in the rescue and extinguishment procedures. The crew chief or senior
man will make the basic assignments. Even after
the assignments are made there is a great necessity for individual initiative in the details of execution. This initiative increases with exsperience and
study.
-
4 - 3 8 . Sizeup
The first duty of the crew chief and the crew is to
“size up” or make a quick appraisal of the situation and determine what the conditions demand
and the order of their procedures.
4-39
TM 5-315
g. The characteristics of explosives should be
studied, and, with the advice and assistance of the
ordnance officer, advance conclusions should be
reached regarding the time and heat necessary for
detonation.
h. Toxic fumes require the use of compressed
air, self-contained demand breathing apparatus.
Z. Compressed-gas cylinders should have been
previously inspected to learn the amount of pressure required to rupture them. Also, whether a
cylinder is shatterproof should have been determined. The flammability, rate of expansion, and
other pertinent properties of the cylinder contents
should have been obtained so that the chemical
reactions in the event of fire can be anticipated.
liquid and powdered chemi,cal reacti,ons in the
event of fire can be anticipated. Liquid and powdered chemicals must be respected from the
standpoint of their gas-liberating qualities, the
toxicity of the gas, the type of container (which
may hasten or retard its release), and the general
characteristics of the chemical when exposed to
heat and water.
i. High-voltage wires can electrocute personnel
over a widespread fire area where water is generally present. If the circuits are not cut off by the
time water is used, extreme caution must be observed in stationing personnel durin,g extinguishment. Personnel must be kept free of water which
is in contact with sources of electrical currents.
k. Frequently mud, excavations, traffic jams,
ditches across roads, blocked alleys, and a multitude of other obstacles prevent an approach to the
fire fr.om the most favorable direction. Previous
knowledge of such conditions, which allows the
crew chief to take alternate action, will prevent
considerable delay.
Z. In some fire emergencies it is possible, even
before the firefighters reach the fire location, to
determine that additional men and equipment will
be needed. This can be judged by the nature and
extent of the headway which the fire has already
gained. When a large fire is observed in an area
where no ,open fires should be found, a second
alarm shouId be turned in as quickly as possible.
This may be done from the alarm box, if one is
available, or over a two-way radio. On small
bases, where there are no firefighters available to
respond to a second alarm, a thorough knowledge
of available outside aid is invaluable.
m. In most responses or runs, it will be found
upon arrival that there is no large fire, but rather
4-40
a small fire consisting of something such as burning rubbish, automobile or furniture upholstering ; or oil overflow around the base of heaters. In
such cases the crew chief should order one or two
of his men to use the appropriate extinguisher or
the booster line. The remainder of the crew should
remain on the apparatus to await further orders.
n. In some instances firefighters arriving at the
scene of a fire may find only an odor of smoke
instead of an actual fire. If the source of smoke
cannot be traced immediately and the odor continues, a thorough investigation should be made
from the lowest level to the rooftop. Smoke frequently is blown into a building from the outside
or may result merely from the temporary abnormal operation of a heating appliance, If there is
any doubt regarding the source of the smoke, the
firefighters will remain until the source has been
discovered and corrective action taken.
o. When the sizeup discloses the need for immediate action, the following steps should be taken:
Call for additional help (if required), initiate
rescue work (if required), ventilate, locate the
fire, close in, extinguish, salvage, overhaul, and
investigate. Although listed in sequence, these
steps are carried out almost simultaneously if
enough personnel are available.
4-39. Forcible Entry
Forcible entry means gaining entry to closed
spaces by opening locked doors and windows,
roof, floors, skylights, partitions, and walls by mechanical means. Even the breaching of masonry
walls with a battering ram and other extreme operations may be necessary. However, unnecessary
destruction of buildings must be discouraged. Responsibility for careful, methodical forcijble entry
rests directly with the fire department. Forcible
entry may be required for rescue, ventilation, control, or extinguishment and must be carried out
with fast, methodical judgment, and tactics.
a. Cutting with the Ax. In cutting with a fire
ax, short, quick, forceful strokes are used for better aim. Such strokes also prevent the ax from
striking personnel and from catching in overhead
obstructions, either of which is easily possible in
dark or smoke-filled areas.
(1) Cuts are made diagonally rather than
with the grain of the board (fig. 4-49) and as
close to a joi.st or stud as possible. A proficient
firefighter should be able to use the ax either right
or left handed. Cutting in difficult corners ,and
under obstructions can be efficiently done only by
men who have b’een properly trained.
-
-
Figure &SO.
Figure &.@.
-
-
Prying with the fire ax.
Cutting with the five aa.
(2) Ax-made cuts in flooring, roofing, or
sheathing are made at an angle of about 60’ instead of straight down. Diagonal sheathing is cut
in the direction the sheathing runs so that chips
will tend to split out. If cuts are made against the
sheathing, the ax may bind and require extra effort and time. Cuts through a lath-and-plaster
wall are made in a direction diagonal to the grain
rather than perpendicular to it. After the boards
tire cut, the pick end of the ax may be used for
prying and removing them (fig. GO).
b. Types of Doors. The various types of doors
must be understood by firemen before successful
forcible entry can be made with the proper tools.
The doors normally found on Army installations
are ledge doors, panel door,s, and industrial doors.
(1) Ledge doors. Ledge doors, sometimes
called batten doors, are made of built-up material.
These doors must be locked with surface locks
consisting of hasps and padlocks, bolts, or bars.
Hinges on ledge doors generally are of the surface
type, fastened with screws or bolts.
(‘2) Panel doors. Panel doors may be either
cross or vertically paneled. The panels are composed of thin material and dadoes are not glued
into the stiles and rails. Either surface or mortised locks may be used, and hinges may have full
surfaces, half surfaces, or hidden butts. The
hinges usually contain loose pins, which are easily
removed by a tap with an ax or a spanner wrench.
Figure 4-51.
Removing the hinge pina
This avoids damaging the door or its casing (fig.
4-51).
(3) SZab doors. These are generally made of
veneered hardwood with a white-pine core. They
usually employ the same general hardware as
panel doors, am!, because they are solid, are not
easily sprung.
(4) Zndustrial doors. Industrial doors are
used in garages, warehouses, and storehouses, are
double- and single-sliding, overhead-lift, or overhead-rolling.
c. Opening Doors. The method for opening
doors is determined first by the manner in which
441
TM 5-315
the door is hung on the frame and then the way it
is locked. Outside doors in barracks, store buildings, and recreation halls, and smaller doors of
other buildings are set either against stops in the
frame or against a rabbeted shoulder in the doorjamb. When using a door opener, insert the wedge
just above or below the lock (fig. 4-52). A spanner wrench with a wedge end may also be used
where a great amount of leverage is not required.
(1) Overhead-rolling doors are made of steel
and offer the greatest resistance to forcible-entry
tools. Normally, such a door cannot be raised
except by operating its gear and chain. Prying on
such a door may spring it so that the gear will not
function. Sometimes a cast iron plate is installed
in the wall near the chain. This plate can be broken to permit reaching the chain and raising the
door in an emergency.
(2) If doors are only stopped in frame, the
stop can be raised with a sharp wedge and the
door swung clear of its fastening (fig. 4~53).
When springing a door in a stopped frame with a
door opener, use the tool to separate the lock and
the jamb just enough for the lock to pass the
keeper.
(3) When the door is set in a rabbeted frame,
entry is not easily made. However, splitting the
jamb or breaking the lock bolt with the dooropening tool will allow entry (fig. 4-54). To spring
a door from either the stopped frame or the rabbeted frame, push the door open inward after the
opener is completely inserted.
-
-
PUSH
Figure 44%‘.
Using the door opener.
Figure &CL%
Springing a door in a stopped frame.
TM 5-315
aged, but the door will close properly after the
entry has been made.
(5) Double doors may be opened by prying
between the doors until the bolt of the door clears
the keeper. If an astragal, or the wooden molding,
covers the opening, it must be set away before
inserting the wedge.
(6) Night latches will normally yield to the
same prying tactics as mortised locks. However, if
-
Figure 4-55. Opening a door with a fire aa.
PUSH
Figure 4-54.
-
’
Springing a door in a rabbeted frame.
(4) The same door may ,be opened with the
wedge of an ax by inserting the blade above or
below the lock and prying it to allow the bolt to
pass the keeper (fig. 4-55). If this system is used,
both the door and the jamb will be alightly dam-
Figure .kW. Battering ram.
they are fastened to the door with screws, they
can be bumped off with a heavy obejct, such as a
battering ram (fig. 656). When a battering ram
is available, pushing a shoulder against the side of
the door opposite the hinges will often spring the
lock.
(7) Overhead-lift doors can be forced by
prying upward at the bottom of the door with a
crowbar or claw tool. After the lock bar is broken,
the doors open readily.
(8) When single-hinged doors, such as those
on houses and stables, are locked with a hasp and
padlock, the staple of the hasp can be pried or
twisted off with a door opener without damage to
the lock (fig. 4-57).
(9) Many double warehouse doors are aecured with a bar dropped into stirrups on the
inside of the wall. In these cases, forcible entry is
made by battering the door down or by making a
breach in the wall with a battering ram. The
breach is made at a point which permits slipping
the bar from the stirrups. For ordinary brick
walls, battering a hole large enough for a man, to
enter and unlock the doors from the inside is fr+
quently the quickest and lea& destructive method
of entry.
(1) Factory type windows con&t of steel
sashes, which are often set solidly in the frame so
that only a portion of the window may be opened.
The movable portion is generally either pivoted at
the center or hinged at the top and latched on the
inside. Since factory type windows have small
panes, breaking a glass near the latch becomes a
fact, simple operation which causes negligible
damage. Jagged pieces of glass left on the sash
are cleared out before the hand is inserted. Wired
glass must be completely removed from the sash.
(2) The check-rail window has two frames,
or sashes, which are in contact at the top and
bottom horizontals. If the window has no weights,
the sash is locked with bolts in the window stiles
or by a friction lock pressing against the window
jamb (fig. 4-58).
(B) Check-rail windows can be opened by
prying upward on the lower sash rail (fig. 4&9).
If the window is locked on the check-rail, the
screws of the lock give way, and the sashes separate. When the window is locked with spring-activated bolts, they must be broken or bent before
the sash can be raised. Prying should be done at
the center of the glass. However, if the check-rail
--
d. V%dowa. Prying with a wedge is the principal operation in forcing windo-. The firefighter's
ax, a claw tool, or any other wedge-shaped instrument may be used. If the wedge ie wide and thin,
entry can be forced with minimum damage.
-
I
Figure 4-57.
U&g a door opmer ou a hasp.
Figure 4-68. Locking devices for cheakqail winha.
TM 5-315
latch is on the side, the pry should be made directly beneath it.
(4) Basement windows may be opened in the
same manner as a door in a rabbeted frame. If the
prying is done at the center of the lower rail, the
lock may be pulled or sprung.
(5) To open windows on upper floors, primarily to provide ventilation, the firefighter lies
face down on the roof or leans from a window on
the floor above and applie,s the point or hook of a
pike pole to the window below (fig. 4-60). The
pike pole can also be used to break the glass if the
windown cannot be raised or lowered and ventilation is essential.
(6) Casement sashes are hinged to the window jambs and meet vertically ; they are locked
either together or to the window frame. Casement
windows can be opened in much the same manner
as double doors. Generally, they are securely
locked, and breaking the glass is necessary. Casement sashes of wood are generally hinged at the
top and locked at the bottom; metal sashes may be
hinged either at the bottom or at the top.
e. Roofs. Roofs may be classified, according to
the construction of the covering, as shingle roofs,
composition roofs, or metal roofs.
(1) Shingle roofs include all those made of
small sections of material, such as wood, metal, or
asbestos, fastened to the sheathing. Shingles are
nailed to sheathing and can be removed easily.
Shingle roofs can be opened by stripping o’ff the
shingles and cutting away the sheathing.
(2) Composition roofs contain from one to
six sheets of roofing material, generally consisting
of tarred felt nailed to the sheathing and
cemented together with asphalt. Hot asphalt that
hardens when it cools is spread over the entire
cavering. Gravel may be spread into and over the
hot asphalt to become a part of the covering when
the asphalt cools. The sheathing consists of l-inch
(2.54-centimeter) shiplap laid tightly on wood
joints or on solid concrete. Composition roofs require more care to open because they are more
difllcult to repair. The covering is cut and rolled
back before the sheathing is cut away to make an
opening. To locate joists, the roof should be
sounded before it is cut. The cuts should be close
to the joists to make both cutting and repair easier.
(3) Metal roofs, generally tinplate, consist of
sheets of metal crimped or soldered together as
one sheet. The sheets are fastened to the sheathing just as in wood construction under composition roofs. Successful ventilation frequently must
be obtained by forcible entry tactics, When making an entry for ventilation, tmhe firefighter should
always work with the wind at his back so that
gases and flames coming from the opening do not
hinder or endanger him. After a roof is opened,
the ceiling below is opened by forcing it down
with a pike pole or other suitable tool. A ceiling is
not usually difficult to push down from above.
Figure 4-60.
Figure 4-59. Opening check-rail windows.
Using pike pole to open a window
from above.
4-4s
TM 5-315
f. Floors. Permanent-construction wood floors
are laicl double on joints generally set on 16-inch
(40.6-centimeter) centers. The subfloor i,s usually
laid on a 45O angle to the joints, and the fop or
finish floor at right angles to the joists. In mobilization type builclings, a single floor is laicl directly
on the joists, the joists set on 16-inch (40.6-centimeter) centers. In theather-of-operations type
construction, a single floor i,s laid on joists on
24-inch (41-centimeter) centers. Floors may be
openecl in much the same way as flat roofs, except
that two clistinct ctting jobs are required for
double floors because the subfloor ancl finish floor
run in clifferent clirections. Joists are locatecl by
sounding, and both cuts follow the sicle of the
joi,sts toward the insicle of the required opening.
For efficient cutting, the had which applies the
force is held halfway up the ax hanclle. The feet
are spreacl for proper balance ancl to avoicl cutting
the foot by a misplacecl or glancing stroke. The
man cloing the cutting must be careful to stand
outside the area to be opened
g. Ceilings. Plasterecl ceilings are opened by
breaking the plaster ancl pulling off the laths. A
pike pole of proper length is the most effective
tool for this job (fig. 4-61). Metal and composition ceilings can be pullea from joist,s in the same
manner. Board ceilings are somewhat difficult to
remove because the lumber offers considerable resistance when an attempt is macle to jam the pole
through or between the boar& to get a solid grip
on the hook.
-
Figure 4-61.
Removing lath and plaster ceiling.
Figure 4-62.
Section of a typical skylight.
NOTE
Certain precautions must be observed
when opening ceilings ancl walls. Do not
stand under the areas to be openecl, pull
clownwarcl ancl away to avoid being hit
by falling material, ancl keep the upper
hancl on top of the pole to aicl in pulling
away. Always wear a helmet when pulling down a ceiling, since it is clifficult to
precletermine the amount of the ceiling
which may fall after one thrust.
h. Glass.
(1) The glass panes of a skylight are generally installecl in a metal frame which slips over a
flangecl roof opening (fig. 4-62). By prying uncler
the eclge, the entire skylight can usually be pullecl
l o o s e ancl remove& if necessary. If .skylight
cannot be liftecl, the glass panes may be taken out
by releasing the metal strips that cover the joists
ancl removing the putty.
(2) Glass in r3oors ancl widows is broken
Figure 4-68.
Breaking window glass with
an ax,
easily with the flat side of an ax. When breaking
the glass, stand to one side and strike th& upper
portion of the pane first, being careful that broken gla,ss does not slide down the ax hanclle (fig.
4-63). After the glass is broken out, remove all
jaggecl pieces from the sash to safeguarcl personnel, hose, and ropes from injury ancl clamage
--
TM 5-315
-
when they pass through the opening. The jagged
glass may be removed with the pick of the ax:
i. Took. The proper way to carry tools is almost
as important as knowing how to use them. Tools
with sharp hooks or sharp edges should never be
carried on the shoulder. If the carrier stimbles,
he may release his grip on the tool, which may fall
against him or strike another person. In the confusion, haste, and limited vision which normally
accompany a fire, body contact is common, makin.g
an exposed tool a definite hazard. Sharp edges and
points can be guarded best if tools are held in the
hands. An ax, for example, is carried at about the
level of the waist and held high in a horizontal
position, with one hand groping the handle near
the head and the other hand covering the pick,
Another effective method of carrying an ax is to
hold it in a vertical position, parallel to the body,
with the axhead upward, the blade almost beneath
the armpit, and the hand covering the pick. In
these positions, an ax can be easily thrown away
from the body in the event of a fall. Tools with
hooks, such as claw tools, are carried at the side
with the hook forward. All tools with pointed and
sharpened edges are carried in a like manner. A
sense of safety is important in this respect.
j. Other Types of Con&-u&m. Local construetion should be studied and preplanning done when
construction varies from that described in this
paragraph.
Section V. VENTILATION AND SALVAGE
4-40. Introduction
The problem of ventilation in burning buildings
frequently presents great difficulties even to the
experienced man. Salvage, including the prevention of excessive water damage, is another important factor in firefighting.
-
a. Unlem firefighters have a technical knowledge of combustion processes, fuel characteristics,
oxygen requirements, draft, effect of heat on air
currents and building ventilation, and the principles involved in forcible entry, they cannot attack
fires in buildings effectively and with reasonable
freedom from danger. Principles of the chemistry
of fires include many of the necessary facts, but
ventilation introduce special variations. Ventilation includes removing smoke, gases, and heat
from a building and controlling the fresh air supply to aid in rescues, protect the iirellghters, and
prevent the spread of fire.
b. The importance of salvage work done by firefighters cannot be stressed too strongly. Buildings
and other combustibles are salvaged proportionately to the speed and efficiency of the firefighters
and their ability to prevent water damage.
4-41. The Combustion Process
In’the combustion process, fuels liberate carbon
and hydrogen, the most common elementa in burning materials.
--.
CL A fuel exposed to flame or spark burns if it is
heated to its ignition temperature if a sufficient
amount of oxygen is present. Tohe approximate
ignition temperatures of the most common struc-
tural materials are as follows : dry wood, 60°F.
(26OOC.) ; paper, 460°F. (232%) ; pyroxylin plastica, 276’F. (135%) ; and cotton cloth, 440°F.
(227OC.).
ZL When fuels reach their ignition temperatures, they react with oxygen to form new compounds called the products of combustion. Moat of
this oxygen comes from the atmosphere, which
normally contain8 21 percent of oxygen. Some oxygen may be supplied by the oxygen content in
cellulose materials such a8 wood, paper, and cloth.
Free burning occurs when enough oxygen ispreaent to consume the available fuel. For example, 1
atom of carbon (C) at its ignition temperature
reacts with 2 atoms of oxygen (0) to form carbon
dioxide ( COs).
c. In a closed structure, enough oxygen is present when the 6re starts to support free burning.
Hot gases rise to the ceiling; this starts a con&&
ent current and forces the cooler air downward to
feed the fire from the floor. If fresh air is unable
to enter the room from the outside, the amount of
oxygen is gradually reduced until the fuel smolders and smokes. Theoretically, it should fmally
smother out completely ; actually, however, the
smoldering stage is sustained because in mogt
cases the oxygen supply is never completely exhausted.
d. When the oxygen content of air is lowered,
the rate and nature,of combustion change: More
and more of the carbon fraction reacts with simple atoms of oxygen to form carbon monoxide
(CO), which, unlike carbon dioxide, is toxic and
flammable. Sometimes fuels will di&ill, because of
4 - 4 7
TM 5-315
the extreme high temperatures, and join the atmosphere as hot, flammable gases.
e. Carbon dioxide, the common product of the
complete burning of carbon materials, is neither
flammable nor poisonous. The fire begins to smolder as carbon dioxide replaces oxygen in atmosphere of a closed room. In air having a high
carbon dioxide content, the danger to personnel is
the suffocating effect caused by lack of oxygen.
f. Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete
combustion. Carbon monoxide gas is more prevalent in unventil,ated buildings because of the lack
of oxygen. It is an extremely poisonous gas, and
air that has a content of 0.5 percent carbon monoxide causes unconsciousness guickly. Air containing 12.5 to 74 percent carbon monoxide may be
explosive. The ignition temperature of carbon
monoxide is 1128’F. (609’C.). The combined
toxic quality and flammability of this gas make it
very dangerous.
g. Burning hydrogen combines with oxygen to
form water vapor. Burning sulfur produces sulfur dioxide, an irritating suffocating gas which is
not flammable ; it irritates the eyes and respiratory passages and is dangerous to breathe in ,high
concentration. Nitrous fumes include several oxides produced by cellulose nitrates.
/z. Although the gases of combustion are mixed
with the air, they are more highly concentrated at
specific levels, depending upon their densities.
Taking’air as 1.000, the following list of comparative densities will indicate the level at which these
gases may be found : carbon dioxide, 1.608 ;
carbon monoxide, 0.978; sulfur dioxide, 2.437;
and nitrous fumes, 1.036 to 1.530.
L Smoke is always produced when combustion
is incomplete. Its density, color, and content vary
with the oxygen supply, the intensity of heat, and
the type of fuel being burned. Water vapor and
particles of free carbon are generally found in the
smoke; such fuels as pine may distill and give off
dense black smoke. Oils, tar, paint, varnish, molasses, sugar, rubber, and sulfur may burn with
such dense smoke that ordinary ventilation practices fail to clear the room.
j. If combustible materials are heated to extremely high temperatures in the absence of oxygen, the lighter fuel elements and compounds
from the materials are distilled into fuel gases,
These hot gases need ‘only oxygen and a spark to
burn with explosive violence. This explosive reac4 - 4 8
tion is known as a back draft. Actually a back
draft may be defined as an explosion that occurs
when a large quantity of oxygen is suddenly admitted to an interior fire. This condition is generally met when ventilation is made initially on the
windward wide of a burning building, especially
when the wind is of high velocity and of sudden
and large volume4-42. Evaluation
Careful evaluation of the situation is necessary
before an opening is made to ventilate closed
buildings. The fire chief estimates the situation by
considering the rescue requirements, type of
building and contents, smoke and heat conditions,
and explosive hazards. He also takes into account
the weather conditions, manpower and equipment
available, safety precautions, and exposed buildings nearby.
a. One-story buildings with several rooms or
compartments present more hazards than a single
compartment structure of the same size. When
hot gases rise to the ceiling, the cooler fresh air
from adjoining rooms is drawn under doors or
through other openings, permitting the fire to
burn longer before it begins to smolder. As the
hot gases and smoke fill the entire structure, it
becomes difficult to find the exact location of the
fire, and proper ventilation procedures become increasingly uncertain.
b. In buildings of more than one story, hot
gases and smoke rise to upper floors through elevator shafts, stairways, air-conditioning shafts,
and similar conduits. Reaching the highest possible level, the gases and smoke spread over the
entire floor, eventually filling the building from
the top down. This condition is commonly known
as mushrooming, and can create great smoke
damage even from a small smoldering fire. At the
same time, oxygen is supplied to the fire from
incoming currents of cool air. Smoke is generally
seen coming from openings in the upper floors
regardless of the location of the fire.
c. Figure 4-64 shows how the progress of a fire
in a closed room occurs in four stages :
(1) In the first stage (A) the fire burns
freely. Adequate oxygen is still available in the
air, and water vapor and carbon dioxide are produced, along with small quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. The room temperature is
about lOOoF. (38’C.).
(2) In the second stage (B) the original pro-
-
TM 5-315
-
portion of 21 percent oxygen in the air is reduced
to about 17 percent. Burning has slowed, and
carbon monoxide production has increased. The
room temperature is between 300” and 400°F.
(149” to 204’C.).
(3) In the third stage (C) fire is barely visible because the oxygen has been reduced to 16
percent. Carbon monoxide is produced in increasing amounts, and free carbon and unburned fuel
form dense smoke. Heat of about 7OO’iF. (37l’C.)
and gases imperil personnel and produce an explosion hazard.
(4) In the fourth stage (D) the fire is smoldering, with the oxygen content at 13 percent or
less. The room is completely filled with smoke and
gases at a temperature of about 1,OOOOF.
(638’C.). This intense heat distills a portion of
the fuels from the combustible materials; the fuel
gases mix with other gases present, adding to the
fire hazard. The danger to personnel and the probability of explosion (back draft) are extreme.
d. An idea of the intensity of the fire can be
obtained from feeling the walls, doors, windows,
and roof. Hot spots on walls and ceilings indicate
the location of the fire or the path of the hot
gases, A hot spot on the roof on a one-story building indicates the fire to be directly beneath it. A
hot spot on the floor of a multistoried structure
shows the line of travel of hot gases on the floor
below.
e. When the method of attacking a fire is
planned, the danger of an explosion from the admission of fresh air must be considered. Explosions which occur when fresh air is admitted to a
smoldering fire are caused by rapid ignition of
combustible material, gases, or both. Improper
ventilation procedures generally lead to explosion
hazards, and in some cases explosion hazards are
SLOW BURNING
FREE BURNING
SLOW BURNING
C
D
Figure 4-64. Progmm of fire in a closed room.
TM 5-315
not completely absent regardless of procedures. If
the opening made for ventilation permits a sudden
amount of fresh air to enter before the outward
draft of fuel gases begins, an explosion will result
i’f the mixture forms in proper proportions. When
possible, openings should be made above the seat
of the fire to avoid forcing a draft of fresh air
directly into the fuel gases still tra,pped inside the
building. Openings made near the fire, which permit large quantities of fresh air to become mixed
with fuel gases before complete ignition occurs,
are dangerous.
f. Since fire can be expected to spread rapidly
as soon as an opening is made, adequate protection in the form of extinguishing agents must be
provided, in advance, at points of intended entrance and at points of exposure to other structures. Enough charged hose lines must be advanced to extinguish the fire and provide an adequate standby reserve.
443. Safety Measures
Fire protection involves so many procedures
which must be executed almost simultaneously
that it is difficult to present one phase without
mentioning a related duty. Consequently, advancing charged hose lines to the points of entrance
becomes a significant part of the ventilation sequence.
u. A combination nozzle providing either a fog
or a straight stream should be .used. The fog
stream is invaluable in clearing remaining gases
and laying a curtain to protect firellghters from
the intense heat. Since carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and nitrous fumes are soluble, this
water vapor curtain ,dissolves and carries down
much of the gas ahead of the firefighters. The
standby hose should be brought into use only if
the fire spreads as a result of an increased oxygen
suPPlY*
?L Before the burning building is opened, protective standby lines are advanced to other buildings that may be endangered if the fire spreads.
These lines are charged and ready but are not
used until they are actually needed. It may be
necessary to advance some of these lines over
roofs and perhaps inside adjoining buildings. Others may be laid to support floors of the burning
building if the fire has not yet reached them.
c. Precautions for the safety of the fighters are
of primary importance during ventilating .proce-
dures. Firefighters who take unnecessary riska
not only endanger their own lives but also may
handicap the department by becoming injured before the fire is extinguished. These risks, in turn,
endanger the lives of others,
-
d. Air containing less than 16 percent oxygen
will not sustain life, and atmosphere containing
less than 1’7 percent oxy.gen prevents firefighters
from working efficiently. Carbon monoxide and
nitrous fumes in the smallest amounts may prove
fatal. Compressed air, self-contained demand
breathing apparatus are used where lack of oxygen is suspected.
e. Rope strung from the entrance to the smokefilled area permits the firefighter to retrace his
steps when the smoke is so thick that it permits
only limited vision. After a hose is laid to the fire
area, a rope becomes unnecessary, because the
hose may be readily traced back to the entrance.
Of sufficient importance to repeat is the necessity
of using fog streams to absorb and settle combuation gases and disperse smoke.
4-44. Ventilating the Building
After the situation at the fire has been evaluated,
and the necessary preparations made, the building
is opened to permit hot gases and smoke to escape
and to extinguish the fire in the shortest possible
time. Proper ventilation should clear the building
of smoke and gases and minimize smoke damage,
allow crewmen to prevent further spread of the
fire, and permit the extinguishing of the fire with
a minimum amount of water.
a. Vertical Ventilution. If the internal ventilation, or the ventilzation of an inside compartment,
of a closed building permits smoke and gas to
move to the uppermost level, an opening there
permits gas and smoke to escape quickly into the
atmosphere. This procedure is termed vertical
ventilation. The exit opening is generally made in
the roof. The following procedures are important
in vertical ventilation.
(1) Check the condition of the roof supports
to insure that they have not been burned away or
weakened to a point where they may collapse
under the weight of the firefighters.
(2) Plan a means of escape from the roof for
firefighters who may be confronted with a possibIe
emergency.
(8) Use any available natural openings, such
-
TM 5-315
as scuttle holes, penthouses, and skylights, if they
are pro’perly located.
(4) Do not permit hot combustible gases to
pass flammable materials which are already
heated. Fresh air may enter the opening before
the outward current is established, thus starting a
new fire on the roof.
(5) Be certain that roof openings are extended down through the ceiling of the room.
(6) Make the openings large enough to provide quick exit for smoke and gases.
(7) Work on the windward side of the openings, keeping in mind the heat, explosive characteristics, and toxic effects of escaping gas.
b. Cross VentiZation. If smoke ,and gases have
not reached the uppermost level, cross ventilation
may be used to clear the building, one floor at a
time. This method requires more care than vertical ventilation because large vertical shafts, such
as open stairwells, may allow downward drafts of
cross-ventilated fresh air to reach an area not yet
opened, causing an explosion. Natural outside
openings must be available on each floor level. The
procedures for cross ventilation are as follows :
(1) Open the windows on the leeward side
first; then open the windows on the windward
side.
(2) If the windows are check-rail types, open
the upper half on the leeward side and the lower
half on the windward side.
(3) After one floor is clear, ventilate the next
floor in the same way, or ventilate into the room
already cleared if the room is not occupied by
people.
(4) Do not make openings below the level of
the fire.
(5) If the opening is made at the same level
as the fire, the hose lines should be available for
immediate use.
4-45. Entering
Before hosemen are directed to proceed with extinguishment, checks must be made to insure that
enough heat, smoke, and gases have been removed
to permit entering the building without casualities. When the intense draft set up at the exit
openings cools or ceases altogether, the building
probably is ready for entry.
a. After precautions have been taken against
the spread of fire and the opening has been made
for ventilation, the next step involves reaching
and extinguishing the fire. Other openings are
made as near the fire as possible, with charged
hose lines held in readiness. These openings
should never be below the base of the fire.
6. When firefighters proceed through smokefilled rooms to locate the base of the fire, they
advance behind a waterfog curtain if the smoke
causes enough discomfort to warrant its use and
if water damage will not be unnecessarily great.
‘This curtain tends to drive the smoke ahead of the
personnel. Following the heat and smoke toward
their point of greatest density is the best guide;
feeling walls and fixtures and observing air currents are also helpful. The same safety and prot’ective measures .must be taken during extinguishment as are taken for ventilation.
c. It m,ay not always be necessary to ventilate a
building to locate a fire, nor is it always advisable
to postpone ventilation until rescue work is completed. Actually, they go hand in hand, and when
the number of available personnel is such that
different o*perations can be carried on simultaneously, teamwork then takes the initiative, and
hose lines are ready for use by the time the crew
is r.eady to ventilate. Ventilation normally should
be started at the top of the building and worked
downward. Coordination in ventil,ation is an extremely important factor. When possible, it is advisable for the fire chief in charge to give the
commands to ventilate. This minimizes the possibility of back draft or accelerated fire propagation, which may easily occur with several groups
working without concern for each other.
d. A complete knowledge of such matters as the
structural characteristics, arrangement, and contents of the building, acquired by previous inspections, is almost essential to successful ventilation.
Basement fires are sometimes extremely difficult
to ventilate because under some conditions the
smoke is not hot enough to rise, which increases
the possibility of explosion. Low-tem,perature
smok+produced by such materials as rubber,
fats, and wax-is very persistent in resisting ventilation. Such smoke is also capable of dropping to
lower levels. This condition usually requires mechanical aid, such as blowers, in addition to the
normal procedures.
4-46. Salvage
Salvage work in firefighting consists of
:
.;
,!
.:q
.,a
‘/FL!
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE IS GAINED THROUGH
DOOR DN RIGHT-HAND SIDE OF CABIN. DOOR
IS OPENED BY TURNING DOOR HANDLE. IF
D O O R F A I L S ~0 OPEN, C E N T E R WINDOW M A Y
BE BROKEN TO GAIN ACCESS TO WINDOW
R E L E A S E P I N S . (SEE DETAIL A.1 A F T E R
ENTRANCE IS ACCOMPLISHED, DOOR MAY BE
JETTISONED. (SEE DETAIL B.1 BROKEN YELLOW
LINES SURROUNDING RIGHT-HAND AFT
WINDOW INDICATE WHERE FUSELAGE MAY BE
CUT IF DOOR OR WINDOWS FAIL TO OPEN.
WINDOW RELEASE
DETAIL A
4. PUSH
WINDOW _/K..s 3. PULL
aUT
RELEASE PIN
?lti
.+G
,
,!’
,?
,,/;
2. LIFT HANDLE
1. PUSH LATCH IN
I
Figure 5-38.
Models U-8F and U8G aircraft.
(CAPACITY 71 US GALLONS)
(CAPACITY 3 Us GALLONS) ‘;lL TANK
ICAPACITY 4 US GALLONS)
AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
- 33 FT, 2 IN
LENGTH
WING SPAN - 45 FT, 10.5 IN
H E I G H T - l4FT, 2lN
- 77oO L B
WEIGHT
DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
- TWIN ENGINE, LIAISON
TYPE
- 2
CREW
PASSENGERS - 4
GENERAL DESCRPTION
OXYGEN CYLINDER
OIL TANK
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
FUEL TANK
Ly
ANTI-ICING RESERVOIR
:::::::::::::::::
z::::::::::::::::
:::::::::x::::::
lIzzl
BATTERY
LEGEND
Figure 5 4 8 .
ESCAPE HATCH
Mod.& U-8F and iY8G airmaftiontinued.
3. PULL Up ON HANDLE AND PUSH OUTWARD ON HATCH
DETAIL A
2. PUSH RED BUTTON TO RELEASE HANDLE
1. PULL DOWN RED COVER OVER HANDLE
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE IS GAINED
THROUGH DOOR ON LEFT-HAND
SIDE OF CABIN. DOOR IS OPENED
BY TURNING DOOR HANDLE. ,lF
DOOR FAILS TO OPEN, BREAK
WINDOWS. AFTER ENTRANCE IS
ACCOMPLISHED, ESCAPE HAT&i
MAY BE JETTISONED. (SEE DETAIL
A.) DOOR IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH
INTERNAL RELEASE.
DOOR HANDLE
E
- 41 FT, 10 lN
- 58FT
- IzFT, 5 1 N
- 8oooL8
OIL TANK
(CAPACITY 10.8 US GALLONS)
SKI HYDRAULIC
RESERVOIR
HYDRAULIC
LENGTH
WING SPAN
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
DIMENSIONS AND mIGHT (GROSS)
- SINGLE ENGINE, UTILITY
- 1
PASSENGERS - 10 0slTERS-4)
TYPE
GENERAL DESCRtE’TION
US
GALLONS)
Figure 5-39. Model U-1A aircraft.
(CAPACITY 104
FW
tCAPAClTY 61 US GALLONS)
OIL TANK
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
FUEL TANK
8AlTERY
lEGEN
AFT FUEL TANK
k%PAClTY 51 Us GALLONS)
(LOCATED IN 8AGGAGE
COMPARTMENT)
Figure 5-39. Model U-1A a&raft-Continued.
COMPARTMENT DOORS
CAB-IN DOOR
I
ESCAPE HATCH
...
,’
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE MAY BE GAINED
THROUGH ANY ONE OF FIVE FUSELAGE
DOORS AND ESCAPE HATCH. AFTER ENTRANCE
IS ACCOMPLISHFD, PILOT& C O M P A R T M E N T
DOORS MAY BE JETTISONED BY PULLING
SHARPLY ON RESPECTIVE JElTlSON HANDLE
AND PUSHING OUTWARD ON DOOR. (SEE
DETAIL A.1
PlLOTk COMPARTMENT
DOOR JETTISON HANDLE
DETAIL A
TM 5-315
GENEIUL DESCRIPTION
TYPE
- TWIN ENGINE, LIAISON AND LIGHT CARGO
CREW
- 2
PASSENGERS - 4
DIMENSIONS (h4AXj AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
L E N G T H - 35FT, I/2 IN
WIDTH
- 44FT, 7 IN
HEIGHT
- 14 FT,6 IN
WEIGHT
- 7000 LB
3
2726
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
B.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
24
456
23 22
RIGHT OUTBOARD FUEL TANK
RIGHT OIL TANK
CENTER FUEL TANK
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING RECEIVER
(ADF-2) ANTENNA
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING RECEIVER
(ADF-II ANTENNA
COMMUNICATION-NAYIGATION RADIO
(LTRA-61 ANTENNA
RIGHT HORIZONTAL STABILIZER DE-ICER BOOT
VERTICAL STABILIZER DE-ICER BOOT
ROTATING BEACON
STATIC DISCHARGE WICK
AFT POSITION LIGHT
LEFT HORIZONTAL STABILIZER DE-ICER BOOT
BATTERY
Figure 5-.4&
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
EXTERNAL POWER RECEPTACLE
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
LEFT OIL TANK
LEFT POSITION LIGHT
LEFT WING DE-ICER BOOT
LEFT QUTBOARD FUEL TANK
8AGGAGE COMPARTMENT DOOR
CABIN DOOR
VHF COMMAND RADIO (LVTR-36) ANTENNA
STATIC VENT
PI LOT HEADS
OMNIRANGE RECEIVER ANTENNA
LEFT LANDING LIGHT
HEATER AND VENT INTAKE DUCT
GLIDE SLOPE RECEIVER ANTENNA
RIGHT WING DE-ICER BOOT
Models U-9B, U-9C, and RU-9D aircraft.
5-63
TM 5-315
GROUND AND AIR
ESCAPE ROUTES AND EXI
WINDSHIELDS OR WINDOWS MAY BE BROKEN IF ENTRANCE TO THE CABIN
IS NOT POSSIBLE THROUGH THE DOORS.
Figure 5-40.
Modela U-9B, U-N?, and RU-9D a&rafLContinued.
TM 5-315
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
- SINGLE ENGINE, LIAISON AND LIGHT CARGO, STOL
TYPE
- 2
CREW
PASSENGERS - 3
(MODEL U-1OA DOES NOT HAVE THE RIGHT AND LEFT OUT8OARD AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS)
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
LENGTH - 30 FT, 8.4 IN
- 39FT
WIDTH
HEIGHT - 8 FT, 9.6 IN
W E I G H T - 3OOOL8
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
OIL DRAIN
OIL FILLER CAP
FUEL DRAIN TUBES
STRAINER DRAIN (AUX TANKS)
STRAINER DRAIN tM.4lN TANKS)
TRIM TA8 AND FLAP CONTROL PANEL
RIGHT AUXILIARY FUEL FILLER CAP
MAIN TANK FUEL FILLER CAPS
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT DOOR
FUEL VENT
STATIC PORTS
8ATTERY
13. ANTI-COLLISION LIGHT
14. RETRACTA8LE LIFT HANDLE
15. PITOT TU8E
16. LEFT AUXILIARY FUEL FILLER CAP
PARA-DROP DOOR
17. LITTER DOOR
18. PILOT COMPARTMENT DOOR
19. RELIEF TU8E DRAIN
20. TIRE FILLER VALVE
21. EXTERNAL POWER RECEPTACLE
22. INSTRUMENT PANEL
23. INDUCTION AIR FILTERS
Figure 5-41. Model U-1OD aircraft.
TM 5415
AUXILIARY GASOLINE
THE WtkDSHlELD OR WINDOWS MAY BE BROKEN IF ENTRANCE TO THE CABIN
CANNOT BE GAINED THROUGH ANY OF THE ACCESS DOORS.
Figure 5-41. M o d e l U-1OD ahraft-Continued.
TM 5-315
GENE= DESCRIPTION
TYPE
lWlN ENGINE, LIAISON AND CARGO
CREW
-
2
PASSENGERS - 6 (TROOPS-10, or 3 LITTER CASES AND3 AMBULATORY
PATI ENTSI
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
LENGTH
WING SPAN HEIGHT
WEIGHT
35Fl,6lN
45 FT, 10 1/2 1h1
14 FT, 2 9/16 IN
9650LB
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
ST Al0 KITS (31
FUEL TANKS
EMERGENCY EXITS AND
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE
DITCHING AND GROUND
EXIT ONLY
BAIL-OUT, DITCHING
AND GROUND EXIT
WtNf3OWYAND WINDSHIELDS MAY BE BROKEN IF ENTRANCE TO THE CAEIN
THROUGH THii DOORS IS NOT POSSIBLE.
Figure &4.% Model V-21 aircraft.
5-67
TM 5-815
GENERU DESCRIPTION
TYPE
- TWIN ENGINE, LIAISON, PASSENGER, AND CARGO
CREW
- 2
PASSENGERS - 5 (3 OR 5 SEATS)
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
LENGTH
SPAN
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
-
34 FT, 2 3/4 IN
47 FT, 6 314 IN
9FT, 73/4lN
6730 L6
LANDING GEAR CLUTCH
ENGINE FIRE EXTINGUISHER CONTROLS
ENGINE FIRE EXTlNGUlS4iER CO2 80TTLE
LANOING GEAR AND WING FLAP HAND CRANK
SHOULDER-HARNESS LOCKS
FIRST AID KITS
EMELRGENCY ESCAPE PANEL RELEASE
PARACHUTES
CO2 HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHER
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
EMERGENCY DOOR RELEASE LEVER
8ATTERY
NOSE FUEL TANK (47 GAL)
8RAKE FLUID
AUTO-PILOT RESERVOIR
OIL 18 GAL)
MAIN FUEL TANK (78 GAL)
AUXILIARY FUEL TANK (26 GAL)
WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS MAY 8E 8ROKEN IF ENTRANCE TO TtIE
CA8lN THROUGH THE DOORS IS NOT POSSl8LE.
Figure 5-43. Model C-.&S aircraft.
5-68
TM 5-315
GENERAL DESCIUF’TION
TYPE
-..lWlN ENGINE, PASSENGER, CARGO, AND AMBULANCE
CREW
- 6
PASSENGERS - 27 (FOLDING BENCHES1 AMBULANCE - 15TO 24 LITTERS
DIhtENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
L E N G T H - 64FT,51/2lN
SPAN
- 95FT
H E I G H T - 16FT
WEIGHT - 26,OOOLB
-
I. PI LOT& COMPARTMENT
2. HYDRAULIC PRESSURE ACCUMULATOR
3. PORTABLE OXYGEN CYLINDER
4. RADIO OPERATOR’S COMP.
5. FOLDING TROOP SEATS
6. LITTER HANGER
7. SPACE HEATER
B. MISC. STOWAGE
9. ENG. COVER STOWAGE
10. SURFACE CONTROL LOCKS 6TDWED
11. T O I L E T
12. A . P . P .
13. PARAPACK CONTROL JUNCTION 9OX
14. LOW PRES. SYS. OXY. FILLER VALVE
15. LOW PRES. SYS. OXY. TANKS
16. ALTERNATE STATICSOURCE
17. NAVlGATOdS COMPARTMENT
16. EXTERNAL POWER RECEPTACLE
19. MAIN ELECTRICAL JUNCTION BOX
20. BATTERIES
21. PITOT STATIC TUBE
22. POWER SYSTEMS JUNCTION BDX
23. FUEL TANKS (LONG RANGEdS6GALLONS EACH)
24. C. B. CONTAINERS
25. MAIN FUEL TANK-m2 GALLONS EACH
26. AUXILIARY FUEL TANK-299 GALLONS EACH
Figure 54.4. Model C-.V(AF) aircraft.
5-69
TM 5-315
ROUTES OF ESCAPE AND EMERGENCY EXITS
MAIN CARGO OOOR
EMERGENCYDOOR
BAGGAGEDOO
(CUTTHROUGHAREASMARKEDINYELLOWONAIRCRAFT)
F i g u r e .G-.&$. Model C-hY(AF) aircraft-Continued.
5-70
TM 5-315
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
- TWIN ENGINE, CARGO
- 2
TYPE
CREW
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
LENGTH
WING SPAN
HEIGHT
WFIGHT
- 6SFT, 93/5lN
- 96FT
- 31 FT, 93/5 IN
- !x3 ooo LS tcv-2B26500 LSI
.
h
F UE L T A N K
I @ZAPAclTY 4m U S G
A L L O N S)
OIL TANK
ANTI-ICING RESERVOIR
OXYGEN CYLINDER
MERGENCY B A T T E R Y
ANTI-ICING RESERVOIR
LEGEND
20 US GALLONS)
\
FUEL TANK
,
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
(CAPACITY 1 .S US GALLONSJ
BATTERY
OIL TANK ICAPACITY
lS.6 US GALLONS)
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
OIL TANK
OXYGEN CYLINDER
ANTI-ICING RESERVOIR
INDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS MAY 6E BROKEN IF
ENTRANCE THROUGH DOORS IS NOT POSSIBLE.
Figure 5-45.
Models C-?‘A (AF) and CV-ZB aim-aft
5-71
TM 5-315
GENERAL DESCR~TION
- 4 ENGINE, PASSENGER AND CARGO
TYPE
- 4
CREW
PASSENGERS - 78
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
LENGTH
WIDTH
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
- 95FT
- 132 FT, 7 IN
- 9FT
- 134,OOOL8 (81
175,000 L8 (HI
ESCAPE HATCHES
OXYGEN CYLINDERS
PARATROOPER DOOR
EMERGENCY EXIT
8ATTERY
THERE ARE FOUR ESCAPE HATCH RELEASES, INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR, ON TOP OF THE
AIRCRAFT. ONE IS FORWARD OF THE VERTICAL STA8lLlZER; ONE AT THE TRAILING
EDGE OF WING, AND THE OTHER TWO ARE FORWARD OF THE WING. THERE IS A
PARATROOP DOOR HANDLE ON 80TH SIDES OF THE AIRCRAFT NEAR THE TRAILING
EDGE OF THE WING. THERE ARE CHOPPING AREAS DESIGNED ON 80TH SIDES OF THE
AIRCRAFT, THERE IS A CREW DOOR ON THE LEFT SIDE AT THE COCKPIT AREA.
Figure 5-46. Model C-l80 aircraft.
5-72
TYPE
CREW
PASSENGERS
- TWIN ENGINE, PASSENGER AND CARGO
- 4
-66
DlMENSIONS(MAX)ANDWElGHT(GROSS)_
LENGTH
WIDTH
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
-76FT,4lN
- 1lOFT
-34FT,6lN
- 60,ooo LB
FORWARD
ESCAPE HATCH
AFT ESCAPE
CARGO DOOR
LEFT REAR TROOP DOOR
OXYGEN
’ CREWDOOR
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE MAY BE MADE THROUGH THE FORWARD ENTRANCE DOOR AND
THROUGH THE TWO REAR TROOP DOORS. ALL THREE DOORS HAVE EXTERNAL
CONTROL HANDLES AND ACCESS PANELS FOR REACHING EMERGENCY RELEASE
HANDLES. EMERGENCY CUT-IN AREAS ARE MARKED AROUND ALL CARGO
COMPARTMENT WINDOWS AND AROUND THE THREE DITCHING HATCHES IN THE CARGO
COMPARTMENT CEILING. THE DITCHING HATCHES ALSO HAVE EXTERNAL RELEASE
HANDLES FOR EMERGENCY ENTRANCE.
Figure 5-47, Model
C-l28
aircraft.
5-73
GENERAL DESCRPTiON
- TWIN ENGlNE, PASSENGER
- 3
CREW
PASSENGERS - 12TO 44
w#%
DIMENSIONS (MAX) AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
-
LENGTH
WIDTH
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
7SFT,2lN
lOBFT,4lN
28 FT, 1 S4il00 IN
35DoLB
BATTERIES ARE LOCATED
ON UNDERSIDE OF LEFT
INBOARD WING
EMERGENCY CUT-IN AREAS
\
LITTER DOOR
DOOR AND STAIRS
OXYGEN CYLINDER
EMERGENCY ESCAPE HATCHES ASTRODOME C-13lB ONLY
WRGENCY ENTRANCE MAY BE MADE THROUGH THE MAIN ENTRANCE DOOR AND
EMERGENCY ESCAPE HATCHES. THE MAIN ENTRANCE DOOR IS ON THE RIGHT SIDE, AFT
GF THE CREW COMPARTMENT. THE LllTER-LOADING DOOR IB HINGED AT THE TOP AND
MAY BE OPENED BY ROTATING TWO LATCH HANDLES AND LIFTING THE DOOR. THIS
ENTRANCE IS DN THE LEFT SIDE OF THE AIRCRAFT, AFT OF THE WING. EMERGENCY
CUT-IN AREAS ARE MARKED ON THE AIRCRAFT FOR USE IF THE ABOVE METHOOS OF
ENTRY FAIL.
Ft$ure 5-48. Model C-1.U aircraft.
5-74
- TWlN ENGINE, OBSERVATION
- 2
HYDRAULIC RESE
(CAPACITY 2.6 US
G A L L O N S)
(CAPACITY 2.5 US GALLONS)
olL TANK
FUEL DROP TANK
(CAPACITY 150 US GALLONS)
FLARE POD-OPTIONAL
(PROVIDED WITH PUNCH-IN
PANEL FOR BAlTERY ACCESS)
FUEL TANK
mLEGEND
BATTERY (ACCESS GAINED THROUGH
EMERGENCY PUNCH-IN PANEL)
Figure 5-49. Models (with ejection seut) OV-lA, OV-lB, OV-lC, and
OV-1D aircraft.
~CAPAC~TY 1.5 us
PACITY 2.5 US G
ApAClTY 256 US GAL
FUEL DROP TANK
(CAPACITY 150 US GALLONS)
LENGTH
- 40 FT, 7.25 IN
WINGSPAN - 42FT
HEIGHT
- 13FT,4lN
WEIGHT
- 11,405LB
DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT (GROSS)
TYPE
CREW
GENES DESCRIPTION
,
E
z
2
TM 5-315
EMERGENCY ENTRANCE MAY BE GAINED FROM EITHER SIDE OF AlRCRAFT.LlFT EXIT
RELEASE LOCK RING (DETAIL Al AND TURN TO UNLOCK POSITION. OPEN PILOT’S
COMPARTMENT HATCH WITH LEVER BY PUSHING AT FORWARD END AND PICKING UP. IF
EITHER HATCH FAILS TO OPEN, ENTRANCE MAY BE GAINED BY CUTTING THROUGH
EITHER HATCH GLASS. IF ENGINES ARE STILL OPERATING, FLOOD AIR INTAKE WITH
FOAM OR WATER. TO JETTISON EMERGENCY CANOPY, ROTATE EMERGENCY CANOPY
JETTISON HANDLE (DETAIL BI CLOCKWISE 90 DEGREES AND PULL.
CAUTION
MAKE SURE ALL PERSONNEL ARE CLEAR OF CANOPY AREA. CANOPY
TRAJECTORY IS TOWARD AFT SECTION OF AIRCRAFT.
TIME PERMITTING, POSITION ENGINE MASTER SWITCHES, BATTERY SWITCH, AND
OXYGEN REGULATOR SHUT-OFF LEVER TO OFF POSITION. ALSO PULL FIRE EMERGENCY
CONTROL HANDLES.
ROUND EDGE
OMPARTMENT
HATCH (TWO PLACES)
EXIT RELEASE
DETAIL A
EXIT RiLEASE LOCK RING
AND LEVER
Figure 5-49.
EMERGENCY CANOPY JETTISON HANDLE
Models (with ejection se&) OV-lA, OV-lB, OV-lC, and
OV-1D aircraft-Continued.
-
5-74
-m
_~
SECURING THE EJECTION SEAT
1. Lift red tab of face blind (Detail C, fig. 6-49-cont’d
2. Lift lower firing handle safety guard (fig. 549-cont’d (2)).
3. Insert safety pins (2 of 5). First, ‘the drogue gun pin (fig. 5-49-
cont’d (2) ), then the main ejection gun sear safety pin (Detail C).
Emergency pins are in the map compartment of the aircraft, but must
be carried in every crash vehicle for emergency use. A metal pin the
diameter of a ten-penny nail can also be used.
REMOVAL OF PILOT AND/OR OBSERVER
1. Unlock the harness quick-disconnect fitting by squeezing the release
bar tabs and at the same time move the release bar upward. Then
release the safety belt and remove the survival kit vertical restraint
straps. Release the leg garters from the leg restraint cords at the
quick-disconnects by squeezing the serrated lock release tabs to free
the lmk ring. Remove the pilot or observer through the pilot’s
compartment hatch or the emergency canopy opening.
2.
If the harness quick-disconnect fittings and the lap belt cannot be
unlocked, or if survival kit vertical restraint straps cannot be removed,
the pilot and observer can be removed with parachute and survival
kit attached by activating the manual override release lever. Raise
up on the ring rearward until the handle locks. Next, unlock the
harness quick-disconnect fittings by squeezing the release bar tabs and
moving the release bar upward. Then unlock the lap belt and remove
the survival kit vertical restraint straps. Remove the leg garters by
squeezing the serrated lock release tabs which frees the lock ring.
3. Tilt pilot or observer forward from the waist and turn his shoulders
toward the entrance hatch. Grasp the pilot or observer under his
armpits, lift and pull him through the entrance hatch or escape hatch.
4. If there appears to be little chance of fire, it is advisable to leave the
injured in their seats until qualified medical personnel arrive.
5-77
N GUN
PIN
FACE BL
EJECTW
DETAIL C
FACE 6LJNfJ
HARNESS QUICK-DISCONNECT
FITTING
MANUAL OVERRIDE LOWER FIRING HANDL
RELEASE LEVER
SAFETY GUARD
(6ETWEEN LEGS)
1
DROGUE GUN PIN
,.._
,,
e PIP PIN
RIGHT-HAND SIDE OF SEA
LEG GARTER
QUICK-DISCONNECT
FITTING
Fig~e 5-49.
5-78
LEb
-a. - --- . -. .--
Models (with ejection seat) OV-1 A, QV-lB, OV-lC, and
OV-1 D aircraf h-Continued.
TM 5-315
CHAPTER 6
NUCLEAR WEAPONS FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES
Section I. GENERAL
6-1. Purpose and Obiective
62. Policy
This chapter provides guidance to all individuals
concerned with fires involving nuclear weapons
and associated high explosives.
It is Department of the Army policy that fires in
an area containing nuclear weapons will be fought
until an explosion is imminent.
Section Il. RESPONSlBlllTlES
6-3. Introduction
The prevention of accidents, including fires, is a
responsibility of command. Commanders at every
echelon are responsible for prevention of accidents involving personnel, operations, and activities under their jurisdiction. General areas of responsibilities, and policies and procedures to be
followed for prompt, effective, and coordinated response to accidents and/or incidents involving nuclear weapons, are set forth in AR 50-2.
6-4. Commanders
Commanders responsible for the storage, handling, or transportation of nuclear weapons or nuclear materials will insure that
a. Personnel involved in the transportation,
storage, or handling of nuclear weapons are familiar with the provisions of applicable nuclear
accident information plans prepared in compliance with Department of the Army, USCONARC,
and major oversea basic ,policies, with particular
reference to guidance governing the release of informaton to the public regarding the presence of
nuclear weapons or material at an accident scene.
b. Personnel working inthe vicinity of nuclear
weapons are informed of and trained in proper
fire-protection procedures.
c. Standing operating procedures are published
and enforced, as required, concerning such matters as control and mvoement of nuclear weapons,
positioning of firefighting equipment, exposure
control and evacuation of personnel in case of fire,
reporting procedures required, and the like.
d. Civilian fire departments (municipal) which
may be called upon to assist in extinguishing fires
involving nuclear weapons are informed of the
hazards involved and the procedures to be used,
6-5. Couriers
Nuclear weapons are classified items of material
and as such must be safeguarded at all times.
a. Couriers are military personnel physically
accompanying shipments of nuclear weapons material for security purposes. In effect, the courier
“owns” the material; i.e., he is the direct custodian of it. While he is physically able, it is the
courier’s responsibility to protect the material
from loss or security compromise.
b. At the time of departure each courier is furnished information as to organizations which are
to be contacted in event of an accident or incident.
Couriers are capable of rendering technical advice
pending the arrival of specially trained personnel.
6-6. Decontamination and Disposal *earns
a. Specially trained teams of personnel &sponsible for and equipped to detect radiation, to neutralize a weapon if necessary, and to decontaminate the area of explosives or nuclear materials,
are maintained by the military services and by the
Atomic Energy Commission.
b. Immediately upon notice to the military and
6-1
TM 5-315
Atomic Energy Commission of an accident involving nuclear weapons, one or more of these teams,
known as “Nuclear Emergency Teams,” “‘Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Detach3ments,”
“Radiological
‘Contamination
(‘RADCON)
Teams,” “Alpha Teams” and “Radiological
Emergency Medical Teams (REMT)“, will be dispatched to the
Source Exif Data:
File Type : PDF
File Type Extension : pdf
MIME Type : application/pdf
PDF Version : 1.3
Linearized : Yes
Encryption : Standard V1.2 (40-bit)
User Access : Print, Copy, Annotate, Fill forms, Extract, Assemble, Print high-res
Modify Date : 2001:05:07 12:08:33-04:00
Create Date : 2001:03:23 13:27:29-05:00
Creator : Acrobat 4.0 Capture Plug-in for Macintosh
Producer : Acrobat 4.0 Scan Plug-in for Macintosh
Page Count : 260
EXIF Metadata provided by EXIF.tools